Fused Deposition Modeling 3D Printing for (Bio)analytical Device Fabrication: Procedures, Materials, and ApplicationsClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!
Abstract
In this work, the use of fused deposition modeling (FDM) in a (bio)analytical/lab-on-a-chip research laboratory is described. First, the specifications of this 3D printing method that are important for the fabrication of (micro)devices were characterized for a benchtop FDM 3D printer. These include resolution, surface roughness, leakage, transparency, material deformation, and the possibilities for integration of other materials. Next, the autofluorescence, solvent compatibility, and biocompatibility of 12 representative FDM materials were tested and evaluated. Finally, we demonstrate the feasibility of FDM in a number of important applications. In particular, we consider the fabrication of fluidic channels, masters for polymer replication, and tools for the production of paper microfluidic devices. This work thus provides a guideline for (i) the use of FDM technology by addressing its possibilities and current limitations, (ii) material selection for FDM, based on solvent compatibility and biocompatibility, and (iii) application of FDM technology to (bio)analytical research by demonstrating a broad range of illustrative examples.
Fused Deposition Modeling
Materials and Methods
Characterization of a Benchtop FDM 3D Printer
Polymers for FDM 3D Printing
Applications of FDM 3D Printing
Results and Discussion
Characterization of a Benchtop FDM 3D Printer
Resolution, Surface Roughness, and Overhang
Prevention of Leakage
Transparency
Combining Materials
Warping
Polymers for FDM 3D Printing
material | composition based on | color | transparency | autofluorescence blue | autofluorescence green | autofluorescence red | water-compatible | methanol-compatible | acetonitrile-compatible | 2-propanol-compatible | acetone-compatible | HUVEC-compatible | PCLS-compatible |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PLA gold | poly(lactic acid) | gold | none | + | ++ | + | + | +/– | – – | + | – – | + | + |
transparent PLA | poly(lactic acid) | colorless | semi | + | + | +/– | + | +/– | – – | + | – – | + | + |
PLA soft | poly(lactic acid) | beige | none | +/– | + | +/– | + | + | +/– | + | +/– | + | + |
PLA 45 | poly(lactic acid) | white | none | ++ | +/– | – | + | +/– | – – | +/– | – – | + | + |
ABS | acrylonitrile butadiene styrene | orange | none | ++ | ++ | ++ | + | – | – – | + | – – | + | + |
PC | polycarbonate | colorless | semi | ++ | ++ | ++ | + | + | – | + | – | + | + |
PS | polystyrene | cream | none | ++ | ++ | + | + | + | + | + | – – | + | + |
PVA | poly(vinyl alcohol) | light yellow | semi | ++ | ++ | ++ | – – | – – | – | – | – – | – | – |
PET | poly(ethylene terephthalate) | colorless | semi | ++ | + | +/– | + | + | – | + | – | + | + |
T-Glase | poly(ethylene terephthalate) | colorless | semi | ++ | + | +/– | + | + | – | + | – | + | + |
Arnitel | thermoplastic co-polyester | white | none | ++ | ++ | +/– | + | + | + | + | + | + | + |
Bendlay | acrylonitrile butadiene styrene | colorless | semi | + | ++ | + | + | + | – | + | – | + | + |
The classification of biocompatibility, solvent compatibility, and autofluorescence is based on the rules for performance described in the Supporting Information (protocol S5, solvent compatibility; protocol S6, biocompatibility; Figure S6, autofluorescence).
Polymer Printability
Autofluorescence
Solvent Compatibility
Biocompatibility
Applications of FDM 3D Printing
3D-Printed Masters for PDMS Casting
3D-Printed Channels
Patterning in Paper Microfluidics
Customizing Laboratory Equipment and 3D-Printed Tools
Conclusion
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b00828.
Images of the SolidWorks designs for printed parts used in the manuscript, tables with slice and print settings, protocols for all the experiments in this paper, and figures, photographs, and box plots displaying results for the characterization of FDM materials (PDF)
Terms & Conditions
Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.
Acknowledgment
This research received funding from The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) in the framework of the Technology Area Comprehensive Analytical Sciences and Technology (COAST).
References
This article references 34 other publications.
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- 10Femmer, T.; Jans, A.; Eswein, R.; Anwar, N.; Moeller, M.; Wessling, M.; Kuehne, A. J. C. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7, 12635– 12638 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b03969Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXpsFOhur8%253D&md5=7c8e9e97089b8feb1e971200e9cfc4d2High-Throughput Generation of Emulsions and Microgels in Parallelized Microfluidic Drop-Makers Prepared by Rapid PrototypingFemmer, Tim; Jans, Alexander; Eswein, Rudi; Anwar, Naveed; Moeller, Martin; Wessling, Matthias; Kuehne, Alexander J. C.ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2015), 7 (23), 12635-12638CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)The prepn. is described of rapid prototyped parallelized microfluidic drop-maker devices. The manufg. technique facilitates stacking of the drop-makers vertically on top of each other allowing for a reduced footprint and minimized dead-vol. through efficient design of the distribution channels. The potential is showcased of the additive manufg. technique for microfluidics and the performance of the parallelized device by producing large amts. of microgels with a diam. of ca. 500 μm, a size that is inaccessible using traditional synthetic approaches.
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- 19Paydar, O. H.; Paredes, C. N.; Hwang, Y.; Paz, J.; Shah, N. B.; Candler, R. N. Sens. Actuators, A 2014, 205, 199– 203 DOI: 10.1016/j.sna.2013.11.005Google Scholar19https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXpsFWj&md5=63b98d0691abdca2262f8b367d67632aCharacterization of 3D-printed microfluidic chip interconnects with integrated O-ringsPaydar, O. H.; Paredes, C. N.; Hwang, Y.; Paz, J.; Shah, N. B.; Candler, R. N.Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical (2014), 205 (), 199-203CODEN: SAAPEB; ISSN:0924-4247. (Elsevier B.V.)Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) devices have enabled significant advancements in medical, biol., and chem. anal. However, widespread adoption of these devices in, clin. settings and academic environments has been impeded by a lack of a reliable, adaptable, and easy-to-use packaging technol. In this work, we introduce a rapid, prototyped modular microfluidic interconnect that addresses these challenges of the, world-to-chip interface. The interconnect, a flexible polymer gasket co-printed with, rigid clamps, eliminates adhesives and addnl. assembly by direct multi-material 3D, printing from a computer-aided design model. The device represents the first, application of multi-material 3D printing to microfluidic interconnects, and it can be, rapidly re-designed and printed, and has demonstrated the ability to withstand, pressures exceeding 400 kPa.
- 20Kitson, P. J.; Marshall, R. J.; Long, D.; Forgan, R. S.; Cronin, L. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 12723– 12728 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402654Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 21Lücking, T. H.; Sambale, F.; Schnaars, B.; Bulnes-Abundis, D.; Beutel, S.; Scheper, T. Eng. Life Sci. 2015, 15, 57– 64 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.201400094Google Scholar21https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFOrtg%253D%253D&md5=2c03d8d3b1c9cb4c1e6d1dcb6b306e653D-printed individual labware in biosciences by rapid prototyping: In vitro biocompatibility and applications for eukaryotic cell culturesLuecking, Tim H.; Sambale, Franziska; Schnaars, Birte; Bulnes-Abundis, David; Beutel, Sascha; Scheper, ThomasEngineering in Life Sciences (2015), 15 (1), 57-64CODEN: ELSNAE; ISSN:1618-2863. (Wiley-Blackwell)Three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques are continuously evolving, thus their application fields are also growing very fast. The applications discussed here highlight the use of rapid prototyping in a dedicated biotechnol. lab. environment. The combination of improving prototypes using fused deposition modeling printers and producing useable parts with selective laser sintering printers enables a cost- and time-efficient use of such techniques. Biocompatible materials for 3D printing are already available and the printed parts can directly be used in the lab. To demonstrate this, we tested 3D printing materials for their in vitro biocompatibility. To exemplify the versatility of the 3D printing process applied to a biotechnol. lab., a normal well plate design was modified in silico to include different baffle geometries. This plate was subsequently 3D printed and used for cultivation. In the near future, this design and print possibility will revolutionize the industry. Advanced printers will be available for labs. and can be used for creating individual labware or std. disposables on demand. These applications have the potential to change the way research is done and change the management of stock-keeping, leading to more flexibility and promoting creativity of the scientists.
- 22Lücking, T. H.; Sambale, F.; Beutel, S.; Scheper, T. Eng. Life Sci. 2015, 15, 51– 56 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.201400093Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFOrsQ%253D%253D&md5=5fbad3ce5cd754be46dbe4a6e5a4b7163D-printed individual labware in biosciences by rapid prototyping: A proof of principleLuecking, Tim H.; Sambale, Franziska; Beutel, Sascha; Scheper, ThomasEngineering in Life Sciences (2015), 15 (1), 51-56CODEN: ELSNAE; ISSN:1618-2863. (Wiley-Blackwell)A review. The fabrication of individual labware is a sophisticated task that requires dedicated machines and skills. Three-dimensional (3D) printing has the great potential to simplify this procedure drastically. In the near future, scientists will design labware digitally and then print them three dimensionally directly in the lab. With the available rapid prototyping printer systems, it is possible to achieve this. The materials accessible meet the needs of biotechnol. labs. that include biocompatibility and withstanding sterilization conditions. This will lead to a completely new approach of adapting the labware to the expt. or even tailor-made it to the organism it is being used for, not adapting the expt. to a certain std. labware. Thus, it will encourage the creativity of scientists and enrich the future lab. work. We present different examples illustrating the potential and possibilities of using 3D printing for individualizing labware. This includes a well plate with different baffle geometries, shake flask cap with built-in luer connections, and filter holder for an inhouse developed membrane reactor system.
- 23Ude, C.; Hentrop, T.; Lindner, P.; Lücking, T. H.; Scheper, T.; Beutel, S. Sens. Actuators, B 2015, 221, 1035– 1043 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2015.07.017Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXht1Omtr3N&md5=9c2ae7a0a4714686bef3fe5842bf8b4eNew perspectives in shake flask pH control using a 3D-printed control unit based on pH online measurementUde, Christian; Hentrop, Thorleif; Lindner, Patrick; Luecking, Tim H.; Scheper, Thomas; Beutel, SaschaSensors and Actuators, B: Chemical (2015), 221 (), 1035-1043CODEN: SABCEB; ISSN:0925-4005. (Elsevier B.V.)Online pH control during microbial shake flask cultivation has not been established due to the lack of a practical combination of an online sensor system and an appropriate control unit. The objective of this investigation was to develop a min. scale dosage app., namely shake flask controller ("SFC"), which can control the pH during a complete cultivation and serves as tech. example for the application of small liq. dispensing lab devices. A well evaluated optical, chemosensor based, noninvasive, multisensory platform prototype for online DO (dissolved oxygen)-, pH- and biomass measurement served as sensor. The SFC was designed as cap-integrated, semi-autarkical control unit. Min. scale working parts like the com. mp6 piezoelec. micropumps and miniature solenoid valves were combined with a selective laser sintering (SLS) printed backbone. In general it is intended to extend its application range on the control of enzymic assays, polymn. processes, cell disruption methods or the precise dispense of special chems. like inducers or inhibitors. It could be proved that pH control within a range of 0.1 pH units could be maintained at different cultivation conditions. A proportional-integral-deriv.- (PID) controller and an adaptive proportional controller were successfully applied to calc. the balancing soln. vol. SLS based 3D printing using polyamide combined with state-of-the-art micro pumps proved to be perfectly adaptable for min. size, autoclavable lab devices.
- 24Tyson, A. L.; Hilton, S. T.; Andreae, L. C. Int. J. Pharm. 2015, 494, 651– 656 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.03.042Google Scholar24https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXkvFegt78%253D&md5=395434c14c5c17bc5359a7d871631deaRapid, simple and inexpensive production of custom 3D printed equipment for large-volume fluorescence microscopyTyson, Adam L.; Hilton, Stephen T.; Andreae, Laura C.International Journal of Pharmaceutics (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2015), 494 (2), 651-656CODEN: IJPHDE; ISSN:0378-5173. (Elsevier B.V.)The cost of 3D printing has reduced dramatically over the last few years and is now within reach of many scientific labs. This work presents an example of how 3D printing can be applied to the development of custom lab. equipment that is specifically adapted for use with the novel brain tissue clearing technique, CLARITY. A simple, freely available online software tool was used, along with consumer-grade equipment, to produce a brain slicing chamber and a combined antibody staining and imaging chamber. Using std. 3D printers we were able to produce research-grade parts in an iterative manner at a fraction of the cost of com. equipment. 3D printing provides a reproducible, flexible, simple and cost-effective method for researchers to produce the equipment needed to quickly adopt new methods.
- 25Wardyn, J. D.; Sanderson, C.; Swan, L. E.; Stagi, M. J. Neurosci. Methods 2015, 251, 17– 23 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.05.001Google Scholar25https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2MfisleksQ%253D%253D&md5=c0b1bac1724398a5e88da8df933559e3Low cost production of 3D-printed devices and electrostimulation chambers for the culture of primary neuronsWardyn Joanna D; Sanderson Chris; Swan Laura E; Stagi MassimilianoJournal of neuroscience methods (2015), 251 (), 17-23 ISSN:.The analysis of primary neurons is a basic requirement for many areas of neurobiology. However, the range of commercial systems available for culturing primary neurons is functionally limiting, and the expense of these devices is a barrier to both exploratory and large-scale studies. This is especially relevant as primary neurons often require unusual geometries and specialised coatings for optimum growth. Fortunately, the recent revolution in 3D printing offers the possibility to generate customised devices, which can support neuronal growth and constrain neurons in defined paths, thereby enabling many aspects of neuronal physiology to be studied with relative ease. In this article, we provide a detailed description of the system hardware and software required to produce affordable 3D-printed culture devices, which are also compatible with live-cell imaging. In addition, we also describe how to use these devices to grow and stimulate neurons within geometrically constrained compartments and provide examples to illustrate the practical utility and potential that these protocols offer for many aspects of experimental neurobiology.
- 26Zwicker, A. P.; Bloom, J.; Albertson, R.; Gershman, S. Am. J. Phys. 2015, 83, 281– 285 DOI: 10.1119/1.4900746Google Scholar26https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjtFSgtr4%253D&md5=befdb0a81039bf7d401703b8ce6877ebThe suitability of 3D printed plastic parts for laboratory useZwicker, Andrew P.; Bloom, Josh; Albertson, Robert; Gershman, SophiaAmerican Journal of Physics (2015), 83 (3), 281-285CODEN: AJPIAS; ISSN:0002-9505. (American Association of Physics Teachers)3D printing has become popular for a variety of users, from home hobbyists to scientists and engineers interested in producing their own lab. equipment. In order to det. the suitability of 3D printed parts for our plasma physics lab., we measured the accuracy, strength, vacuum compatibility, and elec. properties of pieces printed in plastic. The flexibility of rapidly creating custom parts has led to the 3D printer becoming an invaluable resource in our lab. The 3D printer is also suitable for producing equipment for advanced undergraduate labs.
- 27Takenaga, S.; Schneider, B.; Erbay, E.; Biselli, M.; Schnitzler, T.; Schöning, M. J.; Wagner, T. Phys. Status Solidi A 2015, 212, 1347– 1352 DOI: 10.1002/pssa.201532053Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28Van Midwoud, P. M.; Groothuis, G. M. M.; Merema, M. T.; Verpoorte, E. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010, 105, 184– 194 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22516Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 29Van Kooten, T. G.; Klein, C. L.; Köhler, H.; Kirkpatrick, C. J.; Williams, D. F.; Eloy, R. J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Med. 1997, 8, 835– 841 DOI: 10.1023/A:1018541419055Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1cXnsFCj&md5=410133f14cb35bc41f04e1c55dd0e210From cytotoxicity to biocompatibility testing in vitro: cell adhesion molecule expression defines a new set of parametersVan Kooten, T. G.; Klein, C. L.; Kohler, H.; Kirkpatrick, C. J.; Williams, D. F.; Eloy, R.Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine (1997), 8 (12), 835-841CODEN: JSMMEL; ISSN:0957-4530. (Chapman & Hall)Detn. of potential cytotoxicity is a central issue in current biocompatibility testing stds. such as ISO and ASTM. Most of these tests do not assess biocompatibility of a biomaterial with regard to cell function. This study was aimed at screening a no. of potential parameters that could be included in assessment of cell functional aspects of biocompatibility. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were seeded directly on titanium, NiCr alloy, CoCr alloy, PMMA, PE, PU, PVC, and silicone, or were exposed to the material exts. Cytotoxicity was assessed for these materials through MTT conversion, crystal violet protein detn. and Ki67 expression. In addn., expression of the cell adhesion mols. E-selectin, cadherin-5 and PECAM, as well as of the adhesion-assocd. proteins fibronectin and vinculin (focal adhesions), was detd. by immunocytochem. and western blotting. Cytotoxicity was not detected with the material exts. Cells were able to adhere to bare metals, but not polymers. Fibronectin preadsorption resulted in adhesion and spreading also on the polymers. Cells were able to establish cell-cell contacts, and focal adhesions. Western blotting, in combination with differential detergent extn., indicated that linkage of cell-cell adhesion markers to the cytoskeleton may be used as an addnl. parameter relevant to cell function.
- 30Comina, G.; Suska, A.; Filippini, D. Lab Chip 2014, 14, 2978– 2982 DOI: 10.1039/C4LC00394BGoogle Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhtFGjsrfN&md5=2faf5e0f4b6c22289207525ecffaa896Low cost lab-on-a-chip prototyping with a consumer grade 3D printerComina, German; Suska, Anke; Filippini, DanielLab on a Chip (2014), 14 (16), 2978-2982CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Versatile prototyping of 3D printed lab-on-a-chip devices (mixers, H2O2, glucose microfluidic anal. devices), supporting different forms of sample delivery, transport, functionalization and readout, is demonstrated with a consumer grade printer, which centralizes all crit. fabrication tasks. Devices cost 0.57 US$ and are demonstrated in chem. sensing and micromixing examples, which exploit established principles from ref. technologies.
- 31Gelber, M. K.; Bhargava, R. Lab Chip 2015, 15, 1736– 1741 DOI: 10.1039/C4LC01392AGoogle Scholar31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXitlSis7Y%253D&md5=e5e04a5f3e405a7dda3b9e7c97217b03Monolithic multilayer microfluidics via sacrificial molding of 3D-printed isomaltGelber, Matthew K.; Bhargava, RohitLab on a Chip (2015), 15 (7), 1736-1741CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Here we demonstrate a method for creating multilayer or 3D microfluidics by casting a curable resin around a water-sol., freestanding sacrificial mold. We use a purpose-built 3D printer to pattern self-supporting filaments of the sugar alc. isomalt, which we then back-fill with a transparent epoxy resin. Dissolving the sacrificial mold leaves a network of cylindrical channels as well as input and output ports. We use this technique to fabricate a combinatorial mixer capable of producing 8 combinations of two fluids in ratios ranging from 1 : 100 to 100 : 1. This approach allows rapid iteration on microfluidic chip design and enables the use of geometry and materials not accessible using conventional soft lithog. The ability to precisely pattern round channels in all three dimensions in hard and soft media may prove enabling for many organ-on-chip systems.
- 32Baker, M. I.; Walsh, S. P.; Schwartz, Z.; Boyan, B. D. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part B 2012, 100B, 1451– 1457 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.32694Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XotVOnurg%253D&md5=edfbc9509def5af21cd749d931cee4d7A review of polyvinyl alcohol and its uses in cartilage and orthopedic applicationsBaker, Maribel I.; Walsh, Steven P.; Schwartz, Zvi; Boyan, Barbara D.Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, Part B: Applied Biomaterials (2012), 100B (5), 1451-1457CODEN: JBMRGL; ISSN:1552-4973. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)A review. Polyvinyl alc. (PVA) is a synthetic polymer derived from polyvinyl acetate through partial or full hydroxylation. PVA is commonly used in medical devices due to its low protein adsorption characteristics, biocompatibility, high water soly., and chem. resistance. Some of the most common medical uses of PVA are in soft contact lenses, eye drops, embolization particles, tissue adhesion barriers, and as artificial cartilage and meniscus. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the available published information on PVA with respect to its safety as a medical device implant material for cartilage replacement. The review includes historical clin. use of PVA in orthopedics, and in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility studies. Finally, the safety recommendation involving the further development of PVA cryogels for cartilage replacement is addressed. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 2012.
- 33Macdonald, N. P.; Zhu, F.; Hall, C. J.; Reboud, J.; Crosier, P. S.; Patton, E. E.; Wlodkowic, D.; Cooper, J. M. Lab Chip 2016, 16, 291– 297 DOI: 10.1039/C5LC01374GGoogle Scholar33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhvFWltrrJ&md5=4e77decbde763a00c79735a9ba5213eeAssessment of biocompatibility of 3D printed photopolymers using zebrafish embryo toxicity assaysMacdonald, N. P.; Zhu, F.; Hall, C. J.; Reboud, J.; Crosier, P. S.; Patton, E. E.; Wlodkowic, D.; Cooper, J. M.Lab on a Chip (2016), 16 (2), 291-297CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)3D printing has emerged as a rapid and cost-efficient manufg. technique to enable the fabrication of bespoke, complex prototypes. If the technol. is to have a significant impact in biomedical applications, such as drug discovery and mol. diagnostics, the devices produced must be biol. compatible to enable their use with established ref. assays and protocols. In this work we demonstrate that we can adapt the Fish Embryo Test (FET) as a new method to quantify the toxicity of 3D printed microfluidic devices. We assessed the biocompatibility of four com. available 3D printing polymers (VisiJetCrystal EX200, Watershed 11122XC, Fototec SLA 7150 Clear and ABSplus P-430), through the observation of key developmental markers in the developing zebrafish embryos. Results show all of the photopolymers to be highly toxic to the embryos, resulting in fatality, although we do demonstrate that post-printing treatment of Fototec 7150 makes it suitable for zebrafish culture within the FET.
- 34Songjaroen, T.; Dungchai, W.; Chailapakul, O.; Laiwattanapaisal, W. Talanta 2011, 85, 2587– 2593 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.08.024Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
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- 5Yazdi, A. A.; Popma, A.; Wong, W.; Nguyen, T.; Pan, Y.; Xu, J. Microfluid. Nanofluid. 2016, 20, 50 DOI: 10.1007/s10404-016-1715-4There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 6Waheed, S.; Cabot, J. M.; Macdonald, N. P.; Lewis, T.; Guijt, R. M.; Paull, B.; Breadmore, M. C. Lab Chip 2016, 16, 1993– 2013 DOI: 10.1039/C6LC00284F6https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xms1OjtLg%253D&md5=9d7a13035cf17bd65e8285982219687b3D printed microfluidic devices: enablers and barriersWaheed, Sidra; Cabot, Joan M.; Macdonald, Niall P.; Lewis, Trevor; Guijt, Rosanne M.; Paull, Brett; Breadmore, Michael C.Lab on a Chip (2016), 16 (11), 1993-2013CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)3D printing has the potential to significantly change the field of microfluidics. The ability to fabricate a complete microfluidic device in a single step from a computer model has obvious attractions, but it is the ability to create truly three dimensional structures that will provide new microfluidic capability that is challenging, if not impossible to make with existing approaches. This crit. review covers the current state of 3D printing for microfluidics, focusing on the four most frequently used printing approaches: inkjet (i3DP), stereolithog. (SLA), two photon polymn. (2PP) and extrusion printing (focusing on fused deposition modeling). It discusses current achievements and limitations, and opportunities for advancement to reach 3D printing's full potential.
- 7Kitson, P. J.; Rosnes, M. H.; Sans, V.; Dragone, V.; Cronin, L. Lab Chip 2012, 12, 3267– 3271 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc40761b7https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1SksbjP&md5=aff286977efb6bac7aeaf0e6e987194bConfigurable 3D-Printed millifluidic and microfluidic lab on a chip reactionware devicesKitson, Philip J.; Rosnes, Mali H.; Sans, Victor; Dragone, Vincenza; Cronin, LeroyLab on a Chip (2012), 12 (18), 3267-3271CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)We utilize 3D design and 3D printing techniques to fabricate a no. of miniaturized fluidic 'reactionware' devices for chem. syntheses in just a few hours, using inexpensive materials producing reliable and robust reactors. Both two and three inlet reactors could be assembled, as well as one-inlet devices with reactant silos' allowing the introduction of reactants during the fabrication process of the device. To demonstrate the utility and versatility of these devices org. (reductive amination and alkylation reactions), inorg. (large polyoxometalate synthesis) and materials (gold nanoparticle synthesis) processes were efficiently carried out in the printed devices.
- 8Anderson, K. B.; Lockwood, S. Y.; Martin, R. S.; Spence, D. M. Anal. Chem. 2013, 85, 5622– 5626 DOI: 10.1021/ac40095948https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXnvVKltb0%253D&md5=b578a8f7c75cd391592a3082936456b1A 3D Printed Fluidic Device that Enables Integrated FeaturesAnderson, Kari B.; Lockwood, Sarah Y.; Martin, R. Scott; Spence, Dana M.Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) (2013), 85 (12), 5622-5626CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700. (American Chemical Society)Fluidic devices fabricated using conventional soft lithog. are well suited as prototyping methods. Three-dimensional (3D) printing, commonly used for producing design prototypes in industry, allows for one step prodn. of devices. 3D printers build a device layer by layer based on 3D computer models. Here, a reusable, high throughput, 3D printed fluidic device was created that enables flow and incorporates a membrane above a channel in order to study drug transport and affect cells. The device contains 8 parallel channels, 3 mm wide by 1.5 mm deep, connected to a syringe pump through std., threaded fittings. The device was also printed to allow integration with com. available membrane inserts whose bottoms are constructed of a porous polycarbonate membrane; this insert enables mol. transport to occur from the channel to above the well. When concns. of various antibiotics (levofloxacin and linezolid) are pumped through the channels, approx. 18-21% of the drug migrates through the porous membrane, providing evidence that this device will be useful for studies where drug effects on cells are investigated. Finally, we show that mammalian cells cultured on this membrane can be affected by reagents flowing through the channels. Specifically, saponin was used to compromise cell membranes, and a fluorescent label was used to monitor the extent, resulting in a 4-fold increase in fluorescence for saponin treated cells.
- 9Shallan, A. I.; Smejkal, P.; Corban, M.; Guijt, R. M.; Breadmore, M. C. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86, 3124– 3130 DOI: 10.1021/ac40418579https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXitFCjtb0%253D&md5=08b5ed91f1a33cc7a798586951067a93Cost-Effective Three-Dimensional Printing of Visibly Transparent Microchips within MinutesShallan, Aliaa I.; Smejkal, Petr; Corban, Monika; Guijt, Rosanne M.; Breadmore, Michael C.Analytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) (2014), 86 (6), 3124-3130CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700. (American Chemical Society)One-step fabrication of transparent 3-dimensional (3D) micro-fluidic to milli-fluidic devices was demonstrated using a com. 3D printer costing $2300 with 500 mL of clear resin for $138. It used dynamic mask projection stereo-lithog., for fast concept-to-chip time. The fully automated system fabricates models of up to 43 mm × 27 mm × 180 mm at printing speeds of 20 mm/h in height, regardless of design complexity. The minimal cross sectional area, 250-μm, was achieved for monolithic micro-channels and 200-μm for pos. structures (soft lithog. templates). The colorless resin good light transmittance (>60% transmission at wavelengths >430 nm) allowed for on-chip optical detection; the elec. insulating material allows electrophoretic sepns. To demonstrate its micro-fluidic applicability, the printer was used to fabricate a micro-mixer, a gradient generator, a droplet extractor, and an isotachophoresis device. Mixing and gradient formation units were incorporated into a device to analyze NO3- in tap water via std. addn. method as a single run and multiple depth detection cells to provide an extended linear range.
- 10Femmer, T.; Jans, A.; Eswein, R.; Anwar, N.; Moeller, M.; Wessling, M.; Kuehne, A. J. C. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2015, 7, 12635– 12638 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b0396910https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXpsFOhur8%253D&md5=7c8e9e97089b8feb1e971200e9cfc4d2High-Throughput Generation of Emulsions and Microgels in Parallelized Microfluidic Drop-Makers Prepared by Rapid PrototypingFemmer, Tim; Jans, Alexander; Eswein, Rudi; Anwar, Naveed; Moeller, Martin; Wessling, Matthias; Kuehne, Alexander J. C.ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2015), 7 (23), 12635-12638CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)The prepn. is described of rapid prototyped parallelized microfluidic drop-maker devices. The manufg. technique facilitates stacking of the drop-makers vertically on top of each other allowing for a reduced footprint and minimized dead-vol. through efficient design of the distribution channels. The potential is showcased of the additive manufg. technique for microfluidics and the performance of the parallelized device by producing large amts. of microgels with a diam. of ca. 500 μm, a size that is inaccessible using traditional synthetic approaches.
- 11Krejcova, L.; Nejdl, L.; Rodrigo, M. A. M.; Zurek, M.; Matousek, M.; Hynek, D.; Zitka, O.; Kopel, P.; Adam, V.; Kizek, R. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2014, 54, 421– 427 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.10.031There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 12Salentijn, G. IJ.; Permentier, H. P.; Verpoorte, E. Anal. Chem. 2014, 86, 11657– 11665 DOI: 10.1021/ac502785j12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhvFKqu7%252FK&md5=6c47a7684f64e4b663af77477421745e3D-Printed Paper Spray Ionization Cartridge with Fast Wetting and Continuous Solvent Supply FeaturesSalentijn, Gert I. J.; Permentier, Hjalmar P.; Verpoorte, ElisabethAnalytical Chemistry (Washington, DC, United States) (2014), 86 (23), 11657-11665CODEN: ANCHAM; ISSN:0003-2700. (American Chemical Society)The authors report the development of a 3-dimensional-printed cartridge for paper spray ionization (PSI) that can be used almost immediately after solvent introduction in a dedicated reservoir and allows prolonged spray generation from a paper tip. The fast wetting feature described in this work is based on capillary action through paper and movement of fluid between paper and the cartridge material (polylactic acid, PLA). The influence of solvent compn., PLA conditioning of the cartridge with isopropanol, and solvent vol. introduced into the reservoir were studied with relation to wetting time and the amt. of solvent consumed for wetting. Spray was demonstrated with this cartridge for tens of minutes, without any external pumping. Fast wetting and spray generation can easily be achieved using a no. of solvent mixts. commonly used for PSI. The PSI cartridge was applied to the anal. of lidocaine from a paper tip using different solvent mixts., and to the anal. of lidocaine from a serum sample. Finally, a demonstration of online paper chromatog.-mass spectrometry is given.
- 13Comina, G.; Suska, A.; Filippini, D. Lab Chip 2014, 14, 424– 430 DOI: 10.1039/C3LC50956G13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvV2lsL7N&md5=c10aa5999e8f56fe077c7790167becf9PDMS lab-on-a-chip fabrication using 3D printed templatesComina, German; Suska, Anke; Filippini, DanielLab on a Chip (2014), 14 (2), 424-430CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)The fabrication of conventional PDMS on glass lab-on-a-chip (LOC) devices, using templates printed with a com. (2299 US$) micro-stereo lithog. 3D printer, is demonstrated. Printed templates replace clean room and photolithog. fabrication resources and deliver resolns. of 50 μm, and up to 10 μm in localized hindrances, whereas the templates are smooth enough to allow direct transfer and proper sealing to glass substrates. 3D printed templates accommodate multiple thicknesses, from 50 μm up to several mm within the same template, with no addnl. processing cost or effort. This capability is exploited to integrate silicone tubing easily, to improve micromixer performance and to produce multilevel fluidics with simple access to independent functional surfaces, which is illustrated by time-resolved glucose detection. The templates are reusable, can be fabricated in under 20 min, with an av. cost of 0.48 US$, which promotes broader access to established LOC configurations with minimal fabrication requirements, relieves LOC fabrication from design skills and provides a versatile LOC development platform.
- 14Chan, H. N.; Chen, Y.; Shu, Y.; Chen, Y.; Tian, Q.; Wu, H. Microfluid. Nanofluid. 2015, 19, 9– 18 DOI: 10.1007/s10404-014-1542-414https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtFGlsLY%253D&md5=a8b8a42eacf1e24d1e786f4ad3e00e81Direct, one-step molding of 3D-printed structures for convenient fabrication of truly 3D PDMS microfluidic chipsChan, Ho Nam; Chen, Yangfan; Shu, Yiwei; Chen, Yin; Tian, Qian; Wu, HongkaiMicrofluidics and Nanofluidics (2015), 19 (1), 9-18CODEN: MNIAAR; ISSN:1613-4982. (Springer)In this work, we developed a convenient, one-step soft-lithog.-based molding technique for molding truly 3D microfluidic channels in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) by overcoming two grand challenges. We optimized the post-treatment conditions for 3D-printed resin structures to facilitate the use of them as masters for PDMS replica molding. What is more important, we demonstrated a novel method for single-step molding from 3D-printed microstructures to generate truly 3D microfluidic networks easily. With this technique, we fabricated some key, functional 3D microfluidic structures and components including a basket-weaving network, a 3D chaotic advective mixer and microfluidic peristaltic valves. Furthermore, an interesting "injection-on-demand" microfluidic device was also demonstrated. Our technique offers a simple, fast route to the fabrication of 3D microfluidic chips in a short time without clean-room facilities.
- 15Hwang, Y.; Paydar, O. H.; Candler, R. N. Sens. Actuators, A 2015, 226, 137– 142 DOI: 10.1016/j.sna.2015.02.02815https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjs1aisbo%253D&md5=da0a34d861e89471175d4dd152d25fb43D printed molds for non-planar PDMS microfluidic channelsHwang, Yongha; Paydar, Omeed H.; Candler, Robert N.Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical (2015), 226 (), 137-142CODEN: SAAPEB; ISSN:0924-4247. (Elsevier B.V.)This article introduces the use of three-dimensionally (3D) printed molds for rapid fabrication of complex and arbitrary microchannel geometries that are unattainable through existing soft lithog. techniques. The molds are printed directly from computer-aided design (CAD) files, making rapid prototyping of microfluidic devices possible in hours. The resulting 3D printed structures enable precise control of various device geometries, such as the profile of the channel cross-section and variable channel diams. in a single device. We report fabrication of complex 3D channels using these molds with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) polymer. Technol. limits, including surface roughness, resoln., and replication fidelity are also characterized, demonstrating 100-μm features and sub-micron replication fidelity in PDMS channels.
- 16Bonyár, A.; Sántha, H.; Varga, M.; Ring, B.; Vitéz, A.; Harsányi, G. Int. J. Mater. Form. 2014, 7, 189– 196 DOI: 10.1007/s12289-012-1119-2There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 17Salentijn, G. IJ.; Hamidon, N. N.; Verpoorte, E. Lab Chip 2016, 16, 1013– 1021 DOI: 10.1039/C5LC01355K17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XivVWgtrw%253D&md5=ca0559a37facd494fbe2dfa01cc949e1Solvent-dependent on/off valving using selectively permeable barriers in paper microfluidicsSalentijn, G. J.; Hamidon, N. N.; Verpoorte, E.Lab on a Chip (2016), 16 (6), 1013-1021CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)We report on a new way to control solvent flows in paper microfluidic devices, based on the local patterning of paper with alkyl ketene dimer (AKD) to form barriers with selective permeability for different solvents. Prodn. of the devices is a two-step process. In the first step, AKD-treated paper (hydrophobic) is exposed to oxygen plasma for re-hydrophilization. 3D-printed masks are employed to shield certain areas of this paper to preserve well-defined hydrophobic patterns. In the second step, concd. AKD in hexane is selectively deposited onto already hydrophobic regions of the paper to locally increase the degree of hydrophobicity. Hydrophilic areas formed in the previous oxygen plasma step are protected from AKD by wetting them with water first to prevent the AKD hexane soln. from entering them (hydrophilic exclusion). Characterization of the patterns after both steps shows that reproducible patterns are obtained with linear dependence on the dimensions of the 3D-printed masks. This two-step methodol. leads to differential hydrophobicity on the paper: hydrophilic regions, low-load AKD gates, and high-load AKD walls. The gates are impermeable to water, yet can be penetrated by most alc./water mixts.; the walls cannot. This concept for solvent-dependent on/off valving is demonstrated in two applications. In the first example, a device was developed for multi-step chem. reactions. Different compds. can be spotted sep. (closed gates). Upon elution with an alc./water mixt., the gates become permeable and the contents are combined. In the second example, vol.-defined sampling is introduced. Aq. sample is allowed to wick into a device and fill a sample chamber. The contents of this sample chamber are eluted perpendicularly with an alc./water mixt. through a selectively permeable gate. This system was tested with dye soln., and a linear dependence of magnitude of the signal on the sample chamber size was obtained.
- 18Hyde, J.; MacNicol, M.; Odle, A.; Garcia-Rill, E. J. Neurosci. Methods 2014, 238, 82– 87 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2014.09.01218https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2M7ktVygug%253D%253D&md5=eee06b09de74ef6e436eca2d593ad4b4The use of three-dimensional printing to produce in vitro slice chambersHyde James; MacNicol Melanie; Odle Angela; Garcia-Rill EdgarJournal of neuroscience methods (2014), 238 (), 82-7 ISSN:.BACKGROUND: In recent years, 3D printing technology has become inexpensive and simple enough that any lab can own and use one of these printers. NEW METHOD: We explored the potential use of 3D printers for quickly and easily producing in vitro slice chambers for patch clamp electrophysiology. Slice chambers were produced using five available plastics: ABS, PLA, Nylon 618, Nylon 680, and T-glase. These "lab-made" chambers were also made using stereolithography through a professional printing service (Shapeways). This study measured intrinsic membrane properties of neurons in the brain stem pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) and layer V pyramidal neurons in retrosplenial cortex. RESULTS: Nylon 680 and T-glase significantly hyperpolarized PPN neurons. ABS increased input resistance, decreased action potential amplitude, and increased firing frequency in pyramidal cortical neurons. To test long term exposure to each plastic, human neuroblastoma SHSY5Y cell cultures were exposed to each plastic for 1 week. ABS decreased cell counts while Nylon 618 and Shapeways plastics eliminated cells. Primary mouse pituitary cultures were also tested for 24-h exposure. ABS decreased cell counts while Nylon 618 and Shapeways plastics dramatically decreased cell counts. COMPARISON TO EXISTING METHODS: Chambers can be quickly and inexpensively printed in the lab. ABS, PLA, Nylon 680, and T-glase plastics would suffice for many experiments instead of commercially produced slice chambers. CONCLUSIONS: While these technologies are still in their infancy, they represent a powerful addition to the lab environment. With careful selection of print material, slice chambers can be quickly and inexpensively manufactured in the lab.
- 19Paydar, O. H.; Paredes, C. N.; Hwang, Y.; Paz, J.; Shah, N. B.; Candler, R. N. Sens. Actuators, A 2014, 205, 199– 203 DOI: 10.1016/j.sna.2013.11.00519https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXpsFWj&md5=63b98d0691abdca2262f8b367d67632aCharacterization of 3D-printed microfluidic chip interconnects with integrated O-ringsPaydar, O. H.; Paredes, C. N.; Hwang, Y.; Paz, J.; Shah, N. B.; Candler, R. N.Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical (2014), 205 (), 199-203CODEN: SAAPEB; ISSN:0924-4247. (Elsevier B.V.)Lab-on-a-chip (LOC) devices have enabled significant advancements in medical, biol., and chem. anal. However, widespread adoption of these devices in, clin. settings and academic environments has been impeded by a lack of a reliable, adaptable, and easy-to-use packaging technol. In this work, we introduce a rapid, prototyped modular microfluidic interconnect that addresses these challenges of the, world-to-chip interface. The interconnect, a flexible polymer gasket co-printed with, rigid clamps, eliminates adhesives and addnl. assembly by direct multi-material 3D, printing from a computer-aided design model. The device represents the first, application of multi-material 3D printing to microfluidic interconnects, and it can be, rapidly re-designed and printed, and has demonstrated the ability to withstand, pressures exceeding 400 kPa.
- 20Kitson, P. J.; Marshall, R. J.; Long, D.; Forgan, R. S.; Cronin, L. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2014, 53, 12723– 12728 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201402654There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 21Lücking, T. H.; Sambale, F.; Schnaars, B.; Bulnes-Abundis, D.; Beutel, S.; Scheper, T. Eng. Life Sci. 2015, 15, 57– 64 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.20140009421https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFOrtg%253D%253D&md5=2c03d8d3b1c9cb4c1e6d1dcb6b306e653D-printed individual labware in biosciences by rapid prototyping: In vitro biocompatibility and applications for eukaryotic cell culturesLuecking, Tim H.; Sambale, Franziska; Schnaars, Birte; Bulnes-Abundis, David; Beutel, Sascha; Scheper, ThomasEngineering in Life Sciences (2015), 15 (1), 57-64CODEN: ELSNAE; ISSN:1618-2863. (Wiley-Blackwell)Three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques are continuously evolving, thus their application fields are also growing very fast. The applications discussed here highlight the use of rapid prototyping in a dedicated biotechnol. lab. environment. The combination of improving prototypes using fused deposition modeling printers and producing useable parts with selective laser sintering printers enables a cost- and time-efficient use of such techniques. Biocompatible materials for 3D printing are already available and the printed parts can directly be used in the lab. To demonstrate this, we tested 3D printing materials for their in vitro biocompatibility. To exemplify the versatility of the 3D printing process applied to a biotechnol. lab., a normal well plate design was modified in silico to include different baffle geometries. This plate was subsequently 3D printed and used for cultivation. In the near future, this design and print possibility will revolutionize the industry. Advanced printers will be available for labs. and can be used for creating individual labware or std. disposables on demand. These applications have the potential to change the way research is done and change the management of stock-keeping, leading to more flexibility and promoting creativity of the scientists.
- 22Lücking, T. H.; Sambale, F.; Beutel, S.; Scheper, T. Eng. Life Sci. 2015, 15, 51– 56 DOI: 10.1002/elsc.20140009322https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFOrsQ%253D%253D&md5=5fbad3ce5cd754be46dbe4a6e5a4b7163D-printed individual labware in biosciences by rapid prototyping: A proof of principleLuecking, Tim H.; Sambale, Franziska; Beutel, Sascha; Scheper, ThomasEngineering in Life Sciences (2015), 15 (1), 51-56CODEN: ELSNAE; ISSN:1618-2863. (Wiley-Blackwell)A review. The fabrication of individual labware is a sophisticated task that requires dedicated machines and skills. Three-dimensional (3D) printing has the great potential to simplify this procedure drastically. In the near future, scientists will design labware digitally and then print them three dimensionally directly in the lab. With the available rapid prototyping printer systems, it is possible to achieve this. The materials accessible meet the needs of biotechnol. labs. that include biocompatibility and withstanding sterilization conditions. This will lead to a completely new approach of adapting the labware to the expt. or even tailor-made it to the organism it is being used for, not adapting the expt. to a certain std. labware. Thus, it will encourage the creativity of scientists and enrich the future lab. work. We present different examples illustrating the potential and possibilities of using 3D printing for individualizing labware. This includes a well plate with different baffle geometries, shake flask cap with built-in luer connections, and filter holder for an inhouse developed membrane reactor system.
- 23Ude, C.; Hentrop, T.; Lindner, P.; Lücking, T. H.; Scheper, T.; Beutel, S. Sens. Actuators, B 2015, 221, 1035– 1043 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2015.07.01723https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXht1Omtr3N&md5=9c2ae7a0a4714686bef3fe5842bf8b4eNew perspectives in shake flask pH control using a 3D-printed control unit based on pH online measurementUde, Christian; Hentrop, Thorleif; Lindner, Patrick; Luecking, Tim H.; Scheper, Thomas; Beutel, SaschaSensors and Actuators, B: Chemical (2015), 221 (), 1035-1043CODEN: SABCEB; ISSN:0925-4005. (Elsevier B.V.)Online pH control during microbial shake flask cultivation has not been established due to the lack of a practical combination of an online sensor system and an appropriate control unit. The objective of this investigation was to develop a min. scale dosage app., namely shake flask controller ("SFC"), which can control the pH during a complete cultivation and serves as tech. example for the application of small liq. dispensing lab devices. A well evaluated optical, chemosensor based, noninvasive, multisensory platform prototype for online DO (dissolved oxygen)-, pH- and biomass measurement served as sensor. The SFC was designed as cap-integrated, semi-autarkical control unit. Min. scale working parts like the com. mp6 piezoelec. micropumps and miniature solenoid valves were combined with a selective laser sintering (SLS) printed backbone. In general it is intended to extend its application range on the control of enzymic assays, polymn. processes, cell disruption methods or the precise dispense of special chems. like inducers or inhibitors. It could be proved that pH control within a range of 0.1 pH units could be maintained at different cultivation conditions. A proportional-integral-deriv.- (PID) controller and an adaptive proportional controller were successfully applied to calc. the balancing soln. vol. SLS based 3D printing using polyamide combined with state-of-the-art micro pumps proved to be perfectly adaptable for min. size, autoclavable lab devices.
- 24Tyson, A. L.; Hilton, S. T.; Andreae, L. C. Int. J. Pharm. 2015, 494, 651– 656 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.03.04224https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXkvFegt78%253D&md5=395434c14c5c17bc5359a7d871631deaRapid, simple and inexpensive production of custom 3D printed equipment for large-volume fluorescence microscopyTyson, Adam L.; Hilton, Stephen T.; Andreae, Laura C.International Journal of Pharmaceutics (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2015), 494 (2), 651-656CODEN: IJPHDE; ISSN:0378-5173. (Elsevier B.V.)The cost of 3D printing has reduced dramatically over the last few years and is now within reach of many scientific labs. This work presents an example of how 3D printing can be applied to the development of custom lab. equipment that is specifically adapted for use with the novel brain tissue clearing technique, CLARITY. A simple, freely available online software tool was used, along with consumer-grade equipment, to produce a brain slicing chamber and a combined antibody staining and imaging chamber. Using std. 3D printers we were able to produce research-grade parts in an iterative manner at a fraction of the cost of com. equipment. 3D printing provides a reproducible, flexible, simple and cost-effective method for researchers to produce the equipment needed to quickly adopt new methods.
- 25Wardyn, J. D.; Sanderson, C.; Swan, L. E.; Stagi, M. J. Neurosci. Methods 2015, 251, 17– 23 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2015.05.00125https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2MfisleksQ%253D%253D&md5=c0b1bac1724398a5e88da8df933559e3Low cost production of 3D-printed devices and electrostimulation chambers for the culture of primary neuronsWardyn Joanna D; Sanderson Chris; Swan Laura E; Stagi MassimilianoJournal of neuroscience methods (2015), 251 (), 17-23 ISSN:.The analysis of primary neurons is a basic requirement for many areas of neurobiology. However, the range of commercial systems available for culturing primary neurons is functionally limiting, and the expense of these devices is a barrier to both exploratory and large-scale studies. This is especially relevant as primary neurons often require unusual geometries and specialised coatings for optimum growth. Fortunately, the recent revolution in 3D printing offers the possibility to generate customised devices, which can support neuronal growth and constrain neurons in defined paths, thereby enabling many aspects of neuronal physiology to be studied with relative ease. In this article, we provide a detailed description of the system hardware and software required to produce affordable 3D-printed culture devices, which are also compatible with live-cell imaging. In addition, we also describe how to use these devices to grow and stimulate neurons within geometrically constrained compartments and provide examples to illustrate the practical utility and potential that these protocols offer for many aspects of experimental neurobiology.
- 26Zwicker, A. P.; Bloom, J.; Albertson, R.; Gershman, S. Am. J. Phys. 2015, 83, 281– 285 DOI: 10.1119/1.490074626https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjtFSgtr4%253D&md5=befdb0a81039bf7d401703b8ce6877ebThe suitability of 3D printed plastic parts for laboratory useZwicker, Andrew P.; Bloom, Josh; Albertson, Robert; Gershman, SophiaAmerican Journal of Physics (2015), 83 (3), 281-285CODEN: AJPIAS; ISSN:0002-9505. (American Association of Physics Teachers)3D printing has become popular for a variety of users, from home hobbyists to scientists and engineers interested in producing their own lab. equipment. In order to det. the suitability of 3D printed parts for our plasma physics lab., we measured the accuracy, strength, vacuum compatibility, and elec. properties of pieces printed in plastic. The flexibility of rapidly creating custom parts has led to the 3D printer becoming an invaluable resource in our lab. The 3D printer is also suitable for producing equipment for advanced undergraduate labs.
- 27Takenaga, S.; Schneider, B.; Erbay, E.; Biselli, M.; Schnitzler, T.; Schöning, M. J.; Wagner, T. Phys. Status Solidi A 2015, 212, 1347– 1352 DOI: 10.1002/pssa.201532053There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28Van Midwoud, P. M.; Groothuis, G. M. M.; Merema, M. T.; Verpoorte, E. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010, 105, 184– 194 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22516There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 29Van Kooten, T. G.; Klein, C. L.; Köhler, H.; Kirkpatrick, C. J.; Williams, D. F.; Eloy, R. J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Med. 1997, 8, 835– 841 DOI: 10.1023/A:101854141905529https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1cXnsFCj&md5=410133f14cb35bc41f04e1c55dd0e210From cytotoxicity to biocompatibility testing in vitro: cell adhesion molecule expression defines a new set of parametersVan Kooten, T. G.; Klein, C. L.; Kohler, H.; Kirkpatrick, C. J.; Williams, D. F.; Eloy, R.Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine (1997), 8 (12), 835-841CODEN: JSMMEL; ISSN:0957-4530. (Chapman & Hall)Detn. of potential cytotoxicity is a central issue in current biocompatibility testing stds. such as ISO and ASTM. Most of these tests do not assess biocompatibility of a biomaterial with regard to cell function. This study was aimed at screening a no. of potential parameters that could be included in assessment of cell functional aspects of biocompatibility. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were seeded directly on titanium, NiCr alloy, CoCr alloy, PMMA, PE, PU, PVC, and silicone, or were exposed to the material exts. Cytotoxicity was assessed for these materials through MTT conversion, crystal violet protein detn. and Ki67 expression. In addn., expression of the cell adhesion mols. E-selectin, cadherin-5 and PECAM, as well as of the adhesion-assocd. proteins fibronectin and vinculin (focal adhesions), was detd. by immunocytochem. and western blotting. Cytotoxicity was not detected with the material exts. Cells were able to adhere to bare metals, but not polymers. Fibronectin preadsorption resulted in adhesion and spreading also on the polymers. Cells were able to establish cell-cell contacts, and focal adhesions. Western blotting, in combination with differential detergent extn., indicated that linkage of cell-cell adhesion markers to the cytoskeleton may be used as an addnl. parameter relevant to cell function.
- 30Comina, G.; Suska, A.; Filippini, D. Lab Chip 2014, 14, 2978– 2982 DOI: 10.1039/C4LC00394B30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhtFGjsrfN&md5=2faf5e0f4b6c22289207525ecffaa896Low cost lab-on-a-chip prototyping with a consumer grade 3D printerComina, German; Suska, Anke; Filippini, DanielLab on a Chip (2014), 14 (16), 2978-2982CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Versatile prototyping of 3D printed lab-on-a-chip devices (mixers, H2O2, glucose microfluidic anal. devices), supporting different forms of sample delivery, transport, functionalization and readout, is demonstrated with a consumer grade printer, which centralizes all crit. fabrication tasks. Devices cost 0.57 US$ and are demonstrated in chem. sensing and micromixing examples, which exploit established principles from ref. technologies.
- 31Gelber, M. K.; Bhargava, R. Lab Chip 2015, 15, 1736– 1741 DOI: 10.1039/C4LC01392A31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXitlSis7Y%253D&md5=e5e04a5f3e405a7dda3b9e7c97217b03Monolithic multilayer microfluidics via sacrificial molding of 3D-printed isomaltGelber, Matthew K.; Bhargava, RohitLab on a Chip (2015), 15 (7), 1736-1741CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Here we demonstrate a method for creating multilayer or 3D microfluidics by casting a curable resin around a water-sol., freestanding sacrificial mold. We use a purpose-built 3D printer to pattern self-supporting filaments of the sugar alc. isomalt, which we then back-fill with a transparent epoxy resin. Dissolving the sacrificial mold leaves a network of cylindrical channels as well as input and output ports. We use this technique to fabricate a combinatorial mixer capable of producing 8 combinations of two fluids in ratios ranging from 1 : 100 to 100 : 1. This approach allows rapid iteration on microfluidic chip design and enables the use of geometry and materials not accessible using conventional soft lithog. The ability to precisely pattern round channels in all three dimensions in hard and soft media may prove enabling for many organ-on-chip systems.
- 32Baker, M. I.; Walsh, S. P.; Schwartz, Z.; Boyan, B. D. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part B 2012, 100B, 1451– 1457 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.3269432https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XotVOnurg%253D&md5=edfbc9509def5af21cd749d931cee4d7A review of polyvinyl alcohol and its uses in cartilage and orthopedic applicationsBaker, Maribel I.; Walsh, Steven P.; Schwartz, Zvi; Boyan, Barbara D.Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, Part B: Applied Biomaterials (2012), 100B (5), 1451-1457CODEN: JBMRGL; ISSN:1552-4973. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)A review. Polyvinyl alc. (PVA) is a synthetic polymer derived from polyvinyl acetate through partial or full hydroxylation. PVA is commonly used in medical devices due to its low protein adsorption characteristics, biocompatibility, high water soly., and chem. resistance. Some of the most common medical uses of PVA are in soft contact lenses, eye drops, embolization particles, tissue adhesion barriers, and as artificial cartilage and meniscus. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the available published information on PVA with respect to its safety as a medical device implant material for cartilage replacement. The review includes historical clin. use of PVA in orthopedics, and in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility studies. Finally, the safety recommendation involving the further development of PVA cryogels for cartilage replacement is addressed. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 2012.
- 33Macdonald, N. P.; Zhu, F.; Hall, C. J.; Reboud, J.; Crosier, P. S.; Patton, E. E.; Wlodkowic, D.; Cooper, J. M. Lab Chip 2016, 16, 291– 297 DOI: 10.1039/C5LC01374G33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhvFWltrrJ&md5=4e77decbde763a00c79735a9ba5213eeAssessment of biocompatibility of 3D printed photopolymers using zebrafish embryo toxicity assaysMacdonald, N. P.; Zhu, F.; Hall, C. J.; Reboud, J.; Crosier, P. S.; Patton, E. E.; Wlodkowic, D.; Cooper, J. M.Lab on a Chip (2016), 16 (2), 291-297CODEN: LCAHAM; ISSN:1473-0189. (Royal Society of Chemistry)3D printing has emerged as a rapid and cost-efficient manufg. technique to enable the fabrication of bespoke, complex prototypes. If the technol. is to have a significant impact in biomedical applications, such as drug discovery and mol. diagnostics, the devices produced must be biol. compatible to enable their use with established ref. assays and protocols. In this work we demonstrate that we can adapt the Fish Embryo Test (FET) as a new method to quantify the toxicity of 3D printed microfluidic devices. We assessed the biocompatibility of four com. available 3D printing polymers (VisiJetCrystal EX200, Watershed 11122XC, Fototec SLA 7150 Clear and ABSplus P-430), through the observation of key developmental markers in the developing zebrafish embryos. Results show all of the photopolymers to be highly toxic to the embryos, resulting in fatality, although we do demonstrate that post-printing treatment of Fototec 7150 makes it suitable for zebrafish culture within the FET.
- 34Songjaroen, T.; Dungchai, W.; Chailapakul, O.; Laiwattanapaisal, W. Talanta 2011, 85, 2587– 2593 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.08.024There is no corresponding record for this reference.
Supporting Information
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b00828.
Images of the SolidWorks designs for printed parts used in the manuscript, tables with slice and print settings, protocols for all the experiments in this paper, and figures, photographs, and box plots displaying results for the characterization of FDM materials (PDF)
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