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Fate of Phosphorus in Fluidized Bed Cocombustion of Chicken Litter with Wheat Straw and Bark Residues

  • Gustav Häggström*
    Gustav Häggström
    Energy Engineering, Division of Energy Science, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden
    *E-mail: [email protected]. Phone: +46 (0) 920 49 36 84.
    More by Gustav Häggström
    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-5420-965X
  • , 
  • Katharina Fürsatz
    Katharina Fürsatz
    Bioenergy2020+ GmbH, Wienerstraße 49, A-7540 Güssing, Austria
    Institute of Chemical, Environmental & Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/166, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
    More by Katharina Fürsatz
    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-4338-5727
  • , 
  • Matthias Kuba
    Matthias Kuba
    Energy Engineering, Division of Energy Science, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden
    Bioenergy2020+ GmbH, Wienerstraße 49, A-7540 Güssing, Austria
    Thermochemical Energy Conversion Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics and Electronics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
    Institute of Chemical, Environmental & Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/166, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
    More by Matthias Kuba
    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0003-3863-5186
  • , 
  • Nils Skoglund
    Nils Skoglund
    Thermochemical Energy Conversion Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics and Electronics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
    More by Nils Skoglund
    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-5777-9241
  • , and 
  • Marcus Öhman
    Marcus Öhman
    Energy Engineering, Division of Energy Science, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden
    More by Marcus Öhman
Cite this: Energy Fuels 2020, 34, 2, 1822–1829
Publication Date (Web):January 21, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.9b03652

Copyright © 2022 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under CC-BY.

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Abstract

This study aims to determine the fate of P during fluidized bed co-combustion of chicken litter (CL) with K-rich fuels [e.g., wheat straw (WS)] and Ca-rich fuels (bark). The effect of fuel blending on phosphate speciation in ash was investigated. This was performed by chemical characterization of ash fractions to determine which phosphate compounds had formed and identify plausible ash transformation reactions for P. The ash fractions were produced in combustion experiments using CL and fuel blends with 30% CL and WS or bark (B) at 790–810 °C in a 5 kW laboratory-scale bubbling fluidized bed. Potassium feldspar was used as the bed material. Bed ash particles, cyclone ash, and particulate matter (PM) were collected and subjected to chemical analysis with scanning electron microscopy–energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS) and X-ray diffraction. P was detected in coarse ash fractions only, that is, bed ash, cyclone ash, and coarse PM fraction (>1 μm); no P could be detected in the fine PM fraction (<1 μm). SEM–EDS analysis showed that P was mainly present in K–Ca–P-rich areas for pure CL as well as in the ashes from the fuel blends of CL with WS or B. In the WS blend, P was found together with Si in these areas. The crystalline compound containing P was hydroxyapatite in all cases as well as whitlockite in the cases of pure CL and WS blend, of which the latter compound has been previously identified as a promising plant nutrient. The ash fractions from CL and bark blend only contained P in hydroxyapatite. Co-combustion of CL together with WS appears to be promising for P recovery, and ashes with this composition could be further studied in plant growth experiments.

1. Introduction

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Phosphorus (P) is one of the main nutrients important for crop production and, therefore, also food production. (1) Currently, the main source for P is produced from the ore mineral apatite that is extracted through mining and further processed into fertilizers. (1) As with many other finite resources, there are concerns for the longevity of this mineral, and thus P has been identified as a critical raw material by the EU. (2) P is identified as one of the planetary boundaries for a sustainable society, and leaching of P from arable lands increases the risk for eutrophication of nearby bodies of water. (3)
Manures are an example of P-rich residual stream (4,5) which could be utilized more efficiently in P recycling. Today, manures are used as N, P, and K sources, but it might also facilitate organic pollutant transfer from animal farming to agriculture. Manures may also become a waste problem in regions with limited or no local agriculture close to animal farming. (6,7) The excess manure in such regions may be considered as fuels in bioenergy systems as they have a significant organic content. (5) Utilizing such excess manure, with no immediate recipient in agriculture, in a combustion process produces ash fractions that could be suitable for P recovery. The ash product, and inherent material reduction, facilitates transportation to other regions for further recovery processing or direct use as a fertilizer if the quality fulfills legislated demands. Combustion also addresses storage issues associated with excess manure, such as nitrogen leaching into groundwater and greenhouse gas emissions from bacterial activity during prolonged storage. (6)
Agricultural residues such as straws or husks are other examples of residual biomasses suitable as feedstocks in bioenergy conversion. A major challenge with the introduction of agricultural residues in combustion processes is their composition of inorganic constituents, mainly Si and K, (4) which may form low-temperature melting compounds during combustion. (8,9) This is especially crucial for the operation of fluidized bed boilers because of agglomeration, fouling, and deposit formation. (10,11) Previous studies have shown the possibility to alleviate these problems using P additives and P-rich fuels. (12,13) Residual streams of woody biomass are commonly used as a fuel for heat and power production in Europe, and the sources are typically wood unsuitable for construction, or pulp and paper, or industrial by-products such as saw dust or bark. (14) Ashes from these wood-type fuels are generally rich in Ca, especially in biomass such as bark. (4) As woody biomass is commonly used for bioenergy, today it can be used to compensate for the availability of various other biomass residues, and it is likely that woody biomass will be co-combusted with other feedstocks.
When co-combusting K- and Ca-rich fuels with P-containing fuels or materials, the speciation of P has been shown to vary. (12) A large surplus of Ca in comparison to P will favor the reactions toward the thermodynamically favored apatite, a compound which is largely unavailable to plants in the short time span relevant for annual crops. (15) K-containing phosphates form when the K and P content is relatively high compared to the Ca content. However, the solubility of pure K phosphates mean that they are more prone to contribute to eutrophication in adjacent bodies of water than, for example, apatite. (16) Previous research on phosphates in ash fractions indicate that whitlockites incorporating K in the crystalline structure have leaching properties that make these phosphates suitable for plant uptake. (17)
Understanding the phosphates that could form in combustion processes is facilitated by the so-called ash transformation reactions. (18) Ash reaction pathways can be described using primary, secondary, and tertiary reactions if the elements in the fuel are assumed to exist as nonmineralized materials. (19) If the elements are already associated in the biomass, the reaction pathway is dictated by the strength of those bonds. (18) In the oxidizing P case and for fuels where P is organically associated with the fuel, this would suggest that any P that is initially released in the gaseous phase from the fuel forms P2O5(g) in primary reactions. The gaseous P2O5(g) may subsequently react with KOH(g) in secondary reactions to form KPO3(l,g). This compound reacts further through tertiary reactions and can incorporate solid Ca/Mg oxides in the structure. For biomasses with a high Ca content in the ash-forming elements, for example, bark, this general reaction pathway for the formation of phosphates with mixed cations may continue through substitution reactions where Ca replaces K in the phosphate structure. Generally, Ca phosphates are more stable than K phosphates, and if all the alkali is substituted for Ca through tertiary reactions, apatite is the final product. (19) In Figure 1 this generalized reaction pathway is highlighted together with the composition of typical manures and co-combustion fuels.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Ternary composition diagram for alkali, alkali earth, and P components (as mass fraction, given in %). Fuels in this study and manure compositions from the Phyllis2 database are added to the diagram. (5) The reaction pathway of P adapted from the study of Skoglund (19) is highlighted: red indicates a gas–gas reaction, yellow a liquid–solid reaction, and blue a solid–solid reaction under combustion conditions.

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The general reaction pathways for P in combustion are affected in terms of how the element is chemically associated in the biomasses and whether it is manure or residual streams from agriculture or forestry. The forms could be broadly classified as organically associated P, in dissolved salts, or mineralized materials (e.g., apatite). (20) For poultry litter, P is present in the form of organically associated P (phytate and phospholipid-type species) to a higher degree than that found in lignocellulosic biomass. The specific amount depends on the type of chicken; layer hen litter contains less organically associated P (average around 30%, up to 40–50%) compared to chicken litter (CL) (average around 50%, up to 75%). (20) For other animal manures, the total P content is typically lower and to a larger extent associated with inorganic structures. (20) This suggests that CL could be an attractive candidate for co-combustion with other residual streams from both agriculture and forestry to fully exploit the possibilities of incorporating more K in the phosphates formed during combustion.
The mixed cation phosphates that have been identified in ash fractions, for example, CaKPO4, K2MgP2O7, whitlockites, or even amorphous P compounds, may serve as fertilizer candidates or raw materials for further P recovery processes. In addition to these, amorphous Ca and K silicophosphates may form when combusting fuels rich in all four elements. (21) Previously, the Na equivalent has been found in thermally treated sewage sludge ash, (22) which has an increased water solubility compared to the untreated ash. To evaluate the leachability and plant availability of P in ash, ammonium citrate is preferably used, (23) indicating mid- and long-term availability. NaOH–ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) and acidic oxalate were used in one study to evaluate the availability of P in biochars from swine manure, feedlot, and sewage sludge. (24) It was concluded that the pyrophosphates were more easily extracted using NaOH–EDTA, whereas the Ca-rich orthophosphates required the stronger acidic oxalate. They also concluded that chars produced at higher temperature contained higher amounts of orthophosphate.
Although the combustion of CL and other animal manure has been previously studied, (25−27) the reaction pathways and chemical speciation of P in the formed ash have not been extensively investigated. A study on the pyrolysis of broiler litter by Uchimiya and Hiradate (28) determined that P was found as orthophosphates at the highest pyrolysis temperature of 800 °C, but it is not certain whether this can be directly translated to combustion. The total amount of P in ash from the combustion of animal manure has also been evaluated, (29) although the reaction pathways for P were not included. Elucidating on how ash transformation reactions of P in thermochemical processes are affected by the chemical speciation of P in manures, and their blends with K- and Ca-rich residual biomass fuels, can aid in selecting strategies on how to produce potentially valuable fertilizers in the ash fractions formed in the processes.
The aim of this work is, therefore, to determine the fate of P during fluidized bed co-combustion of CL with a K-rich agricultural residue [wheat straw (WS)] and a Ca-rich woody residue (bark). The effect of fuel blending on phosphate speciation in ash fractions will be studied, and the ash transformation reactions of P will be discussed.

2. Materials and Methods

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2.1. Fuel and Fuel Blends

The fuels used in the experiments were co-pelletized blends of CL with WS, bark (B), and pure CL (C100). Elemental ash analysis of fuels and fuel blends is presented in Table 1. Feedstock samples were transformed into ash according to DIN CEN/TS 14775. Initially, the samples were heated up to a temperature of 250 °C. This temperature was maintained for 60 min. Then, the temperature was increased to 550 °C and maintained until the transformation of the biomass into ash was completed. The ash produced from the feedstock was then subjected to X-ray fluorescence analysis using a PANalytical Axios Advanced analyzer (in a vacuum at 50 kV and 50 mA).
Table 1. Analysis of Ash Content and Main Ash-Forming Elements (Given as Oxides) in the Used Pure Fuels and Blends
 C100BWSCWS30CB30
ash contenta25.48.17.213.013.5
K2Ob7312135
Na2Ob44323
CaOb262042627
MgOb107458
Fe2O3b16213
Al2O3b211226
SiO2b638613121
P2O5b32331318
SO3b42354
Clb41412
a

wt %, dry basis.

b

wt % of ash, dry basis.

In Figure 1, CL, WS, and the bark and blends of the fuels have been plotted in a composition diagram for the CaO(+MgO)–K2O(+Na2O)–P2O5 system, together with other manures from the Phyllis2 database. (5) The two fuels selected for blending with CL encompass a variation of both K and Ca and represent residual biomass fuels from agriculture and forestry. The blends were made as dry mass fractions with 70%/30% of WS/CL (CWS30) and 70%/30% of bark/CL (CB30). All fuels were pelletized to a size of 6 mm diameter to facilitate fuel feeding.

2.2. Combustion Experiments

The experiments were performed in a 5 kW bench-scale fluidized bed (Figure 2). The bed section has a 100 mm circular cross section and was operated with 540 g of bed material. The bed material used was natural K feldspar sand sieved to a size of 200–250 μm. Primary air was introduced at 50 Nl/min in the bottom through a stainless steel distribution plate, with 1% of the area perforated with 90 holes. Secondary air was introduced with an airflow of 30 Nl/min above the bed. The freeboard diameter is 200 mm and the total height of the apparatus is 2 m. The walls of the reactor were electrically heated to ensure the correct temperature. The experiments were performed with the aim of reaching 40 h of continuous fuel feed or until defluidization or ash overloading in the bed (blocking the fuel inlet) occurred. For C100 combustion, defluidization occurred after 11 h because of the high amounts of ash material in the bed; for CWS30 combustion, it occurred after 9 h (defluidization), and CB30 was combusted for the planned maximum duration of 40 h.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Schematic view of the experimental setup. Sampling points, fuel inlet, and other streams are indicated.. Adapted from Skoglund. (13)

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The bed temperature was maintained at 790–810 °C. The freeboard temperature was maintained at 800–820 °C. The flue gas composition was monitored using a Gasmet DX-4000 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyzer. The experiments were carried out with slightly higher average O2 than the typical 8–10 vol % of O2, (30) but the conditions were similar between experiments and allowed stable operation. No efforts were made to reduce NOx emissions by measures such as air staging, as the focus of this study is ash formation (Table 2).
Table 2. Flue Gas Composition during Steady-State Operation for Each Fuel Type
fuelH2O (vol %)aO2 (vol %)bCO2 (vol %)cNO ppmcNO2 ppmcN2O ppmc
C1007.6 ± 1.311.4 ± 1.414.4 ± 1.0752 ± 59434.5 ± 31.91.4 ± 6.6
CWS306.8 ± 1.911.6 ± 1.914.6 ± 1.2235 ± 1127.1 ± 5.92.9 ± 2.3
CB309.2 ± 1.611.3 ± 1.314.9 ± 1.1173 ± 6012.1 ± 7.00.5 ± 1
a

Wet gas.

b

Normalized to dry gas.

c

Normalized to dry gas and 6 vol % O2.

The exhaust gases passed through a cyclone with a cutoff diameter of 10 μm. To determine the particulate matter (PM) mass size distribution of the ash particles not trapped in the flue gas PM10 cyclone, particle sampling was carried out in the flue gas channel by using a 13-step low-pressure cascade impactor from Dekati Ltd. (DLPI), which classifies the size of ash particles according to the aerodynamic diameter in the range of 0.03–10 μm. Aluminum foils were used as substrates, and the impactor was heated to prevent water condensation during sampling. The 13 stages were further consolidated into fine (stage 1–7) and coarse (stage 8–13) fractions. Stages 1–7 consisted of submicron ash particles (<1 μm) and stages 8–13 contained particles in the size range of 1–10 μm. Bed and cyclone ash were collected for analysis after experiments when the reactor had reached near-room temperature.

2.3. Analysis

A Zeiss Evo LS-15 and JEOL JSM-IT300 were used for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis in backscattered mode together with energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDS) to perform elemental analysis. The ash particles found in the bed and cyclone fractions were analyzed for both morphology and elemental composition through mapping, point, and area analyses. The analyses were made on both epoxy-encased particle cross sections and crushed particles mounted on carbon tapes. PM collected from the impactor was also analyzed for elemental composition. The stages 5 and 13, corresponding to the main peaks of fine and coarse modes of PM were analyzed. EDS analyses were made using a combination of elemental mapping, point, and area analyses. The elements included were K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Si, P, S, and Cl. The elements C and O were excluded as they are present in the epoxy resin and carbon tapes used for sample mounting.
The bed ash (including some bed material) and cyclone ash were subjected to powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis using a PANalytical Empyrean diffractometer, employing Cu Kα radiation and a Pixel3D array detector. The samples where lightly crushed to a size of approx. 10 μm. Data collection was made with a rotating sample for a total acquisition time of 1 h for each sample. Data collection was performed at a 2θ between 10 and 70 with a scan interval of 0.007°. PANalytical HighScore Plus 4.8 (31) together with ICDD PDF-4 (32) database was used for the identification and quantification of the main crystalline phases. Quantification was performed with Rietveld analysis coupled with the K-factor method to estimate the amount of amorphous material. (33) Pure crystalline Si was used as the external standard to measure the K-factor at the time of measurements.

3. Results

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3.1. Operational/Ash Formation

The amount of bed ash accumulated during the experiment was the deciding factor for the duration of each experiment because of its impact on operation. This was pronounced in the case of C100 where the experiments lasted 11 h prior to defluidization. This was caused by the amount of bed ash present in the system, which greatly influenced the bubbling bed properties. The blend with straw (CWS30) defluidized because of agglomerate formation after 9 h of operation. This is significantly longer than that observed for straw fuels combusted in the same bench-scale reactor previously. (34,35) The defluidization was likely facilitated by the high bed ash-to-bed material ratio. In the case with CL and bark, the experiment was run continuously for the planned experimental period of 40 h.

3.2. Chemical Composition and Morphology of Ash Fractions

The chemical composition of the coarse and fine ash fractions, as determined by SEM–EDS, is shown in Figure 3. Comparing the bulk composition of bed ash and cyclone ash with the coarse PM fraction in the impactor stage 13 for all fuels, it is obvious that they are very similar within one fuel or fuel blend. This is consistent with the entrainment of bed ash particles, likely because of attrition. The similarity is attributed to the mechanics of the fluidized bed; all fractions represent the bed ash, and the size difference is due to the mechanical attrition of the ash. It should be noted that the bed ash also includes various amounts of the bed material, K-feldspar, whereas the cyclone ash contains a higher degree of ash. Analyses of the bed material, with a focus on the bed particle layer characteristics, can be found in the related papers, (34,36) based on the same set of experiments.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Average elemental composition (with ±SD in error bars) of major ash-forming elements for the bulk ash fractions and typical particles on a C- and O-free basis. Top: C100; Middle: CB30; Bottom: CWS30.

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All coarse ash fractions contained P-rich particles with different morphologies and elemental compositions, which will be further presented in the respective sections. For the purpose here, agglomerates are used to describe bed ash particles that contain different discrete regions of different compositions. These particle agglomerates may or may not be detrimental to operation, that is, cause bed agglomeration. Further, when the so-called melts are mentioned, this does not infer that the material was completely molten during operation. It rather places the focus on the mobility of elements in the particles. The exact state during operation could involve either solid-state diffusion, recrystallization in solids, or mobility of elements where only a small fraction of the material could be considered to exist in a liquid state. Such in situ observations are not possible and therefore based on appearance using SEM–EDS data.
For C100 and CB30, the P-rich bed ash particles typically contained K, Ca, Mg, P, and S. Their composition and appearance can be seen in Figures 3 and 4a,b, respectively. The smooth edges and presence of regions with homogeneous composition indicate that these particles were either partially or fully molten at some point during fuel conversion and they may therefore contain amorphous regions. Similar compositions were also found as outer layers on other particles, that is, on the bed material particles and other non-P-rich particles.

Figure 4

Figure 4. SEM backscatter images of typical bed ash particles in C100 [(a), top left], CB30 [(b), top right], and CWS30 [(c), bottom left] and zoom-in of the characteristics of typical molten areas found in bed samples from CWS30 [(d), bottom right]. Ca-rich particles can be seen in all cases. The rounded Ca–K–P–Mg–S-rich particles are highlighted in C100 and CB30. K–Ca–Si–P-rich particles/areas are highlighted for CWS30.

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Unique for CWS30, two types of coarse ash particles were observed: one type mainly comprising K, Ca, Si, and P and another type dominated by K and Si. These particles were presumably partially or fully molten during operation, as evident by their shape and their composition reported in Figure 3. Similar to the case for C100 and CB30, these ash particles formed outer layers on other particles. Ash particles from CWS30 may contain P compounds precipitated from silicophosphate melts during cooling. This can be observed in Figure 4d, where small particles (lighter area) of about 1 μm are located evenly distributed individually and in clusters in a larger area of homogeneous composition (darker area). The presumably molten homogeneous area contains only small amounts of P (around 5 mol %), whereas these particles have a composition of about 15 mol % P, 30 mol % Si, 20 mol % Ca, and 20 mol % K on a C- and O-free basis, with minor amounts of Na, Al, Mg, and S.
Bed ash and cyclone ash from all experiments (C100, CWS30, and CB30) contained discrete particles with high concentrations of Ca or both Ca and Mg. Their size was typically 200–250 μm, but particles over 500 μm in size were also observed (Figure 4). These particles have a core consisting of alkali earth metals and an outer surface typically consisting of various combinations of K, Mg, P, and S.
P was not detected in the fine PM (<1 μm) by EDS analyses (Figure 3). Only equimolar proportions (50/50) of K, with small amounts of Na and Cl were detected for all fuels. For the coarse PM fractions (1–10 μm), the elemental composition reflects the bulk composition of bed and cyclone ashes, as shown in Figure 3. The only deviation was a lower Si content for coarse PM in CWS30 compared to its bed and cyclone ash. This could be caused by a stronger capture of Si in amorphous structures that accumulate to larger particles already in the bed, thereby avoiding entrainment in the flue gas.

3.3. XRD Analysis

The only P-containing compounds identified by XRD were hydroxyapatite and whitlockite, as presented in Table 3. This is consistent with the SEM–EDS finding, where Ca, P, and K are present in the same regions. Hydroxyapatite was identified as the only crystalline P compound for the C100 and CB30 bed ash fractions. As no crystalline phosphate was found in the CWS30 bed ash fraction and nearly half of the cyclone ash was estimated to be amorphous, P is likely present in amorphous parts of the bed ash as well. Whitlockite was observed in the C100 and CWS30 cyclone fractions. It is likely also present in the bed ash, diluted below the detection limit by the bed material.
Table 3. Phases Identified Using XRD. Numbers Indicate Quantification in wt % of Phases from Rietveld Refinement Given as Intervals of 5 wt %
 C100CB30CWS30
 bed ashacyclone ashbed ashacyclone ashbed ashacyclone ash
Ca5(PO4)3OHX25–30X35–40 10–15
Ca9MgK(PO4)7 15–20   15–20
K2SO4X5–10X5–10  
Na2SO4   <5  
KAlSi3O8X   X 
KAlSi2O6    X 
SiO2X X<5 10–15
CaOX X X 
MgOX X   
Ca(OH)2X X X 
CaCO3 5–10 15–20 5–10
KCl 5–10 <5 <5
Na0.5K0.5Cl  X   
amorphous 30 30 45
a

Only the cyclone ash fractions were quantified using XRD. Bed ash fractions had significant inclusions with varying amounts of bed material, which would greatly increase uncertainty in any quantification.

The Ca compounds identified were CaO, Ca(OH)2, and CaCO3 for all fuels. Ca particles were most likely already included with the fuel, as Ca additives are common nutrient supplements for chicken feed.

4. Discussion

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4.1. Ash Composition

P was primarily found in the bed and cyclone ash fractions, as detected by SEM–EDS. Potentially volatile P appears to be captured in the crystalline and amorphous phases in the bed and coarse ash fractions. The XRD results show that P appears in hydroxyapatite in the bed ash particles of C100 and CB30, as well as all cyclone ashes. Whitlockite, Ca9MgK(PO4)7, was also identified in C100 and CWS30 cyclone ash which suggests that the ash incorporates other cations than Ca in its orthophosphate structure. In addition to the crystalline compounds found, P appears in the amorphous structures as grains with discrete boundaries (Figure 4d). These grains may either have precipitated out of a melt or are being dissolved into a melt.
A previous study (37) has reported alkali–Ca–orthophosphate in addition to apatite and whitlockite in poultry litter ash, and it reports that the coarse ash is mainly dominated by crystalline alkali–Ca–phosphates. The study was also performed in a fluidized bed but at a lower bed temperature (655 °C average), although with a high freeboard temperature of about 930 °C. In another study, (38) CL ash was produced in a muffle furnace at 815 °C. Most of the crystalline P was found in apatite but also in minor amounts as KCaPO4 and K2CaP2O7. This is in contrast with the crystalline and amorphous structures found in the current work, where the co-combustion with WS yielded ash particles and outer layers with P likely present in amorphous structures. These structures, shown in Figure 4d, contain grains rich in K, Ca, P, and Si, which might be interesting for plant availability studies or P leaching.
The melts in bed ash from CWS30 have likely formed from molten K phosphates and K silicates as initial particles, subsequently incorporating Ca to form solids. Alternatively, molten K silicates dissolve Ca phosphates. The former is more likely because of the homogeneous composition around the grains and even distribution of these grains in the apparent melt. If it were a homogeneous silicophosphate melt with both P and Si oxides, the charge balance between the anions and cations suggests that Si exists as [SiO3]2– and P as [P2O7]4– and the cations are shared between these. There are also K- and Si-rich ash particles, which probably acts as a step before the interaction with P-rich particles or gaseous P compounds. Results from a thermodynamic equilibrium calculation with FactSage (39) and GToxid solution database (40) suggest an initial melt formation at 730 °C for the composition of the melt, but a dedicated investigation is required to verify this.
There are unreacted Ca- and Mg-rich particles that end up in the bed and cyclone ash for all fuel blends. They are too large to originate from oxalate particles known to exist in the bark, (41) which could have been the case for CB30. Similar particles rich in Ca and Mg were reported by Bergfeldt et al., (38) attributing them to dolomite present in CL. These particles might only react on the surface which leaves part of Ca unavailable for reaction with other ash-forming elements. This is especially important for interaction with ash that is expected to form sticky melts that can cover the Ca particle, rendering it unavailable for further reactions. This behavior that makes predictions of ash formation solely based on phase diagrams or thermodynamic equilibrium calculations is insufficient for these cases. This is relevant for all applications where Ca is used as an additive in combustion to remedy various problems.
The aluminosilicates orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) and leucite (KAlSi2O6) were also found in the bed ash fractions, most likely originating from the K feldspar bed material. In addition to these most common particles, all coarse ash fractions also showed examples of free and adhered particles containing alkali chlorides and sulfates. The occurrence of S in the P-rich particles is believed to originate from the reaction of alkali and alkali earth with gaseous S compounds on the surfaces. The Na and K sulfates and chlorides identified by XRD confirm the observations from the elemental analysis with EDS.

4.2. Ash Transformation Reactions and Phosphate Speciation

The ash transformation reactions seem to generally follow a reaction pathway of primary, secondary, and tertiary reactions, (18) where the interaction between K phosphates and Ca is dictated by Ca available for reaction. However, the full pathway for P discussed in the works by Boström et al. (18) and Skoglund (19) does not explain the apparent interaction between P and Si observed in these experiments. The interaction between K phosphates and K silicates in a homogeneous melt is not described in the generalized reaction pathway shown in Figure 1. On the other hand, the suggested end product of whitlockite or apatite still seems to be valid. As Ca was included into the melt, these phases formed in the current work. In summary, the driving forces of the previously proposed reaction mechanism seem valid; it is the intermediate steps that have to be further evaluated regarding Si and P interaction. Dedicated studies have to be made on the amorphous particles assumed to be a homogeneous silicophosphate melt to determine if they can be formed by other P- and Si-rich fuel blends and how these melts interact with other bed materials. This is also important to understand in general as agricultural fuels rich in K and Si will potentially be combusted with other P-rich fuels.
There is still uncertainty whether the initial molten phase is K silicates or KPO3, which subsequently dissolves the other and then further reacts toward thermodynamic equilibrium. The difference for CB30 and C100 in comparison to the particles in CWS30 is the lack of Si, meaning that the initial molten phase would probably have been molten KPO3. Alternatively, the initial P anionic complex could potentially be [P2O7]4–, which is subsequently dissolved into a K-rich silicate melt. There is also some uncertainty as to why XRD analyses do not identify the composition of [P2O7]4–, as the findings from SEM–EDS analysis suggest. This is likely caused by a significant fraction of P that is still in the amorphous phase, as evident for the CWS30 ash particles.

4.3. Potential Use

If the ash is to be used as a fertilizer, the whitlockite-bearing materials (C100 and CWS30) are more interesting compared to the hydroxyapatite-rich CB30, as whitlockite has previously been identified and attributed promising results in plant growth experiments. (17) P in amorphous particles might also be interesting for plant growth; it should be investigated if it is in an available form. Plant growth studies with such ash fractions should be further complemented by the studies on emissions from suitable fuel blends with manure. With such information, it would be feasible to evaluate whether the inclusion of excess manures such as CL in the bioenergy sector is both environmentally and technoeconomically sound.

5. Conclusions

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In all experiments, fuel P was only detected in the coarse ash fractions, that is, the bed ash particles, cyclone ash, and coarse PM (>1 μm); no P could be detected in the fine PM (<1 μm). SEM–EDS showed that P was mainly present in ash particles rich in K–Ca–P-rich amorphous structures (possibly as melts), for pure CL, and the blend with 30% CL in bark. For the 30% CL–WS blend, P was mainly found in a K–P–Si-rich amorphous structure, that is, potentially in a silicophosphate melt. P in crystalline compounds was identified in apatite and whitlockite for pure CL and WS blend. Bark blends produced ash with P located in apatite. From a plant availability point of view, co-combustion of CL and WS is therefore an interesting route.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Author
  • Authors
    • Katharina Fürsatz - Bioenergy2020+ GmbH, Wienerstraße 49, A-7540 Güssing, Austria;  Institute of Chemical, Environmental & Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/166, A-1060 Vienna, Austria;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-4338-5727
    • Matthias Kuba - Energy Engineering, Division of Energy Science, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden;  Bioenergy2020+ GmbH, Wienerstraße 49, A-7540 Güssing, Austria;  Thermochemical Energy Conversion Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics and Electronics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden;  Institute of Chemical, Environmental & Bioscience Engineering, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/166, A-1060 Vienna, Austria;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0003-3863-5186
    • Nils Skoglund - Thermochemical Energy Conversion Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics and Electronics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-5777-9241
    • Marcus Öhman - Energy Engineering, Division of Energy Science, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå, Sweden
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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G.H. and M.Ö. thank the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences, and Spatial Planning (FORMAS), project 942-2015-619, for the financial support. N.S. gratefully acknowledges the financial support from FORMAS Mobility grant no 2017-01613 for enabling the close collaboration with the Austrian partners. The support from the Thermochemical as well as Environment and nutrient recycling platforms within the national Swedish strategic research program Bio4Energy is gratefully acknowledged. Additionally, the Kempe Foundation is thanked for their financial support of the postdoctoral research of M.K. at Umeå University and Luleå University of Technology. This study was carried out within the Bioenergy2020+ GmbH projects N200560 and C200410. Bioenergy2020+ GmbH is funded within the Austrian COMET program, which is managed by the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) and promoted by the federal government of Austria as well as the federal states of Burgenland, Niederösterreich, and Steiermark.

References

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    The proportion of inorg. (Pi) and org. (Po) P in animal feces is affected by rearing conditions. A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of some management factors on the P status of farm animal wastes. Total (Pt), Pi, residual (Pr), acid-sol. org. (Paso), and lipid (Pl) P were detd. in freeze-dried, ground (2 mm screen) samples of fresh, uncontaminated dairy and beef (Bos taurus L.), hog (Sus scrofa domestica L.), and poultry (Gallus gallus domesticus L.) feces from com. farms collected during winter. Addnl., feces from calves (Bos taurus L.) fed cut-1 and cut-2 of 3 cultivars of reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) and 1 cultivar of timothy (Phleum pratense L.) were analyzed. Total P varied from 6.7/kg for feeder cattle feces to 29.1/kg for hog feces on a dry-matter basis. Of Pt, Pi ranged from 34.8 (broilers) to 63.2% (dairy), Pr from 11.0 (broiler) to 40.8% (finisher beef), Paso from 7.8 (dairy) to 53.4% (broilers), and Pl from 0.4 (hog) to 2.1% (feeders). Dry matter ranged from 14.3 (dairy) to 67.5% (broilers). Ruminant feces varied more in Pt, Paso, and Pl, but less in Pi and Pr than non-ruminant fecal material. Total P and Pi were closely related. Fecal Pi and Pl were higher in cut-2 hay than in cut-1 hay. Calves fed timothy forate produced feces with less Pi than those fed reed canarygrass. Some calves on cut-2 forage produced feces with lower Pi and less Pr on cut-1 material than other animals. Published values were unreliable indicators of fecal P status.
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    Grimm, A. Experimental Studies of Ash Transformation Processes in Combustion of Phosphorus-Rich Biomass Fuels; Luleå University of Technology, 2012.
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    Severin, M.; Breuer, J.; Rex, M.; Stemann, J.; Adam, C.; Van den Weghe, H.; Kücke, M. Phosphate Fertilizer Value of Heat Treated Sewage Sludge Ash. Plant Soil Environ. 2014, 60, 555– 561,  DOI: 10.17221/548/2014-pse
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    Phosphate fertilizer value of heat treated sewage sludge ash
    Severin, M.; Breuer, J.; Rex, M.; Stemann, J.; Adam, Ch.; Van den Weghe, H.; Kuecke, M.
    Plant, Soil and Environment (2014), 60 (12), 555-561CODEN: PSELB7; ISSN:1214-1178. (Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Agricultural and Food Information)
    This study focuses on the question whether heat treated sewage sludge ashes are more favorable as fertilizers than untreated sewage sludge ashes (USSA) and whether their fertilization effects are comparable with com. triple superphosphate (TSP). In a pot expt., maize was fertilized either with one of three heat treated and Na-, Ca- and Si-compds. amended sewage sludge ashes (two glown phosphates, steel mill slag + sewage sludge ash) or USSA or TSP as control. Fertilization with USSA did not increase the biomass yield and the P uptake of maize in comparison to the P0 treatment (7.25 resp. 8.35 g dry matter/pot). Fertilization with heat treated sewage sludge ashes and TSP resulted in significantly higher yields and plant P uptakes which are on av. eight times higher than treatment with USSA and P0 control. Biomass yields and P uptake of maize after fertilization with heat treated sewage sludge ashes are not significantly different from those after TSP fertilization. The main P compd. in USSA is Ca3(PO4)2. By heat treatment and amendment with different sodium, calcium, sulfur and silicon contg. additives or steel mill converter slag, Ca3(PO4)2 is converted to Ca- and Na-silico-phosphates, which have a higher water soly. than Ca3(PO4)2. This increased soly. is responsible for the high plant availability of this phosphates.
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    Krüger, O.; Adam, C. Phosphorus in Recycling Fertilizers - Analytical Challenges. Environ. Res. 2017, 155, 353– 358,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.02.034
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    Phosphorus in recycling fertilizers - analytical challenges
    Krueger, Oliver; Adam, Christian
    Environmental Research (2017), 155 (), 353-358CODEN: ENVRAL; ISSN:0013-9351. (Elsevier)
    The importance of secondary raw materials for phosphorus (P) fertilizer prodn. is expected to increase in the future due to resource depletion, supply risks, and heavy metal contamination of fossil phosphate resources. Municipal wastewater is a promising source for P recovery. In Germany for instance, it contains almost 50% of the total amt. of P that is currently applied as mineral fertilizer. Several procedures have been developed to recover and re-use P resulting in a growing no. of recycling fertilizers that are currently not regulated in terms of fertilizer efficiency. We tested various materials and matrixes for their total P content, soly. of P in neutral ammonium citrate (Pnac) and water, and performed robustness tests to check if existing anal. methods are suitable for those new materials. Digestion with inverse aqua regia was best suited to det. the total P content. Pnac sample prepn. and analyses were feasible for all matrixes. However, we found significant time and temp. dependencies, esp. for materials contg. org. matter. Furthermore, several materials didn't reach equil. during the extns. Thus, strict compliance of the test conditions is strongly recommended to achieve comparable results.
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    Uchimiya, M.; Hiradate, S.; Antal, M. J. Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Flash Carbonization, Slow Pyrolysis, and Fast Pyrolysis Biochars. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2015, 3, 1642– 1649,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00336
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    Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Flash Carbonization, Slow Pyrolysis, and Fast Pyrolysis Biochars
    Uchimiya, Minori; Hiradate, Syuntaro; Antal, Michael Jerry
    ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2015), 3 (7), 1642-1649CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
    Pyrolysis of waste biomass is a promising technol. to produce sterile and renewable org. phosphorus fertilizers. Systematic studies are necessary to understand how different pyrolysis platforms influence the chem. speciation of dissolved (bioavailable) phosphorus. This study employed soln.-phase 31P NMR analyses on slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, and flash carbonization charcoals. Dissolved P speciation of ash-rich (15-62 wt. %) biochars produced from manures, sewage sludge, and corn stover were compared with low ash (2-5 wt. %) pecan shell biochars. Each biochar was sequentially extd. to investigate the strongly complexed (by NaOH-EDTA; 250 mM NaOH+5 mM EDTA for 16 h) and acid-extractable (by acidic oxalate; 200 mM oxalate at pH 3.5 for 4 h) P fractions. In NaOH-EDTA exts., P concn. correlated (p < 0.0005) with Zn (r = 0.89), Mn (r = 0.90), and Mg (r = 0.98) concns. A strong correlation between orthophosphate and Mg (r = 0.98, p < 0.0005; n = 13) indicated the presence of Mg orthophosphate (and struvite or whitlockite) in all biochars. Only in acidic oxalate exts., P concn. correlated (p < 0.0005) with Al (r = 0.87) and Fe (r = 0.92) concns. Pyrophosphate (P2O74-) persisted (23-52% of total P in NaOH-EDTA exts.) in low-ash pecan shell 300-700 °C slow pyrolysis biochars. In contrast, ash-rich biochars were primarily (≥90%) composed of inorg. orthophosphate (PO43-), except 350 °C slow pyrolysis swine manure biochar (26% pyrophosphate) and sewage sludge-derived flash carbonization charcoal (14% pyrophosphate). Solid-state 13C cross-polarization and magic angle spinning NMR analyses of bulk aromaticity indicated partially carbonized (aliph.) nature of 350 °C swine manure biochar. Surface functional groups of swine manure and sewage sludge biochars could stabilize pyrophosphate by (i) utilizing bridging cations (Al3+, Fe3+, and Mg2+) to form stable six-membered ring complexes, and (ii) direct hydrogen bonding.
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    Abelha, P.; Gulyurtlu, I.; Boavida, D.; Barros, J. S.; Cabrita, I.; Leahy, J.; Kelleher, B.; Leahy, M. Combustion of Poultry Litter in a Fluidised Bed Combustor. Fuel 2003, 82, 687– 692,  DOI: 10.1016/s0016-2361(02)00317-4
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    Combustion of poultry litter in a fluidised bed combustor
    Abelha, P.; Gulyurtlu, I.; Boavida, D.; Seabra Barros, J.; Cabrita, I.; Leahy, J.; Kelleher, B.; Leahy, M.
    Fuel (2003), 82 (6), 687-692CODEN: FUELAC; ISSN:0016-2361. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
    Combustion studies of poultry litter alone or mixed with peat by 50% on wt. basis were undertaken in an atm. bubbling fluidized bed. Because of high moisture content of poultry litter, there was some uncertainty whether the combustion could be sustained on 100% poultry litter and as peat is very available in Ireland; its presence was considered to help to improve the combustion. However, as long as the moisture content of poultry litter was kept <25%, the combustion did not need the addn. of peat. The main parameters that were studied are (i) moisture content, (ii) air staging, and (iii) variations in excess air levels along the freeboard. The main conclusions of the results are (i) combustion was influenced very much by the conditions of the fuel supply, (ii) the steady fuel supply was strongly dependent on the moisture content of the poultry litter, (iii) temp. appeared to be still very influential in reducing the levels of unburned carbon and hydrocarbons released from residues, (iv) the air staging in the freeboard improved combustion efficiency by enhancing the combustion of volatiles released from residues in the riser and (vi) NOx emissions were influenced by air staging in the freeboard. Particles collected from the bed and the two cyclones were analyzed to det. the levels of heavy metals and the leachability tests were carried out with ashes collected to verify whether or not they could safely be used in agricultural lands.
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    Junga, R.; Knauer, W.; Niemiec, P.; Tańczuk, M. Experimental Tests of Co-Combustion of Laying Hens Manure with Coal by Using Thermogravimetric Analysis. Renewable Energy 2017, 111, 245– 255,  DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.03.099
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    Sweeten, J. M.; Annamalai, K.; Thien, B.; McDonald, L. A. Co-Firing of Coal and Cattle Feedlot Biomass (FB) Fuels. Part I. Feedlot Biomass (Cattle Manure) Fuel Quality and Characteristics. Fuel 2003, 82, 1167– 1182,  DOI: 10.1016/s0016-2361(03)00007-3
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    Co-firing of coal and cattle feedlot biomass (FB) fuels. Part I. Feedlot biomass (cattle manure) fuel quality and characteristics
    Sweeten, John M.; Annamalai, Kalyan; Thien, Ben; McDonald, Lanny A.
    Fuel (2003), 82 (10), 1167-1182CODEN: FUELAC; ISSN:0016-2361. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
    The use of cattle manure (referred to as feedlot biomass, FB) as a fuel source has the potential to solve both waste disposal problems and reduce fossil fuel based CO2 emissions. Previous attempts to utilize animal waste as a sole fuel source have met with only limited success due to the higher ash, higher moisture, and inconsistent properties of FB. Thus, a co-firing technol. is proposed where FB is ground, mixed with coal, and then fired in existing pulverized coal fired boiler burner facilities. A research program was undertaken in order to det.: (1) FB fuel characteristics, (2) combustion characteristics when fired along with coal in a small scale 30 kWt (100,000 BTU/h) boiler burner facility, and (3) combustion and fouling characteristics when fired along with coal in a large pilot scale 150 kWt (500,000 BTU/h DOE-NETL boiler burner facility). These results are reported in three parts. Part I will present a methodol. of fuel collection, fuel characteristics of the FB, its relation to ration fed, and change in fuel characteristics due to composting. FB has approx. half the heating value of coal, twice the volatile matter of coal, four times the N content of coal on heat basis, and due to soil contamination during collection, the ash content is almost 9-10 times that of low ash (5%) coal. The addn. of <5% crop residues had little apparent effect on heating value. The main value of composting for combustion fuel would be to improve phys. properties and to provide homogeneity. The energy potential of FB diminished with composting time and storage; however, the DAF HHV is almost const. for ration, FB-raw, partially composted and finished composted. The fuel N per GJ is considerably high compared to coal, which may result in increased NOx emissions. The N and S contents per GJ increase with composting of FB while the volatile ash oxide% decreases with composting. Based on heating values and alk. oxides, partial composting seems preferable to a full composting cycle. Even though the percentage of alk. oxides is reduced in the ash, the increased total ash percentage results in an increase of total alk. oxides per unit mass of fuel. The adiabatic flame temp. for most of the biomass fuels can be empirically correlated with ash and moisture percentage.
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    Uchimiya, M.; Hiradate, S. Pyrolysis Temperature-Dependent Changes in Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Plant and Manure Biochars. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 1802– 1809,  DOI: 10.1021/jf4053385
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    Pyrolysis Temperature-Dependent Changes in Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Plant and Manure Biochars
    Uchimiya, Minori; Hiradate, Syuntaro
    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2014), 62 (8), 1802-1809CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)
    Pyrolysis of plant and animal wastes produces a complex mixt. of phosphorus species in amorphous, semicryst., and cryst. inorg. phases, org. (char) components, and within organo-mineral complexes. To understand the soly. of different phosphorus species, plant (cottonseed hull) and manure (broiler litter) wastes were pyrolyzed at 350, 500, 650, and 800 °C and exposed to increasingly more rigorous extn. procedures: water (16 h), Mehlich 3 (1 mM EDTA at pH 2.5 for 5 min), oxalate (200 mM oxalate at pH 3.5 for 4 h), NaOH-EDTA (250 mM NaOH + 5 mM EDTA for 16 h), and total by microwave digestion (concd. HNO3/HCl + 30% H2O2). Relative to the total (microwave digestible) P, the percentage of extractable P increased in the following order: M3 < oxalate ≈ water < NaOH-EDTA for plant biochars and water < M3 < NaOH-EDTA < oxalate for manure biochars. Soln. phase 31P NMR anal. of NaOH-EDTA exts. showed the conversion of phytate to inorg. P by pyrolysis of manure and plant wastes at 350 °C. Inorg. orthophosphate (PO43-) became the sole species of ≥500 °C manure biochars, whereas pyrophosphate (P2O74-) persisted in plant biochars up to 650 °C. These observations suggested the predominance of (i) amorphous (rather than cryst.) calcium phosphate in manure biochars, esp. at ≥650 °C, and (ii) strongly complexed pyrophosphate in plant biochars (esp. at 350-500 °C). Correlation (Pearson's) was obsd. (i) between elec. cond. and ash content of biochars with the amt. of inorg. P species and (ii) between total org. carbon and volatile matter contents with the org. P species.
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    Huang, Y.; Dong, H.; Shang, B.; Xin, H.; Zhu, Z. Characterization of Animal Manure and Cornstalk Ashes as Affected by Incineration Temperature. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 947– 952,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.08.011
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    Characterization of animal manure and cornstalk ashes as affected by incineration temperature
    Huang, Y.; Dong, H.; Shang, B.; Xin, H.; Zhu, Z.
    Applied Energy (2011), 88 (3), 947-952CODEN: APENDX; ISSN:0306-2619. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Incineration has been proposed as an alternative technol. to reuse animal manure by producing energy and ash fertilizers. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of incineration temp. on the phys. (ash yield) and chem. (nutrient) properties of ashes for different types of animal manure and cornstalk. The source materials were incinerated in a temp.-controlled muffle furnace at the temp. of 400, 500, 600, 700, 800 or 900 °C and the properties of the resultant ashes were detd. following the procedures set by China National Stds. The results indicated that ash yield (AY, %), total nitrogen (TN) recovery and total potassium (K2O) recovery all decreased with increasing incineration temp. The ranges of AY, ash TN and K2O recovery were, resp., 43.6-30.2%, 6.9-0.6%, and 80-61% for laying-hen manure; 34.3-32.1%, 18.8-15.4%, and 95-56% for cattle manure; 25.3-20.7%, 14-0%, and 78-57% for swine manure; and 8.4-7.5%, 2.1-1.4%, and 37-19% for cornstalk. However, total phosphorus (P2O5) content of the ashes increased with incineration temp., being 20.7-24.0% for swine manure, 4.5-7.5% for layer manure, and 2.7-3.4% for cornstalk. Animal manures have greater TN and P2O5 volatilization but less K2O and total sodium (Na2O) volatilization as compared to the cornstalk. The results provide a basis for incineration as an alternative means to reuse animal manures and cornstalk and suitability of the resultant ash co-product for different applications.
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    Öhman, M.; Nordin, A. A New Method for Quantification of Fluidized Bed Agglomeration Tendencies: A Sensitivity Analysis. Energy Fuels 1998, 12, 90,  DOI: 10.1021/ef970049z
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    Degen, T.; Sadki, M.; Bron, E.; König, U.; Nénert, G. The HighScore Suite. Powder Diffr. 2014, 29, S13,  DOI: 10.1017/s0885715614000840
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    The HighScore suite
    Degen, Thomas; Sadki, Mustapha; Bron, Egbert; Koenig, Uwe; Nenert, Gwilherm
    Powder Diffraction (2014), 29 (S2), S13-S18CODEN: PODIE2; ISSN:0885-7156. (Cambridge University Press)
    HighScore with the Plus option (HighScore Plus) is the com. powder diffraction anal. software from PAnal. It has been in const. development over the last 13 years and has evolved into a very complete and mature product. In this paper, we present a brief overview of the suite focusing on the latest addns. and its user-friendliness. The introduction briefly touches some basic ideas behind HighScore and the Plus option.
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    International Centre for Diffraction Data. PDF-4+ 2019 (Database), Newtown Square, PA, USA, 2019.
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    O’Connor, B. H.; Raven, M. D. Application of the Rietveld Refinement Procedure in Assaying Powdered Mixtures. Powder Diffr. 1988, 3, 2– 6,  DOI: 10.1017/s0885715600013026
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    Application of the Rietveld refinement procedure in assaying powdered mixtures
    O'Connor, Brian H.; Raven, Mark D.
    Powder Diffraction (1988), 3 (1), 2-6CODEN: PODIE2; ISSN:0885-7156.
    Results are given of an assessment of an x-ray powder diffraction pattern fitting structure refinement technique (H. M. Rietveld, 1967, 1969) for assaying powd. mixts. as an alternative to conventional discrete peak empirical methods of the type described by H. P. Klug and L. E. Alexander (1974) and F. H. Chung (1974). The values obtained for a mixt. of corundum and α-quartz, following calibration of the instrument with a profile of the former, indicate that this technique has excellent potentials as an anal. tool.
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    Wagner, K.; Häggström, G.; Skoglund, N.; Priscak, J.; Kuba, M.; Öhman, M.; Hofbauer, H. Layer Formation Mechanism of K-Feldspar in Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion of Phosphorus-Lean and Phosphorus-Rich Residual Biomass. Appl. Energy 2019, 248, 545,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.04.112
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    Layer formation mechanism of K-feldspar in bubbling fluidized bed combustion of phosphorus-lean and phosphorus-rich residual biomass
    Wagner, Katharina; Haeggstroem, Gustav; Skoglund, Nils; Priscak, Juraj; Kuba, Matthias; Oehman, Marcus; Hofbauer, Hermann
    Applied Energy (2019), 248 (), 545-554CODEN: APENDX; ISSN:0306-2619. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    The use of phosphorus-rich fuels in fluidized bed combustion is one probable way to support both heat and power prodn. and phosphorus recovery. Ash is accumulated in the bed during combustion and interacts with the bed material to form layers and/or agglomerates, possibly removing phosphorus from the bed ash fraction. To further deepen the knowledge about the difference in the mechanisms behind the ash chem. of phosphorus-lean and phosphorus-rich fuels, expts. in a 5 kW bench-scale-fluidized bed test-rig with K-feldspar as the bed material were conducted with bark, wheat straw, chicken manure, and chicken manure admixts. to bark and straw. Bed material samples were collected and studied for layer formation and agglomeration phenomena by SEM combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The admixt. of phosphorus-rich chicken manure to bark changed the layer formation mechanism, shifting the chem. to the formation of phosphates rather than silicates. The admixt. of chicken manure to straw reduced the ash melting and agglomeration risk, making it possible to increase the time until defluidization of the fluidized bed occurred. The results also highlight that an increased ash content does not necessarily lead to more ash melting related problems if the ash melting temp. is high enough.
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    De Geyter, S.; Öhman, M.; Boström, D.; Eriksson, M.; Nordin, A. Effects of Non-Quartz Minerals in Natural Bed Sand on Agglomeration Characteristics during Fluidized Bed Combustion of Biomass Fuels. Energy Fuels 2007, 21, 2663,  DOI: 10.1021/ef070162h
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    Effects of Non-Quartz Minerals in Natural Bed Sand on Agglomeration Characteristics during Fluidized Bed Combustion of Biomass Fuels
    De Geyter, Sigrid; Oehman, Marcus; Bostroem, Dan; Eriksson, Morgan; Nordin, Anders
    Energy & Fuels (2007), 21 (5), 2663-2668CODEN: ENFUEM; ISSN:0887-0624. (American Chemical Society)
    Most of the previous literature on fluidized bed agglomeration during biomass combustion is based on quartz as a bed material. Full-scale installations however often use natural sand, which apart from quartz may contain a high fraction of non-quartz minerals such as potassium feldspar and plagioclase. The objective of the present study was therefore to elucidate the effects of non-quartz minerals occurring in natural sand on the agglomeration behavior during fluidized bed combustion of biomass fuels. Three fuels typical for previously detd. agglomeration mechanisms were chosen as model fuels: calcium-rich bark, potassium-rich olive residues, and silica- and potassium-rich wheat straw. Two different feldspar minerals were used: a potassium feldspar and a plagioclase, labradorite, which both occur in many com. bed materials. Also, olivine was used as a bed material as this mineral represents another type of bed material used in some full-scale installations. Quartz was used as a ref. bed material. The effects of non-quartz minerals in natural sand on initial defluidization temp. were assessed during carefully controlled, bench-scale fluidized bed agglomeration expts. Bed material samples and agglomerates were analyzed using SEM/energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) to explore the occurrence and chem. compn. of coating and attack layers on the bed particles and necks between agglomerated particles. Significant differences in agglomeration characteristics were found for the different minerals when bark and olive residue were combusted. Potassium-feldspar was shown to lower the initial defluidization temp. for combustion of bark and olive residues. Plagioclase and olivine however, increase the initial defluidization temp. as compared to quartz for the combustion of olive residue, but for bark combustion, they did not differ significantly from quartz. During combustion of wheat straw, all bed materials agglomerated shortly after the startup of the expt. For bark and olive residue samples, attack layers were found on all bed materials and the compn. of the inner attack layer and agglomerate necks differed significantly with the fuel/bed material combination. For wheat straw however, no continuous attack layers were found, and the bed material compn. was concluded not to influence the agglomeration characteristics for this biomass. The results were used to suggest possible mechanisms involved in layer formation for the different minerals.
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    Wagner, K.; Häggström, G.; Mauerhofer, A. M.; Kuba, M.; Skoglund, N.; Öhman, M.; Hofbauer, H. Layer Formation on K-Feldspar in Fluidized Bed Combustion and Gasification of Bark and Chicken Manure. Biomass Bioenergy 2019, 127, 105251,  DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2019.05.020
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    Layer formation on K-feldspar in fluidized bed combustion and gasification of bark and chicken manure
    Wagner, Katharina; Haeggstroem, Gustav; Mauerhofer, Anna Magdalena; Kuba, Matthias; Skoglund, Nils; Oehman, Marcus; Hofbauer, Hermann
    Biomass and Bioenergy (2019), 127 (), 105251CODEN: BMSBEO; ISSN:0961-9534. (Elsevier Ltd.)
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  • Figure 1

    Figure 1. Ternary composition diagram for alkali, alkali earth, and P components (as mass fraction, given in %). Fuels in this study and manure compositions from the Phyllis2 database are added to the diagram. (5) The reaction pathway of P adapted from the study of Skoglund (19) is highlighted: red indicates a gas–gas reaction, yellow a liquid–solid reaction, and blue a solid–solid reaction under combustion conditions.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Schematic view of the experimental setup. Sampling points, fuel inlet, and other streams are indicated.. Adapted from Skoglund. (13)

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Average elemental composition (with ±SD in error bars) of major ash-forming elements for the bulk ash fractions and typical particles on a C- and O-free basis. Top: C100; Middle: CB30; Bottom: CWS30.

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    Figure 4

    Figure 4. SEM backscatter images of typical bed ash particles in C100 [(a), top left], CB30 [(b), top right], and CWS30 [(c), bottom left] and zoom-in of the characteristics of typical molten areas found in bed samples from CWS30 [(d), bottom right]. Ca-rich particles can be seen in all cases. The rounded Ca–K–P–Mg–S-rich particles are highlighted in C100 and CB30. K–Ca–Si–P-rich particles/areas are highlighted for CWS30.

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  • References

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      Hupa, Mikko
      Energy & Fuels (2012), 26 (1), 4-14CODEN: ENFUEM; ISSN:0887-0624. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. Finland and Sweden are leaders in the use of biomass fuels in large-scale boilers. In these countries, the dominating large-scale combustion technol. for biomass fuels is fluidized-bed combustion (FBC). Biomass fuels differ in many ways from the std. fossil fuels used in FBC, such as coal. They often have high moisture contents, lower heating values, and a variety of impurities, such as chlorine, sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and a variety of ash-forming metals. FBC of biomass fuels is often connected with operational challenges, which are related to the fuel chem. and fuel properties. Bed sintering, superheater fouling, and high-temp. corrosion are crucial factors to take into account when fuels are selected for FBC. It is of vital interest to find ways of predicting the degree of these kinds of ash-related problems for various fuels or fuel mixts. This paper reviews some of the recent progress in our understanding of the fate and behavior of ash-forming matter in FBC. The following topic areas are discussed: fuel characterization, release of the ash-forming matter during combustion, interaction of the ash and bed material, fly ash formation, fly ash properties, ash deposits, and fouling and corrosion.
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    12. 12
      Grimm, A.; Skoglund, N.; Boström, D.; Öhman, M. Bed Agglomeration Characteristics in Fluidized Quartz Bed Combustion of Phosphorus-Rich Biomass Fuels. Energy Fuels 2011, 25, 937– 947,  DOI: 10.1021/ef101451e
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      12
      Bed Agglomeration Characteristics in Fluidized Quartz Bed Combustion of Phosphorus-Rich Biomass Fuels
      Grimm, Alejandro; Skoglund, Nils; Bostrom, Dan; Ohman, Marcus
      Energy & Fuels (2011), 25 (3), 937-947CODEN: ENFUEM; ISSN:0887-0624. (American Chemical Society)
      The bed agglomeration characteristics during combustion of phosphorus-rich biomass fuels and fuel mixts. were detd. in a fluidized (quartz) bed reactor (5 kW). The fuels studied (sep. and in mixts.) included logging residues, bark, willow, wheat straw, and phosphorus-rich fuels, like rapeseed meal (RM) and wheat distillers dried grain with solubles (DDGS). Phosphoric acid was used as a fuel additive. Bed material samples and agglomerates were studied by means of SEM in combination with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), in order to analyze the morphol. and compositional changes of coating/reaction layers and necks between agglomerated bed particles. Furthermore, bed ash particles were sepd. by sieving from the bed material samples and analyzed with SEM/EDS and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). For logging residues, bark, and willow, with fuel ash rich in Ca and K but with low contents of P and organically bound Si, the bed layer formation is initiated by reactions of gaseous or liq. K compds. with the surface of the bed material grains, resulting in the formation of a potassium silicate melt. The last process is accompanied by the diffusion/dissolving of Ca into the melt and consequent viscous flow sintering and agglomeration. The addn. of high enough phosphorus content to convert the available fuel ash basic oxides into phosphates reduced the amt. of K available for the reaction with the quartz bed material grains, thus preventing the formation of an inner bed particle layer in the combustion of logging residues, bark, and willow. Some of the phosphate-rich ash particles, formed during the fuel conversion, adhered and reacted with the bed material grains to form noncontinuous phosphate-silicate coating layers, which were found responsible for the agglomeration process. Adding phosphorus-rich fuels/additives to fuels rich in K and Si (e.g., wheat straw) leads to the formation of alkali-rich phosphate-silicate ash particles that also adhered to the bed particles and caused agglomeration. The melting behavior of the bed particle layers/coatings formed during combustion of phosphorus-rich fuels and fuel mixts. is an important controlling factor behind the agglomeration tendency of the fuel and is heavily dependent on the content of alk. earth metals in the fuel. A general observation is that phosphorus is the controlling element in ash transformation reactions during biomass combustion in fluidized quartz beds because of the high stability of phosphate compds.
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    13. 13
      Skoglund, N.; Grimm, A.; Öhman, M.; Boström, D. Effects on Ash Chemistry When Co-Firing Municipal Sewage Sludge and Wheat Straw in a Fluidized Bed: Influence on the Ash Chemistry by Fuel Mixing. Energy Fuels 2013, 27, 5725– 5732,  DOI: 10.1021/ef401197q
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      13
      Effects on Ash Chemistry when Co-firing Municipal Sewage Sludge and Wheat Straw in a Fluidized Bed: Influence on the Ash Chemistry by Fuel Mixing
      Skoglund, Nils; Grimm, Alejandro; Oehman, Marcus; Bostroem, Dan
      Energy & Fuels (2013), 27 (10), 5725-5732CODEN: ENFUEM; ISSN:0887-0624. (American Chemical Society)
      Municipal sewage sludge (MSS) is of interest for co-combustion with problematic fuels, such as agricultural residues, because of its high content of inorg. elements, which may improve combustion properties of such problematic fuels. Ash transformation when co-combusting MSS with the agricultural residue wheat straw was examd. using a bench-scale bubbling fluidized bed (5 kW). Wheat straw pellets were combusted with MSS in both a co-pelletized form and co-firing of sep. fuel particles. This was performed to examine whether there is any advantage to either approach of introducing MSS together with a problematic fuel. Co-combusting wheat straw with MSS changed the bed agglomeration characteristics from being caused by the formation of low-temp. melting potassium silicates in the fuel ash to being caused by a higher temp. melting bed ash. This shift in ash chem. had a significant pos. effect on the initial defluidization temp. The cyclone ash and fine particulate matter changed from being dominated by alkali in general and alkali chlorides in specific to an increased phosphate and sulfate formation, which reduces the risk of alkali-related fouling and corrosion. The influence of aluminosilicates may also play a role in the improvement of fuel ash behavior.
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    14. 14
      Searle, S. Y.; Malins, C. J. Waste and Residue Availability for Advanced Biofuel Production in EU Member States. Biomass Bioenergy 2016, 89, 2,  DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2016.01.008
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      Taiz, L.; Zeiger, E. Plant Physiology, 5th ed.; Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2010.
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      Correll, D. L. The Role of Phosphorus in the Eutrophication of Receiving Waters: A Review. J. Environ. Qual. 1998, 27, 261– 266,  DOI: 10.2134/jeq1998.00472425002700020004x
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      The role of phosphorus in the eutrophication of receiving waters: a review
      Correll, David L.
      Journal of Environmental Quality (1998), 27 (2), 261-266CODEN: JEVQAA; ISSN:0047-2425. (American Society of Agronomy)
      A review, with many refs., is given. P is an essential element for all life forms. It is a mineral nutrient. Orthophosphate is the only form of P that autotrophs can assimilate. Extracellular enzymes hydrolyze org. forms of P to phosphate. Eutrophication is the overenrichment of receiving waters with mineral nutrients. The results are excessive prodn. of autotrophs, esp. algae and cyanobacteria. This high productivity leads to high bacterial populations and high respiration rates, leading to hypoxia or anoxia in poorly mixed bottom waters and at night in surface waters during calm, warm conditions. Low dissolved O causes the loss of aquatic animals and release of many materials normally bound to bottom sediments including various forms of P. This release of P reinforces the eutrophication. Excessive concns. of P is the most common cause of eutrophication in freshwater lakes, reservoirs, streams, and headwaters of estuarine systems. In the ocean, N becomes the key mineral nutrient controlling primary prodn. Estuaries and continental shelf waters are a transition zone, where excessive P and N create problems. It is best to measure and regulate total P inputs to whole aquatic ecosystems, but for an easy assay it is best to measure total P concns., including particulate P, in surface waters or N/P at. ratios in phytoplankton.
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    17. 17
      Kumpiene, J.; Brännvall, E.; Wolters, M.; Skoglund, N.; Čirba, S.; Aksamitauskas, V. Č. Phosphorus and Cadmium Availability in Soil Fertilized with Biosolids and Ashes. Chemosphere 2016, 151, 124– 132,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.02.069
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      Phosphorus and cadmium availability in soil fertilized with biosolids and ashes
      Kumpiene, Jurate; Braennvall, Evelina; Wolters, Martin; Skoglund, Nils; Cirba, Stasys; Aksamitauskas, Vladislovas Ceslovas
      Chemosphere (2016), 151 (), 124-132CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The recycling of hygienized municipal sewage sludge (biosolids) to soil as the source of phosphorus (P) is generally encouraged. The use of biosolids, however, has some concerns, such as the presence of elevated concns. of potentially toxic trace elements, and the possible presence of pathogens, hormones and antibiotics. Org. substances are destroyed during combustion whereas trace elements could partly be sepd. from P in different ash fractions. Biomass combustion waste can instead be considered as an alternative P source. This study evaluates and compares the impact of biosolids and their combustion residues, when used as fertilizers, on P and Cd soly. in soil, plant growth and plant uptake of these elements. Biosolids were also amended with K and Ca to improve the compn. and properties of P in ashes, and incinerated at either 800°C or 950°C. Combustion of biosolids improved the Cd/P ratio in ashes by 2-5 times, compared with the initial biosolids. The low Cd content in ashes (4-9 mg Cd (kg P)-1) makes this material a particularly attractive alternative to mineral fertilizers. Significantly higher pore water P was measured in soils contg. biosolids, but plants produced a higher biomass in soil fertilized with ashes. The K and Ca amendments prior to biosolids combustion generally decreased the total Cd in ash, but had little effect on P and Cd uptake and biomass growth. Similarly, the combustion temp. had negligible effect on these factors as well.
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      Boström, D.; Skoglund, N.; Grimm, A.; Boman, C.; Öhman, M.; Broström, M.; Backman, R. Ash Transformation Chemistry during Combustion of Biomass. Energy Fuels 2012, 26, 85– 93,  DOI: 10.1021/ef201205b
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      Skoglund, N. Ash Chemistry and Fuel Design Focusing on Combustion of Phosphorus-Rich Biomass; Umeå University, 2014.
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      Barnett, G. M. Phosphorus Forms in Animal Manure. Bioresour. Technol. 1994, 49, 139– 147,  DOI: 10.1016/0960-8524(94)90077-9
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      Phosphorus forms in animal manure
      Barnett, G. M.
      Bioresource Technology (1994), 49 (2), 139-47CODEN: BIRTEB; ISSN:0960-8524. (Elsevier)
      The proportion of inorg. (Pi) and org. (Po) P in animal feces is affected by rearing conditions. A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of some management factors on the P status of farm animal wastes. Total (Pt), Pi, residual (Pr), acid-sol. org. (Paso), and lipid (Pl) P were detd. in freeze-dried, ground (2 mm screen) samples of fresh, uncontaminated dairy and beef (Bos taurus L.), hog (Sus scrofa domestica L.), and poultry (Gallus gallus domesticus L.) feces from com. farms collected during winter. Addnl., feces from calves (Bos taurus L.) fed cut-1 and cut-2 of 3 cultivars of reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) and 1 cultivar of timothy (Phleum pratense L.) were analyzed. Total P varied from 6.7/kg for feeder cattle feces to 29.1/kg for hog feces on a dry-matter basis. Of Pt, Pi ranged from 34.8 (broilers) to 63.2% (dairy), Pr from 11.0 (broiler) to 40.8% (finisher beef), Paso from 7.8 (dairy) to 53.4% (broilers), and Pl from 0.4 (hog) to 2.1% (feeders). Dry matter ranged from 14.3 (dairy) to 67.5% (broilers). Ruminant feces varied more in Pt, Paso, and Pl, but less in Pi and Pr than non-ruminant fecal material. Total P and Pi were closely related. Fecal Pi and Pl were higher in cut-2 hay than in cut-1 hay. Calves fed timothy forate produced feces with less Pi than those fed reed canarygrass. Some calves on cut-2 forage produced feces with lower Pi and less Pr on cut-1 material than other animals. Published values were unreliable indicators of fecal P status.
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      Grimm, A. Experimental Studies of Ash Transformation Processes in Combustion of Phosphorus-Rich Biomass Fuels; Luleå University of Technology, 2012.
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    22. 22
      Severin, M.; Breuer, J.; Rex, M.; Stemann, J.; Adam, C.; Van den Weghe, H.; Kücke, M. Phosphate Fertilizer Value of Heat Treated Sewage Sludge Ash. Plant Soil Environ. 2014, 60, 555– 561,  DOI: 10.17221/548/2014-pse
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      Phosphate fertilizer value of heat treated sewage sludge ash
      Severin, M.; Breuer, J.; Rex, M.; Stemann, J.; Adam, Ch.; Van den Weghe, H.; Kuecke, M.
      Plant, Soil and Environment (2014), 60 (12), 555-561CODEN: PSELB7; ISSN:1214-1178. (Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Agricultural and Food Information)
      This study focuses on the question whether heat treated sewage sludge ashes are more favorable as fertilizers than untreated sewage sludge ashes (USSA) and whether their fertilization effects are comparable with com. triple superphosphate (TSP). In a pot expt., maize was fertilized either with one of three heat treated and Na-, Ca- and Si-compds. amended sewage sludge ashes (two glown phosphates, steel mill slag + sewage sludge ash) or USSA or TSP as control. Fertilization with USSA did not increase the biomass yield and the P uptake of maize in comparison to the P0 treatment (7.25 resp. 8.35 g dry matter/pot). Fertilization with heat treated sewage sludge ashes and TSP resulted in significantly higher yields and plant P uptakes which are on av. eight times higher than treatment with USSA and P0 control. Biomass yields and P uptake of maize after fertilization with heat treated sewage sludge ashes are not significantly different from those after TSP fertilization. The main P compd. in USSA is Ca3(PO4)2. By heat treatment and amendment with different sodium, calcium, sulfur and silicon contg. additives or steel mill converter slag, Ca3(PO4)2 is converted to Ca- and Na-silico-phosphates, which have a higher water soly. than Ca3(PO4)2. This increased soly. is responsible for the high plant availability of this phosphates.
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    23. 23
      Krüger, O.; Adam, C. Phosphorus in Recycling Fertilizers - Analytical Challenges. Environ. Res. 2017, 155, 353– 358,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.02.034
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      23
      Phosphorus in recycling fertilizers - analytical challenges
      Krueger, Oliver; Adam, Christian
      Environmental Research (2017), 155 (), 353-358CODEN: ENVRAL; ISSN:0013-9351. (Elsevier)
      The importance of secondary raw materials for phosphorus (P) fertilizer prodn. is expected to increase in the future due to resource depletion, supply risks, and heavy metal contamination of fossil phosphate resources. Municipal wastewater is a promising source for P recovery. In Germany for instance, it contains almost 50% of the total amt. of P that is currently applied as mineral fertilizer. Several procedures have been developed to recover and re-use P resulting in a growing no. of recycling fertilizers that are currently not regulated in terms of fertilizer efficiency. We tested various materials and matrixes for their total P content, soly. of P in neutral ammonium citrate (Pnac) and water, and performed robustness tests to check if existing anal. methods are suitable for those new materials. Digestion with inverse aqua regia was best suited to det. the total P content. Pnac sample prepn. and analyses were feasible for all matrixes. However, we found significant time and temp. dependencies, esp. for materials contg. org. matter. Furthermore, several materials didn't reach equil. during the extns. Thus, strict compliance of the test conditions is strongly recommended to achieve comparable results.
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    24. 24
      Uchimiya, M.; Hiradate, S.; Antal, M. J. Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Flash Carbonization, Slow Pyrolysis, and Fast Pyrolysis Biochars. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2015, 3, 1642– 1649,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00336
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      24
      Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Flash Carbonization, Slow Pyrolysis, and Fast Pyrolysis Biochars
      Uchimiya, Minori; Hiradate, Syuntaro; Antal, Michael Jerry
      ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2015), 3 (7), 1642-1649CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
      Pyrolysis of waste biomass is a promising technol. to produce sterile and renewable org. phosphorus fertilizers. Systematic studies are necessary to understand how different pyrolysis platforms influence the chem. speciation of dissolved (bioavailable) phosphorus. This study employed soln.-phase 31P NMR analyses on slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, and flash carbonization charcoals. Dissolved P speciation of ash-rich (15-62 wt. %) biochars produced from manures, sewage sludge, and corn stover were compared with low ash (2-5 wt. %) pecan shell biochars. Each biochar was sequentially extd. to investigate the strongly complexed (by NaOH-EDTA; 250 mM NaOH+5 mM EDTA for 16 h) and acid-extractable (by acidic oxalate; 200 mM oxalate at pH 3.5 for 4 h) P fractions. In NaOH-EDTA exts., P concn. correlated (p < 0.0005) with Zn (r = 0.89), Mn (r = 0.90), and Mg (r = 0.98) concns. A strong correlation between orthophosphate and Mg (r = 0.98, p < 0.0005; n = 13) indicated the presence of Mg orthophosphate (and struvite or whitlockite) in all biochars. Only in acidic oxalate exts., P concn. correlated (p < 0.0005) with Al (r = 0.87) and Fe (r = 0.92) concns. Pyrophosphate (P2O74-) persisted (23-52% of total P in NaOH-EDTA exts.) in low-ash pecan shell 300-700 °C slow pyrolysis biochars. In contrast, ash-rich biochars were primarily (≥90%) composed of inorg. orthophosphate (PO43-), except 350 °C slow pyrolysis swine manure biochar (26% pyrophosphate) and sewage sludge-derived flash carbonization charcoal (14% pyrophosphate). Solid-state 13C cross-polarization and magic angle spinning NMR analyses of bulk aromaticity indicated partially carbonized (aliph.) nature of 350 °C swine manure biochar. Surface functional groups of swine manure and sewage sludge biochars could stabilize pyrophosphate by (i) utilizing bridging cations (Al3+, Fe3+, and Mg2+) to form stable six-membered ring complexes, and (ii) direct hydrogen bonding.
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    25. 25
      Abelha, P.; Gulyurtlu, I.; Boavida, D.; Barros, J. S.; Cabrita, I.; Leahy, J.; Kelleher, B.; Leahy, M. Combustion of Poultry Litter in a Fluidised Bed Combustor. Fuel 2003, 82, 687– 692,  DOI: 10.1016/s0016-2361(02)00317-4
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      25
      Combustion of poultry litter in a fluidised bed combustor
      Abelha, P.; Gulyurtlu, I.; Boavida, D.; Seabra Barros, J.; Cabrita, I.; Leahy, J.; Kelleher, B.; Leahy, M.
      Fuel (2003), 82 (6), 687-692CODEN: FUELAC; ISSN:0016-2361. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
      Combustion studies of poultry litter alone or mixed with peat by 50% on wt. basis were undertaken in an atm. bubbling fluidized bed. Because of high moisture content of poultry litter, there was some uncertainty whether the combustion could be sustained on 100% poultry litter and as peat is very available in Ireland; its presence was considered to help to improve the combustion. However, as long as the moisture content of poultry litter was kept <25%, the combustion did not need the addn. of peat. The main parameters that were studied are (i) moisture content, (ii) air staging, and (iii) variations in excess air levels along the freeboard. The main conclusions of the results are (i) combustion was influenced very much by the conditions of the fuel supply, (ii) the steady fuel supply was strongly dependent on the moisture content of the poultry litter, (iii) temp. appeared to be still very influential in reducing the levels of unburned carbon and hydrocarbons released from residues, (iv) the air staging in the freeboard improved combustion efficiency by enhancing the combustion of volatiles released from residues in the riser and (vi) NOx emissions were influenced by air staging in the freeboard. Particles collected from the bed and the two cyclones were analyzed to det. the levels of heavy metals and the leachability tests were carried out with ashes collected to verify whether or not they could safely be used in agricultural lands.
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      Junga, R.; Knauer, W.; Niemiec, P.; Tańczuk, M. Experimental Tests of Co-Combustion of Laying Hens Manure with Coal by Using Thermogravimetric Analysis. Renewable Energy 2017, 111, 245– 255,  DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.03.099
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    27. 27
      Sweeten, J. M.; Annamalai, K.; Thien, B.; McDonald, L. A. Co-Firing of Coal and Cattle Feedlot Biomass (FB) Fuels. Part I. Feedlot Biomass (Cattle Manure) Fuel Quality and Characteristics. Fuel 2003, 82, 1167– 1182,  DOI: 10.1016/s0016-2361(03)00007-3
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      27
      Co-firing of coal and cattle feedlot biomass (FB) fuels. Part I. Feedlot biomass (cattle manure) fuel quality and characteristics
      Sweeten, John M.; Annamalai, Kalyan; Thien, Ben; McDonald, Lanny A.
      Fuel (2003), 82 (10), 1167-1182CODEN: FUELAC; ISSN:0016-2361. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
      The use of cattle manure (referred to as feedlot biomass, FB) as a fuel source has the potential to solve both waste disposal problems and reduce fossil fuel based CO2 emissions. Previous attempts to utilize animal waste as a sole fuel source have met with only limited success due to the higher ash, higher moisture, and inconsistent properties of FB. Thus, a co-firing technol. is proposed where FB is ground, mixed with coal, and then fired in existing pulverized coal fired boiler burner facilities. A research program was undertaken in order to det.: (1) FB fuel characteristics, (2) combustion characteristics when fired along with coal in a small scale 30 kWt (100,000 BTU/h) boiler burner facility, and (3) combustion and fouling characteristics when fired along with coal in a large pilot scale 150 kWt (500,000 BTU/h DOE-NETL boiler burner facility). These results are reported in three parts. Part I will present a methodol. of fuel collection, fuel characteristics of the FB, its relation to ration fed, and change in fuel characteristics due to composting. FB has approx. half the heating value of coal, twice the volatile matter of coal, four times the N content of coal on heat basis, and due to soil contamination during collection, the ash content is almost 9-10 times that of low ash (5%) coal. The addn. of <5% crop residues had little apparent effect on heating value. The main value of composting for combustion fuel would be to improve phys. properties and to provide homogeneity. The energy potential of FB diminished with composting time and storage; however, the DAF HHV is almost const. for ration, FB-raw, partially composted and finished composted. The fuel N per GJ is considerably high compared to coal, which may result in increased NOx emissions. The N and S contents per GJ increase with composting of FB while the volatile ash oxide% decreases with composting. Based on heating values and alk. oxides, partial composting seems preferable to a full composting cycle. Even though the percentage of alk. oxides is reduced in the ash, the increased total ash percentage results in an increase of total alk. oxides per unit mass of fuel. The adiabatic flame temp. for most of the biomass fuels can be empirically correlated with ash and moisture percentage.
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    28. 28
      Uchimiya, M.; Hiradate, S. Pyrolysis Temperature-Dependent Changes in Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Plant and Manure Biochars. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 1802– 1809,  DOI: 10.1021/jf4053385
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      28
      Pyrolysis Temperature-Dependent Changes in Dissolved Phosphorus Speciation of Plant and Manure Biochars
      Uchimiya, Minori; Hiradate, Syuntaro
      Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2014), 62 (8), 1802-1809CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)
      Pyrolysis of plant and animal wastes produces a complex mixt. of phosphorus species in amorphous, semicryst., and cryst. inorg. phases, org. (char) components, and within organo-mineral complexes. To understand the soly. of different phosphorus species, plant (cottonseed hull) and manure (broiler litter) wastes were pyrolyzed at 350, 500, 650, and 800 °C and exposed to increasingly more rigorous extn. procedures: water (16 h), Mehlich 3 (1 mM EDTA at pH 2.5 for 5 min), oxalate (200 mM oxalate at pH 3.5 for 4 h), NaOH-EDTA (250 mM NaOH + 5 mM EDTA for 16 h), and total by microwave digestion (concd. HNO3/HCl + 30% H2O2). Relative to the total (microwave digestible) P, the percentage of extractable P increased in the following order: M3 < oxalate ≈ water < NaOH-EDTA for plant biochars and water < M3 < NaOH-EDTA < oxalate for manure biochars. Soln. phase 31P NMR anal. of NaOH-EDTA exts. showed the conversion of phytate to inorg. P by pyrolysis of manure and plant wastes at 350 °C. Inorg. orthophosphate (PO43-) became the sole species of ≥500 °C manure biochars, whereas pyrophosphate (P2O74-) persisted in plant biochars up to 650 °C. These observations suggested the predominance of (i) amorphous (rather than cryst.) calcium phosphate in manure biochars, esp. at ≥650 °C, and (ii) strongly complexed pyrophosphate in plant biochars (esp. at 350-500 °C). Correlation (Pearson's) was obsd. (i) between elec. cond. and ash content of biochars with the amt. of inorg. P species and (ii) between total org. carbon and volatile matter contents with the org. P species.
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    29. 29
      Huang, Y.; Dong, H.; Shang, B.; Xin, H.; Zhu, Z. Characterization of Animal Manure and Cornstalk Ashes as Affected by Incineration Temperature. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 947– 952,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.08.011
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      29
      Characterization of animal manure and cornstalk ashes as affected by incineration temperature
      Huang, Y.; Dong, H.; Shang, B.; Xin, H.; Zhu, Z.
      Applied Energy (2011), 88 (3), 947-952CODEN: APENDX; ISSN:0306-2619. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Incineration has been proposed as an alternative technol. to reuse animal manure by producing energy and ash fertilizers. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of incineration temp. on the phys. (ash yield) and chem. (nutrient) properties of ashes for different types of animal manure and cornstalk. The source materials were incinerated in a temp.-controlled muffle furnace at the temp. of 400, 500, 600, 700, 800 or 900 °C and the properties of the resultant ashes were detd. following the procedures set by China National Stds. The results indicated that ash yield (AY, %), total nitrogen (TN) recovery and total potassium (K2O) recovery all decreased with increasing incineration temp. The ranges of AY, ash TN and K2O recovery were, resp., 43.6-30.2%, 6.9-0.6%, and 80-61% for laying-hen manure; 34.3-32.1%, 18.8-15.4%, and 95-56% for cattle manure; 25.3-20.7%, 14-0%, and 78-57% for swine manure; and 8.4-7.5%, 2.1-1.4%, and 37-19% for cornstalk. However, total phosphorus (P2O5) content of the ashes increased with incineration temp., being 20.7-24.0% for swine manure, 4.5-7.5% for layer manure, and 2.7-3.4% for cornstalk. Animal manures have greater TN and P2O5 volatilization but less K2O and total sodium (Na2O) volatilization as compared to the cornstalk. The results provide a basis for incineration as an alternative means to reuse animal manures and cornstalk and suitability of the resultant ash co-product for different applications.
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    30. 30
      Öhman, M.; Nordin, A. A New Method for Quantification of Fluidized Bed Agglomeration Tendencies: A Sensitivity Analysis. Energy Fuels 1998, 12, 90,  DOI: 10.1021/ef970049z
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      The HighScore suite
      Degen, Thomas; Sadki, Mustapha; Bron, Egbert; Koenig, Uwe; Nenert, Gwilherm
      Powder Diffraction (2014), 29 (S2), S13-S18CODEN: PODIE2; ISSN:0885-7156. (Cambridge University Press)
      HighScore with the Plus option (HighScore Plus) is the com. powder diffraction anal. software from PAnal. It has been in const. development over the last 13 years and has evolved into a very complete and mature product. In this paper, we present a brief overview of the suite focusing on the latest addns. and its user-friendliness. The introduction briefly touches some basic ideas behind HighScore and the Plus option.
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      Application of the Rietveld refinement procedure in assaying powdered mixtures
      O'Connor, Brian H.; Raven, Mark D.
      Powder Diffraction (1988), 3 (1), 2-6CODEN: PODIE2; ISSN:0885-7156.
      Results are given of an assessment of an x-ray powder diffraction pattern fitting structure refinement technique (H. M. Rietveld, 1967, 1969) for assaying powd. mixts. as an alternative to conventional discrete peak empirical methods of the type described by H. P. Klug and L. E. Alexander (1974) and F. H. Chung (1974). The values obtained for a mixt. of corundum and α-quartz, following calibration of the instrument with a profile of the former, indicate that this technique has excellent potentials as an anal. tool.
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      Wagner, K.; Häggström, G.; Skoglund, N.; Priscak, J.; Kuba, M.; Öhman, M.; Hofbauer, H. Layer Formation Mechanism of K-Feldspar in Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion of Phosphorus-Lean and Phosphorus-Rich Residual Biomass. Appl. Energy 2019, 248, 545,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.04.112
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      Layer formation mechanism of K-feldspar in bubbling fluidized bed combustion of phosphorus-lean and phosphorus-rich residual biomass
      Wagner, Katharina; Haeggstroem, Gustav; Skoglund, Nils; Priscak, Juraj; Kuba, Matthias; Oehman, Marcus; Hofbauer, Hermann
      Applied Energy (2019), 248 (), 545-554CODEN: APENDX; ISSN:0306-2619. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The use of phosphorus-rich fuels in fluidized bed combustion is one probable way to support both heat and power prodn. and phosphorus recovery. Ash is accumulated in the bed during combustion and interacts with the bed material to form layers and/or agglomerates, possibly removing phosphorus from the bed ash fraction. To further deepen the knowledge about the difference in the mechanisms behind the ash chem. of phosphorus-lean and phosphorus-rich fuels, expts. in a 5 kW bench-scale-fluidized bed test-rig with K-feldspar as the bed material were conducted with bark, wheat straw, chicken manure, and chicken manure admixts. to bark and straw. Bed material samples were collected and studied for layer formation and agglomeration phenomena by SEM combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry. The admixt. of phosphorus-rich chicken manure to bark changed the layer formation mechanism, shifting the chem. to the formation of phosphates rather than silicates. The admixt. of chicken manure to straw reduced the ash melting and agglomeration risk, making it possible to increase the time until defluidization of the fluidized bed occurred. The results also highlight that an increased ash content does not necessarily lead to more ash melting related problems if the ash melting temp. is high enough.
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      De Geyter, S.; Öhman, M.; Boström, D.; Eriksson, M.; Nordin, A. Effects of Non-Quartz Minerals in Natural Bed Sand on Agglomeration Characteristics during Fluidized Bed Combustion of Biomass Fuels. Energy Fuels 2007, 21, 2663,  DOI: 10.1021/ef070162h
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      Effects of Non-Quartz Minerals in Natural Bed Sand on Agglomeration Characteristics during Fluidized Bed Combustion of Biomass Fuels
      De Geyter, Sigrid; Oehman, Marcus; Bostroem, Dan; Eriksson, Morgan; Nordin, Anders
      Energy & Fuels (2007), 21 (5), 2663-2668CODEN: ENFUEM; ISSN:0887-0624. (American Chemical Society)
      Most of the previous literature on fluidized bed agglomeration during biomass combustion is based on quartz as a bed material. Full-scale installations however often use natural sand, which apart from quartz may contain a high fraction of non-quartz minerals such as potassium feldspar and plagioclase. The objective of the present study was therefore to elucidate the effects of non-quartz minerals occurring in natural sand on the agglomeration behavior during fluidized bed combustion of biomass fuels. Three fuels typical for previously detd. agglomeration mechanisms were chosen as model fuels: calcium-rich bark, potassium-rich olive residues, and silica- and potassium-rich wheat straw. Two different feldspar minerals were used: a potassium feldspar and a plagioclase, labradorite, which both occur in many com. bed materials. Also, olivine was used as a bed material as this mineral represents another type of bed material used in some full-scale installations. Quartz was used as a ref. bed material. The effects of non-quartz minerals in natural sand on initial defluidization temp. were assessed during carefully controlled, bench-scale fluidized bed agglomeration expts. Bed material samples and agglomerates were analyzed using SEM/energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) to explore the occurrence and chem. compn. of coating and attack layers on the bed particles and necks between agglomerated particles. Significant differences in agglomeration characteristics were found for the different minerals when bark and olive residue were combusted. Potassium-feldspar was shown to lower the initial defluidization temp. for combustion of bark and olive residues. Plagioclase and olivine however, increase the initial defluidization temp. as compared to quartz for the combustion of olive residue, but for bark combustion, they did not differ significantly from quartz. During combustion of wheat straw, all bed materials agglomerated shortly after the startup of the expt. For bark and olive residue samples, attack layers were found on all bed materials and the compn. of the inner attack layer and agglomerate necks differed significantly with the fuel/bed material combination. For wheat straw however, no continuous attack layers were found, and the bed material compn. was concluded not to influence the agglomeration characteristics for this biomass. The results were used to suggest possible mechanisms involved in layer formation for the different minerals.
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    36. 36
      Wagner, K.; Häggström, G.; Mauerhofer, A. M.; Kuba, M.; Skoglund, N.; Öhman, M.; Hofbauer, H. Layer Formation on K-Feldspar in Fluidized Bed Combustion and Gasification of Bark and Chicken Manure. Biomass Bioenergy 2019, 127, 105251,  DOI: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2019.05.020
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      Layer formation on K-feldspar in fluidized bed combustion and gasification of bark and chicken manure
      Wagner, Katharina; Haeggstroem, Gustav; Mauerhofer, Anna Magdalena; Kuba, Matthias; Skoglund, Nils; Oehman, Marcus; Hofbauer, Hermann
      Biomass and Bioenergy (2019), 127 (), 105251CODEN: BMSBEO; ISSN:0961-9534. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Understanding layer formation on bed materials used in fluidized beds is a key step for advances in the application of alternative fuels. Layers can be responsible for agglomeration-caused shut-downs but they can also improve the gas compn. in fluidized bed gasification. Layers were obsd. on K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8) impurities originating from the combined heat and power plant Senden which applies the dual fluidized bed (DFB) steam gasification technol. Pure K-feldspar was therefore considered as alternative bed material in DFB steam gasification. Focusing on the interactions between fuel ash and bed material, K-feldspar was tested in combustion and DFB steam gasification atmospheres using different fuels, namely Ca-rich bark, Ca- and P-rich chicken manure, and an admixt. of chicken manure to bark. The bed particle layers formed on the bed material surface were characterized using combined SEM and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; area mappings and line scans were carried out for all samples. The obtained data show no essential influence of operational mode on the layer-formation process. During the combustion and DFB steam gasification of Ca-rich bark, a layer rich in Ca formed while K was diffusing out of the layer. The use of Ca- and P-rich chicken manure inhibited the diffusion of K, and a layer rich in Ca and P formed. The addn. of P to bark via chicken manure also changed the underlying layer-formation processes to reflect the same processes as obsd. for pure chicken manure.
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      Lynch, D.; Henihan, A. M.; Kwapinski, W.; Zhang, L.; Leahy, J. J. Ash Agglomeration and Deposition during Combustion of Poultry Litter in a Bubbling Fluidized-Bed Combustor. Energy Fuels 2013, 27, 4684– 4694,  DOI: 10.1021/ef400744u
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      Ash Agglomeration and Deposition during Combustion of Poultry Litter in a Bubbling Fluidized-Bed Combustor
      Lynch, Deirdre; Henihan, Anne Marie; Kwapinski, Witold; Zhang, Lian; Leahy, James J.
      Energy & Fuels (2013), 27 (8), 4684-4694CODEN: ENFUEM; ISSN:0887-0624. (American Chemical Society)
      In this study, we have characterized the ash resulting from fluidized bed combustion of poultry litter as being dominated by a coarse fraction of cryst. ash composed of alkali-Ca-phosphates and a fine fraction of particulate K2SO4 and KCl. Bed agglomeration was coating-induced with two distinct layers present. The inner layer (0.05-0.09 mm thick) was formed due to the reaction of gaseous potassium with the sand (SiO2) surface forming K-silicates with low m.ps. Further chem. reaction on the surface of the bed material strengthened the coating forming a molten glassy phase. The outer layer was composed of loosely bound, fine particulate ash originating from the char. Thermodn. equil. calcns. showed slag formation in the combustion zone is highly temp.-dependent, with slag formation predicted to increase from 1.8 kg at 600° to 7.35 kg at 1000° per h of operation (5.21 kg of ash). Of this slag phase, SiO2 and K2O were the dominant phases, accounting for almost 95%, highlighting the role of K-silicates in initiating bed agglomeration. The remaining 5% was predicted to consist mainly of Al2O3, K2SO4, and Na2O. Deposition downstream in the low-temp. regions was found to occur mostly through the vaporization-condensation mechanism, with equil. decreasing significantly with decreasing temps. The dominant alkali chloride-contg. gas predicted to form in the combustion zone was KCl, which corresponds with the high KCl content in the fine baghouse ash.
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      Bergfeldt, B.; Tomasi Morgano, M.; Leibold, H.; Richter, F.; Stapf, D. Recovery of Phosphorus and Other Nutrients during Pyrolysis of Chicken Manure. Agriculture 2018, 8, 187,  DOI: 10.3390/agriculture8120187
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      Recovery of phosphorus and other nutrients during pyrolysis of chicken manure
      Bergfeldt, Britta; Morgano, Marco Tomasi; Leibold, Hans; Richter, Frank; Stapf, Dieter
      Agriculture (Basel, Switzerland) (2018), 8 (12), 187CODEN: ABSGFK; ISSN:2077-0472. (MDPI AG)
      Feedstock recycling of secondary raw materials is the backbone of the Circular Economy (CE). The efficient recovery of resources, energy, along with achieving minimal environmental impact is mandatory for the successful realization of CE. Chicken manure is an interesting waste stream due to its content of nutrients, in particular of phosphorus, which makes it a suitable feedstock for fertilizer applications. However, the contamination caused by antibiotics, org. pollutants, and sanitary aspects demand the manures treatment before further recycling. Thermochem. treatment based on intermediate pyrolysis targets decentral application to produce carbonized solids for fertilizer application. This work evaluated pyrolysis char from the pyrolysis of chicken manure in comparison to the original feedstock using state-of-the-art thermal treatment, i.e., combustion in grate furnaces. The samples were evaluated in terms of chem. and mineralogical compn. by applying several anal. techniques. Bio-availability of the main nutrients (NPK) was assessed by adopting std. methods. Addnl., the effect on toxicity was discussed by means of heavy metals anal., as well as of pot tests. Results showed, that pyrolysis had a far more pos. effect on nutrient availability compared to combustion, and it provided a suitable method for the thermal treatment of contaminated feedstocks.
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      Bale, C. W.; Bélisle, E.; Chartrand, P.; Decterov, S. A.; Eriksson, G.; Gheribi, A. E.; Hack, K.; Jung, I. H.; Kang, Y. B.; Melançon, J. Reprint of: FactSage Thermochemical Software and Databases, 2010–2016. Calphad 2016, 55, 1,  DOI: 10.1016/j.calphad.2016.07.004
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      Reprint of: FactSage thermochemical software and databases, 2010-2016
      Bale, C. W.; Belisle, E.; Chartrand, P.; Decterov, S. A.; Eriksson, G.; Gheribi, A. E.; Hack, K.; Jung, I.-H.; Kang, Y.-B.; Melancon, J.; Pelton, A. D.; Petersen, S.; Robelin, C.; Sangster, J.; Spencer, P.; Van Ende, M.-A.
      CALPHAD: Computer Coupling of Phase Diagrams and Thermochemistry (2016), 55 (Part_1), 1-19CODEN: CCCTD6; ISSN:0364-5916. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The FactSage computer package consists of a series of information, calcn. and manipulation modules that enable one to access and manipulate compd. and soln. databases. With the various modules running under Microsoft Windows one can perform a wide variety of thermochem. calcns. and generate tables, graphs and figures of interest to chem. and phys. metallurgists, chem. engineers, corrosion engineers, inorg. chemists, geochemists, ceramists, electrochemists, environmentalists, etc. This paper presents a summary of the developments in the FactSage thermochem. software and databases during the last six years. Particular emphasis is placed on the new databases and developments in calcg. and manipulating phase diagrams.
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