Nanoplastic Transport in Soil via Bioturbation by Lumbricus terrestrisClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!
- Wiebke Mareile HeinzeWiebke Mareile HeinzeDepartment of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7014, 75007 Uppsala, SwedenMore by Wiebke Mareile Heinze
- Denise M. MitranoDenise M. MitranoDepartment of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Universitätsstrasse 16, 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandMore by Denise M. Mitrano
- Elma LahiveElma LahiveUK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, United KingdomMore by Elma Lahive
- John KoestelJohn KoestelDepartment of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7014, 75007 Uppsala, SwedenAgroscope − Standort Reckenholz, Soil Quality and Soil Use, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046 Zürich, SwitzerlandMore by John Koestel
- Geert Cornelis*Geert Cornelis*Email: [email protected]Department of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7014, 75007 Uppsala, SwedenMore by Geert Cornelis
Abstract
Plastic pollution is increasingly perceived as an emerging threat to terrestrial environments, but the spatial and temporal dimension of plastic exposure in soils is poorly understood. Bioturbation displaces microplastics (>1 μm) in soils and likely also nanoplastics (<1 μm), but empirical evidence is lacking. We used a combination of methods that allowed us to not only quantify but to also understand the mechanisms of biologically driven transport of nanoplastics in microcosms with the deep-burrowing earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. We hypothesized that ingestion and subsurface excretion drives deep vertical transport of nanoplastics that subsequently accumulate in the drilosphere, i.e., burrow walls. Significant vertical transport of palladium-doped polystyrene nanoplastics (diameter 256 nm), traceable using elemental analysis, was observed and increased over 4 weeks. Nanoplastics were detected in depurated earthworms confirming their uptake without any detectable negative impact. Nanoplastics were indeed enriched in the drilosphere where cast material was visibly incorporated, and the reuse of initial burrows could be monitored via X-ray computed tomography. Moreover, the speed of nanoplastics transport to the deeper soil profile could not be explained with a local mixing model. Earthworms thus repeatedly ingested and excreted nanoplastics in the drilosphere calling for a more explicit inclusion of bioturbation in nanoplastic fate modeling under consideration of the dominant mechanism. Further investigation is required to quantify nanoplastic re-entrainment, such as during events of preferential flow in burrows.
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You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:
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Synopsis
Risk assessment of nanoplastics in soils should consider bioturbation that causes significant downward displacement and nanoplastic hotspots along burrow walls.
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Nanoplastics
Soil
Earthworms
Bioturbation Microcosms
Measuring the Average Vertical Redistribution of Nanoplastics in Microcosms (Exp 1)
Association of Nanoplastics with Earthworm Burrows (Exp 2)
Figure 1
Figure 1. Example of burrows in a soil column after 28 days showing the drilosphere and soil matrix (Exp 2). The different texture of material around burrows is due to casts of earthworms and shows excretion occurs throughout burrows.
X-ray CT Image Acquisition, Processing and Analysis
Detection of Nanoplastics in Earthworm Tissue, Soil from Depth Layers, and Drilosphere Samples
Statistical Analysis
Modeling Nanoplastic Transport
Results and Discussion
Earthworms Are Drivers for Significant Nanoplastic Transport in soil
Figure 2
Figure 2. Concentrations of nanoplastics at different soil profile depths across burrowing times by Lumbricus terrestris (7, 14, 21, 28 days) and for control columns without L. terrestris sampled after 28 days shaded in gray (C-28). Box plots represent the distribution of the first to third quartile. Whiskers display the minimum and maximum (excluding outliers). Points represent individual data points. The lines within the box plots mark the median, and crosses mark the mean. Observations with the same letters do not show significant differences across the respective depth layer (p > 0.05).
Earthworms Ingested Nanoplastics, But No Negative Effects Were Observed
Earthworm Burrowing Is Not Significantly Altered in the Presence of Nanoplastics
Figure 3
Figure 3. 3-D images of the burrow system of L. terrestris derived from X-ray CT analysis in experiment 2 (Exp 2) for each replicate column after 7 and 28 days of bioturbation without (top) and in the presence of nanoplastics (bottom). White dotted lines indicate layer boundaries. Note that for replicate 3 with plastics the later image represents 21 days exposure.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Biomacroporosity in different column segments of experiment 2 after 7 and 28 days of bioturbation without (w/o nanoplastics, n = 3) and in the presence of nanoplastics (with nanoplastics, n = 3 except after 28 days n = 2). Biomacroporosity represents the relative share of the total biopore volume of the respective microcosm soil column for each designated depth layer. The soil column was divided according to sampling layers, with the top two layers merged. Error bars represent standard deviations.
Ingestion–Excretion Is the Primary Transport Mechanism Causing Vertical Displacement of Nanoplastics in soils
Figure 5
Figure 5. Concentrations of nanoplastics in burrow walls (drilosphere) and unaffected soil matrix at different soil depths after 28 days of soil column exposure to bioturbation by Lumbricus terrestris, experiment 2. Results are sorted according to sampling layer. Layer depths correspond to layer 1:0–2 cm, layer 2:2–6 cm, layer 3:6–15 cm, layer 4:15–29 cm. Box plots represent the distribution of the first to third quartile. Whiskers display the minimum and maximum (excluding outliers). Points represent individual data points. The lines within the box plots mark the median, and crosses mark the mean.
Environmental Implications and Limitations
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c05614.
Nanoplastic characterization and soil properties, microcosm setup and sampling, X-ray CT measurement and workflow, digestion protocol, bioturbation model description and results, earthworm weight and uptake of nanoplastics, sampling procotol for drilosphere sampling, detected nanoplastic concentrations in soil samples (Exp 1) and drilosphere and soil matrix samples (Exp 2) (PDF)
Terms & Conditions
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Acknowledgments
We thank Astrid Taylor and Kaisa Torrpa for their logistic support with the earthworms, Marta Baccaro for advice on the experimental setup, Zacharias Steinmetz, Francesco Parrella, and Roman Schefer for valuable discussions about the manuscript. Financial support for this project was provided by ACEnano (EU Horizon 2020, Grant Agreement No. 720952), the Swedish Research Council FORMAS (Project No. 2018-01080), the Swiss National Science Foundation (PZ00P2_168105 and PCEFP2_186856), and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, the Swiss Federal Insitute of Technology (ETH Zürich) and Agroscope.
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This article references 97 other publications.
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- 5Horton, A. A.; Walton, A.; Spurgeon, D. J.; Lahive, E.; Svendsen, C. Microplastics in Freshwater and Terrestrial Environments: Evaluating the Current Understanding to Identify the Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Priorities. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 586, 127– 141, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.190Google Scholar5https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXitFGjs7s%253D&md5=88e6bd25cfebe878f4fd13d748b388c1Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research prioritiesHorton, Alice A.; Walton, Alexander; Spurgeon, David J.; Lahive, Elma; Svendsen, ClausScience of the Total Environment (2017), 586 (), 127-141CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Plastic debris is an environmentally persistent and complex contaminant of increasing concern. Understanding the sources, abundance and compn. of microplastics present in the environment is a huge challenge due to the fact that hundreds of millions of tonnes of plastic material is manufd. for societal use annually, some of which is released to the environment. The majority of microplastics research to date has focussed on the marine environment. Although freshwater and terrestrial environments are recognized as origins and transport pathways of plastics to the oceans, there is still a comparative lack of knowledge about these environmental compartments. It is highly likely that microplastics will accumulate within continental environments, esp. in areas of high anthropogenic influence such as agricultural or urban areas. This review critically evaluates the current literature on the presence, behavior and fate of microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments and, where appropriate, also draws on relevant studies from other fields including nanotechnol., agriculture and waste management. Furthermore, we evaluate the relevant biol. and chem. information from the substantial body of marine microplastic literature, detg. the applicability and comparability of this data to freshwater and terrestrial systems. With the evidence presented, the authors have set out the current state of the knowledge, and identified the key gaps. These include the vol. and compn. of microplastics entering the environment, behavior and fate of microplastics under a variety of environmental conditions and how characteristics of microplastics influence their toxicity. Given the tech. challenges surrounding microplastics research, it is esp. important that future studies develop standardised techniques to allow for comparability of data. The identification of these research needs will help inform the design of future studies, to det. both the extent and potential ecol. impacts of microplastic pollution in freshwater and terrestrial environments.
- 6Bergmann, M.; Mützel, S.; Primpke, S.; Tekman, M. B.; Trachsel, J.; Gerdts, G. White and Wonderful? Microplastics Prevail in Snow from the Alps to the Arctic. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5 (8), na, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax1157Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 7Sommer, F.; Dietze, V.; Baum, A.; Sauer, J.; Gilge, S.; Maschowski, C.; Gieré, R. Tire Abrasion as a Major Source of Microplastics in the Environment. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2018, 18 (8), 2014– 2028, DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.2018.03.0099Google Scholar7https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXpt1yhs7k%253D&md5=062eb0413d95d84cc5388e7422d30d1aTire abrasion as a major source of microplastics in the environmentSommer, Frank; Dietze, Volker; Baum, Anja; Sauer, Jan; Gilge, Stefan; Maschowski, Christoph; Giere, RetoAerosol and Air Quality Research (2018), 18 (8), 2014-2028CODEN: AAQRAV; ISSN:1680-8584. (Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research)Traffic-related non-exhaust particulate matter mainly consists of tire wear, brake wear, and road wear. For this study, passive-samplers were placed near highly frequented roads in industrial, agricultural, and urban environments with the aim of collecting and characterizing super-coarse (> 10μm) airborne particles. Single-particle anal. using SEM-EDX was conducted on more than 500 particles with nearly 1500 spectra to det. their size, shape, vol., and chem. compn. The ambient aerosol near all studied roads is dominated by traffic-related abrasion particles, amounting to approx. 90 vol%. The majority of the particles were composites of tire-, road-, and brake-abrasion material. The particle assemblages differed in size distribution, compn., and structure depending on driving speed, traffic flow, and traffic fleet. Our study documents that tire wear significantly contributes to the flux of microplastics into the environment. A decrease in the release of this abrasion material, however, is unlikely in the near future.
- 8Mahon, A. M.; O’Connell, B.; Healy, M. G.; O’Connor, I.; Officer, R.; Nash, R.; Morrison, L. Microplastics in Sewage Sludge: Effects of Treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (2), 810– 818, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04048Google Scholar8https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVGrurvP&md5=3ca88463f76a0336aa9251d61bd92e6fMicroplastics in Sewage Sludge: Effects of TreatmentMahon, A. M.; O'Connell, B.; Healy, M. G.; O'Connor, I.; Officer, R.; Nash, R.; Morrison, L.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (2), 810-818CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) are receptors for the cumulative loading of microplastics (MPs) derived from industry, landfill, domestic wastewater and storm water. The partitioning of MPs through the settlement processes of wastewater treatment results in the majority becoming entrained in the sewage sludge. This study characterized MPs in sludge samples from 7 WWTPs in Ireland which use anaerobic digestion (AD), thermal drying (TD), or lime stabilization (LS) treatment processes. Abundances were 4196-15,385 particles/Kg (dry wt.). Results of a general linear mixed model (GLMM) showed significantly higher abundances of MPs in smaller size classes in the LS samples, suggesting that the treatment process of LS sheer MP particles. In contrast, lower abundances of MPs found in the AD samples suggests that this process may reduce MP abundances. Surface morphologies examd. using SEM showed characteristics of melting and blistering of TD MPs and shredding and flaking of LS MPs. This study highlights the potential for sewage sludge treatment processes to increase or reduce the risk of MP pollution prior to land spreading and may have implications for legislation governing the application of biosolids to agricultural land.
- 9Corradini, F.; Meza, P.; Eguiluz, R.; Casado, F.; Huerta-Lwanga, E.; Geissen, V. Evidence of Microplastic Accumulation in Agricultural Soils from Sewage Sludge Disposal. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 671, 411– 420, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.368Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXmsVWhs78%253D&md5=cc36f0631af7b4aaef4a9244268ef8e0Evidence of microplastic accumulation in agricultural soils from sewage sludge disposalCorradini, Fabio; Meza, Pablo; Eguiluz, Raul; Casado, Francisco; Huerta-Lwanga, Esperanza; Geissen, VioletteScience of the Total Environment (2019), 671 (), 411-420CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Microplastics are emerging as a steadily increasing environmental threat. Wastewater treatment plants efficiently remove microplastics from sewage, trapping the particles in the sludge and preventing their entrance into aquatic environments. Treatment plants are essentially taking the microplastics out of the waste water and concg. them in the sludge, however. It has become common practice to use this sludge on agricultural soils as a fertilizer. The aim of the current research was to evaluate the microplastic contamination of soils by this practice, assessing the implications of successive sludge applications by looking at the total count of microplastic particles in soil samples. Thirty-one agricultural fields with different sludge application records and similar edaphoclimatic conditions were evaluated. Field records of sludge application covered a ten year period. For all fields, historical disposal events used the same amt. of sludge (40 ton ha-1 dry wt.). Extn. of microplastics was done by flotation and particles were then counted and classified with the help of a microscope. Seven sludge samples were collected in the fields that underwent sludge applications during the study period. Soils where 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 applications of sludge had been performed had a median of 1.1, 1.6, 1.7, 2.3, and 3.5 particles g-1 dry soil, resp. There were statistical differences in the microplastic contents related to the no. of applications that a field had undergone (1, 2, 3 < 4, 5). Microplastic content in sludge ranged from 18 to 41 particles g-1, with a median of 34 particles g-1. The majority of the obsd. microplastics were fibers (90% in sludge, and 97% in soil). Our results indicate that microplastic counts increase over time where successive sludge applications are performed. Microplastics obsd. in soil samples stress the relevance of sludge as a driver of soil microplastic contamination.
- 10Frehland, S.; Kaegi, R.; Hufenus, R.; Mitrano, D. M. Long-Term Assessment of Nanoplastic Particle and Microplastic Fiber Flux through a Pilot Wastewater Treatment Plant Using Metal-Doped Plastics. Water Res. 2020, 182, 115860, DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115860Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhtFSrsLvE&md5=7d5db5313a1cf025517ab02c2791ae9eLong-term assessment of nanoplastic particle and microplastic fiber flux through a pilot wastewater treatment plant using metal-doped plasticsFrehland, Stefan; Kaegi, Ralf; Hufenus, Rudolf; Mitrano, Denise M.Water Research (2020), 182 (), 115860CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)In recent years, several studies have investigated the flux of particulate plastic through municipal waste water treatment plants (WWTP). By synthesizing nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers labeled with a rare metal (Pd and In, resp.) which can be measured as a proxy for the plastic itself, we have circumvented major anal. pitfalls assocd. with (micro)plastic measurements. In this study, we spiked the labeled materials to a pilot WWTP mimicking the activated sludge process (nitrification, de-nitrification and secondary clarification). Using a mass flow model for WWTP sludge, we assessed the behavior of particulate plastic in relation to the removal of org. matter. Triplicate samples were collected from the mixed liquor and from the effluent at least twice weekly over the entire exptl. run time of 40 d. Our findings show that in discrete grab samples during steady state conditions, at least 98% of particulate plastics were assocd. with the biosolids. A pos. correlation between total suspended solids (TSS) and plastic concns. was obsd. in the sludge as well as in the effluent. Because of the strong assocn. between particulate plastic and TSS, TSS removal is likely a good indicator of plastic removal in a full scale WWTP. Therefore, addnl. process steps in a full-scale WWTP which further reduce the TSS load will likely retain nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers effectively and consequently increase the removal rates.
- 11van den Berg, P.; Huerta-Lwanga, E.; Corradini, F.; Geissen, V. Sewage Sludge Application as a Vehicle for Microplastics in Eastern Spanish Agricultural Soils. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 261, 114198, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114198Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXjvVGqs70%253D&md5=6caba80c4a2ce5ef3b057d0c0b4963c8Sewage sludge application as a vehicle for microplastics in eastern Spanish agricultural soilsvan den Berg, Pim; Huerta-Lwanga, Esperanza; Corradini, Fabio; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 261 (), 114198CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastic pollution is becoming a major challenge with the growing use of plastic. In recent years, research about microplastic pollution in the environment has become a field of study with increased interest, with ever expanding findings on sources, sinks and pathways of microplastics. Wastewater treatment plants effectively remove microplastics from wastewater and conc. them in sewage sludge which is often used to fertilise agricultural fields. Despite this, quantification of microplastic pollution in agricultural fields through the application of sewage sludge is largely unknown. In light of this issue, four wastewater treatment plants and 16 agricultural fields (0-8 sewage sludge applications of 20-22 tons ha-1 per application), located in the east of Spain, were sampled. Microplastics were extd. using a floatation and filtration method, making a distinction between light d. microplastics (ρ < 1 g cm-3) and heavy d. microplastics (ρ > 1 g cm-3). Sewage sludge, on av., had a light d. plastic load of 18,000 ± 15,940 microplastics kg-1 and a heavy d. plastic load of 32,070 ± 19,080 microplastics kg-1. Soils without addn. of sewage sludge had an av. light d. plastic load of 930 ± 740 microplastics kg-1 and a heavy d. plastic load of 1100 ± 570 microplastics kg-1.
- 12Weithmann, N.; Möller, J. N.; Löder, M. G. J.; Piehl, S.; Laforsch, C.; Freitag, R. Organic Fertilizer as a Vehicle for the Entry of Microplastic into the Environment. Sci. Adv. 2018, 4 (4), na, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aap8060Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 13Beriot, N.; Peek, J.; Zornoza, R.; Geissen, V.; Huerta Lwanga, E. Low Density-Microplastics Detected in Sheep Faeces and Soil: A Case Study from the Intensive Vegetable Farming in Southeast Spain. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 755, 142653, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142653Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitV2lsL%252FJ&md5=be6a8571d66863a35d83cafcdff0725eLow density-microplastics detected in sheep faeces and soil: A case study from the intensive vegetable farming in Southeast SpainBeriot, Nicolas; Peek, Joost; Zornoza, Raul; Geissen, Violette; Huerta Lwanga, EsperanzaScience of the Total Environment (2021), 755 (Part_1), 142653CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)One of the main sources of plastic pollution in agricultural fields is the plastic mulch used by farmers to improve crop prodn. The plastic mulch is often not removed completely from the fields after harvest. Over time, the plastic mulch that is left of the fields is broken down into smaller particles which are dispersed by the wind or runoff. In the Region of Murcia in Spain, plastic mulch is heavily used for intensive vegetable farming. After harvest, sheep are released into the fields to graze on the vegetable residues. The objective of the study was to assess the plastic contamination in agricultural soil in Spain and the ingestion of plastic by sheep. Therefore, three research questions were established: (i) What is the plastic content in agricultural soils where plastic mulch is commonly used. (ii) Do livestock ingest the microplastics found in the soil. (iii) How much plastic could be transported by the livestock. To answer these questions, we sampled top soils (0-10 cm) from 6 vegetable fields and collected sheep feces from 5 different herds. The microplastic content was measured using d. sepn. and visual identification. We found ∼2 × 103 particles•kg-1 in the soil and ∼103 particles•kg-1 in the feces. The data show that plastic particles were present in the soil and that livestock ingested them. After ingesting plastic from one field, the sheep can become a source of microplastic contamination as they graze on other farms or grasslands. The potential transport of microplastics due to a herd of 1000 sheep was estd. to be ∼106 particles•ha-1•y-1. Further studies should focus on: assessing how much of the plastic found in feces comes directly from plastic mulching, estg. the plastic degrdn. in the guts of sheep and understanding the potential effects of these plastic residues on the health of livestock.
- 14Judy, J. D.; Williams, M.; Gregg, A.; Oliver, D.; Kumar, A.; Kookana, R.; Kirby, J. K. Microplastics in Municipal Mixed-Waste Organic Outputs Induce Minimal Short to Long-Term Toxicity in Key Terrestrial Biota. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 252, 522– 531, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.027Google Scholar14https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtFeqs7fI&md5=47be260216994208315c8086520af56bMicroplastics in municipal mixed-waste organic outputs induce minimal short to long-term toxicity in key terrestrial biotaJudy, Jonathan D.; Williams, Mike; Gregg, Adrienne; Oliver, Danni; Kumar, Anu; Kookana, Rai; Kirby, Jason K.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 252 (Part_A), 522-531CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Sustainable alternatives to landfill disposal for municipal mixed wastes represents a major challenge to governments and waste management industries. In the state of New South Wales (NSW) Australia, mech. biol. treatment (MBT) is being used to reduce the vol. and pathogen content of org. matter isolated from municipal waste. The product of this treatment, a compost-like output (CLO) referred to as mixed waste org. output (MWOO), is being recycled and applied as a soil amendment. However, the presence of contaminants in MWOO including trace orgs., trace metals and phys. contaminants such as microplastic fragments has raised concerns about potential neg. effects on soil health and agriculture following land application. Here, we used multiple lines of evidence to examine the effects of land application of MWOO contg. microplastics in three soils to a variety of terrestrial biota. Treatments included unamended soil, MWOO-amended soil and MWOO-amended soil into which addnl. high-d. polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics were added. Tests were conducted in soil media that had been incubated for 0, 3 or 9 mo. Addn. of microplastics had no significant neg. effect on wheat seedling emergence, wheat biomass prodn., earthworm growth, mortality or avoidance behavior and nematode mortality or reprodn. compared to controls. There was also little evidence the microplastics affected microbial community diversity, although measurements of microbial community structure were highly variable with no clear trends.
- 15Steinmetz, Z.; Wollmann, C.; Schaefer, M.; Buchmann, C.; David, J.; Tröger, J.; Muñoz, K.; Frör, O.; Schaumann, G. E. Plastic Mulching in Agriculture. Trading Short-Term Agronomic Benefits for Long-Term Soil Degradation?. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 550, 690– 705, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.153Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitV2mt70%253D&md5=b7daf97ea6258f629ea8aebc14073533Plastic mulching in agriculture. Trading short-term agronomic benefits for long-term soil degradation?Steinmetz, Zacharias; Wollmann, Claudia; Schaefer, Miriam; Buchmann, Christian; David, Jan; Troeger, Josephine; Munoz, Katherine; Froer, Oliver; Schaumann, Gabriele EllenScience of the Total Environment (2016), 550 (), 690-705CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Plastic mulching has become a globally applied agricultural practice for its instant economic benefits such as higher yields, earlier harvests, improved fruit quality and increased water-use efficiency. However, knowledge of the sustainability of plastic mulching remains vague in terms of both an environmental and agronomic perspective. This review critically discusses the current understanding of the environmental impact of plastic mulch use by linking knowledge of agricultural benefits and research on the life cycle of plastic mulches with direct and indirect implications for long-term soil quality and ecosystem services. Adverse effects may arise from plastic additives, enhanced pesticide runoff and plastic residues likely to fragment into microplastics but remaining chem. intact and accumulating in soil where they can successively sorb agrochems. The quantification of microplastics in soil remains challenging due to the lack of appropriate anal. techniques. The cost and effort of recovering and recycling used mulching films may offset the aforementioned benefits in the long term. However, comparative and long-term agronomic assessments have not yet been conducted. Furthermore, plastic mulches have the potential to alter soil quality by shifting the edaphic biocoenosis (e.g. towards mycotoxigenic fungi), accelerate C/N metab. eventually depleting soil org. matter stocks, increase soil water repellency and favor the release of greenhouse gases. A substantial process understanding of the interactions between the soil microclimate, water supply and biol. activity under plastic mulches is still lacking but required to est. potential risks for long-term soil quality. Currently, farmers mostly base their decision to apply plastic mulches rather on expected short-term benefits than on the consideration of long-term consequences. Future interdisciplinary research should therefore gain a deeper understanding of the incentives for farmers and public perception from both a psychol. and economic perspective in order to develop new support strategies for the transition into a more environment-friendly food prodn.
- 16Scarascia-Mugnozza, G.; Sica, C.; Russo, G. Plastic Materials in European Agriculture: Actual Use and Perspectives. J. Agric. Eng. 2011, 42, 15, DOI: 10.4081/jae.2011.3.15Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 17Kim, H. M.; Lee, D.-K.; Long, N. P.; Kwon, S. W.; Park, J. H. Uptake of Nanopolystyrene Particles Induces Distinct Metabolic Profiles and Toxic Effects in Caenorhabditis Elegans. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 246, 578– 586, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.12.043Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtlKhsQ%253D%253D&md5=0b30ba26ac1aabf02a00d49d22bab1caUptake of nanopolystyrene particles induces distinct metabolic profiles and toxic effects in Caenorhabditis elegansKim, Hyung Min; Lee, Dong-Kyu; Nguyen, Phuoc Long; Kwon, Sung Won; Park, Jeong HillEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 246 (), 578-586CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Nanoplastics are widely used in modern life, for example, in cosmetics and daily use products, and are attracting concern due to their potential toxic effects on environments. In this study, the uptake of nanopolystyrene particles by Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and their toxic effects were evaluated. Nanopolystyrene particles with sizes of 50 and 200 nm were prepd., and the L4 stage of C. elegans was exposed to these particles for 24 h. Their uptake was monitored by confocal microscopy, and various phenotypic alterations of the exposed nematode such as locomotion, reprodn. and oxidative stress were measured. In addn., a metabolomics study was performed to det. the significantly affected metabolites in the exposed C. elegans group. Exposure to nanopolystyrene particles caused the perturbation of metabolites related to energy metab., such as TCA cycle intermediates, glucose and lactic acid. Nanopolystyrene also resulted in toxic effect including induction of oxidative stress and redn. of locomotion and reprodn. Collectively, these findings provide new insights into the toxic effects of nanopolystyrene particles.
- 18Hartmann, N. B.; Hüffer, T.; Thompson, R. C.; Hassellöv, M.; Verschoor, A.; Daugaard, A. E.; Rist, S.; Karlsson, T.; Brennholt, N.; Cole, M.; Herrling, M. P.; Hess, M. C.; Ivleva, N. P.; Lusher, A. L.; Wagner, M. Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (3), 1039– 1047, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05297Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXktV2gsw%253D%253D&md5=05f4b7854783a279e20d8eced57151ffAre We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic DebrisHartmann, Nanna B.; Huffer, Thorsten; Thompson, Richard C.; Hassellov, Martin; Verschoor, Anja; Daugaard, Anders E.; Rist, Sinja; Karlsson, Therese; Brennholt, Nicole; Cole, Matthew; Herrling, Maria P.; Hess, Maren C.; Ivleva, Natalia P.; Lusher, Amy L.; Wagner, MartinEnvironmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (3), 1039-1047CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review is given. The accumulation of plastic litter in natural environments is a global issue. Concerns over potential neg. impacts on the economy, wildlife, and human health provide strong incentives for improving the sustainable use of plastics. Despite the many voices raised on the issue, we lack a consensus on how to define and categorize plastic debris. This is evident for microplastics, where inconsistent size classes are used and where the materials to be included are under debate. While this is inherent in an emerging research field, an ambiguous terminol. results in confusion and miscommunication that may compromise progress in research and mitigation measures. Therefore, we need to be explicit on what exactly we consider plastic debris. Thus, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a unified terminol., propose a definition and categorization framework, and highlight areas of uncertainty. Going beyond size classes, our framework includes physicochem. properties (polymer compn., solid state, soly.) as defining criteria and size, shape, color, and origin as classifiers for categorization. Acknowledging the rapid evolution of our knowledge on plastic pollution, our framework will promote consensus building within the scientific and regulatory community based on a solid scientific foundation.
- 19Mitrano, D. M.; Wick, P.; Nowack, B. Placing Nanoplastics in the Context of Global Plastic Pollution. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2021, 16 (5), 491– 500, DOI: 10.1038/s41565-021-00888-2Google Scholar19https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtVShtb7N&md5=b5a7d72d35bddd743bb824d6168e2730Placing nanoplastics in the context of global plastic pollutionMitrano, Denise M.; Wick, Peter; Nowack, BerndNature Nanotechnology (2021), 16 (5), 491-500CODEN: NNAABX; ISSN:1748-3387. (Nature Portfolio)A review. Numerous studies have made the ubiquitous presence of plastic in the environment undeniable, and thus it no longer comes as a surprise when scientists measure the accumulation of macroplastic litter and microplastic fragments in both urban and remote sites. Nanoplastics have recently emerged in the discussions of scientists, regulators and the public, as the weathering of macroplastics may lead to a substantial burden of nanoplastics in various ecosystems. While nanoplastics particles themselves have not (yet) been extensively measured in the environment, there is increased concern that this size fraction of plastic may be more extensively distributed and hazardous that larger-sized particles. This assessment may emanate from an unease with the term 'nano', which may elicit a neg. response over uncertainties of the pervasiveness of nanoplastics specifically, or from the lessons learned by many years of intensive environmental health and safety research of engineered nanomaterials. Ultimately, the different phys. and chem. characteristics of the different size classes of plastic pollution (macroplastics, microplastics and nanoplastics) will result in divergent fate and hazards. As nanoscientists specializing in understanding the fate, transport and interactions of nanoparticles in human and environmental systems, in this Perspective, we try to place nanoplastics in the context of global plastic pollution by assessing its sources and risks, and by assessing commonalities nanoplastics may share with other nanosized objects in environmental systems, such as engineered nanomaterials and natural colloids.
- 20de Souza Machado, A. A.; Lau, C. W.; Till, J.; Kloas, W.; Lehmann, A.; Becker, R.; Rillig, M. C. Impacts of Microplastics on the Soil Biophysical Environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (17), 9656– 9665, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02212Google Scholar20https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVSiu7bO&md5=eadaabfc391f940952575fb7f2586ddfImpacts of Microplastics on the Soil Biophysical Environmentde Souza Machado, Anderson Abel; Lau, Chung Wai; Till, Jennifer; Kloas, Werner; Lehmann, Anika; Becker, Roland; Rillig, Matthias C.Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (17), 9656-9665CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Soils are essential components of terrestrial ecosystems that experience strong pollution pressure. Microplastic contamination of soils is being increasingly documented, with potential consequences for soil biodiversity and function. Notwithstanding, data on effects of such contaminants on fundamental properties potentially impacting soil biota are lacking. The present study explores the potential of microplastics to disturb vital relationships between soil and water, as well as its consequences for soil structure and microbial function. During a 5-wk garden expt. we exposed a loamy sand soil to environmentally relevant nominal concns. (up to 2 %) of four common microplastic types (polyacrylic fibers, polyamide beads, polyester fibers, and polyethylene fragments). Then, we measured bulk d., water holding capacity, hydraulic cond., soil aggregation, and microbial activity. Microplastics affected the bulk d., water holding capacity, and the functional relationship between the microbial activity and water stable aggregates. The effects are underestimated if idiosyncrasies of particle type and concns. are neglected, suggesting that purely qual. environmental microplastic data might be of limited value for the assessment of effects in soil. If extended to other soils and plastic types, the processes unravelled here suggest that microplastics are relevant long-term anthropogenic stressors and drivers of global change in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 21Lozano, Y. M.; Rillig, M. C. Effects of Microplastic Fibers and Drought on Plant Communities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 (10), 6166– 6173, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c01051Google Scholar21https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXntFCntr4%253D&md5=c3f2da458118566d912d4c18c6bbc5cfEffects of Microplastic Fibers and Drought on Plant CommunitiesLozano, Yudi M.; Rillig, Matthias C.Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (10), 6166-6173CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Microplastics in soils can affect plant performance, as shown in studies using individual plants. However, we currently have no information about potential effects on plant community productivity and structure. In a plant community consisting of seven plant species that co-occur in temperate grassland ecosystems, we thus investigated the effect of microplastics (i.e., microfibers) and drought, a factor with which microfibers might interact, on plant productivity and community structure. Our results showed that at the community level, shoot and root mass decreased with drought but increased with microfibers, an effect likely linked to reduced soil bulk d., improved aeration, and better penetration of roots in the soil. Addnl., we obsd. that microfibers affected plant community structure. Species such as Calamagrostis, invasive in Europe, and the allelophatic Hieracium, became more dominant with microfibers, while species that potentially have the ability to facilitate the establishment of other plant species (e.g., Holcus), decreased in biomass. As microfibers affect plant species dominance, the examn. of cascade effects on ecosystem functions should be a high priority for future research.
- 22Wan, Y.; Wu, C.; Xue, Q.; Hui, X. Effects of Plastic Contamination on Water Evaporation and Desiccation Cracking in Soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 654, 576– 582, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.123Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXit1WlsrjP&md5=72abb2b149c89d7835b2e22e4f21afceEffects of plastic contamination on water evaporation and desiccation cracking in soilWan, Yong; Wu, Chenxi; Xue, Qiang; Hui, XinminnanScience of the Total Environment (2019), 654 (), 576-582CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Environmental contamination of plastics is becoming an issue of concern globally. Detection of plastics, particularly microplastics, has been increasingly reported in both marine environments and inland waters. Recent work has indicated that soil in terrestrial environments has also been contaminated by plastics. Research has also shown that plastics can have adverse effects on soil biota. However, the impact of plastics on soil phys. properties is still unclear. In this work, effects of plastic film of different sizes at environmental relevant concns. on water evapn. and desiccation cracking in two clay soils were studied. The results showed that the presence of plastics in soil significantly increased the rate of soil water evapn. by creating channels for water movement. The effect was more pronounced in soils treated with 2 mm plastics than in soils treated with 5 and 10 mm plastics, and increased with increasing plastic content. Desiccation cracking was obsd. on the surface of soil treated with 5 and 10 mm plastics likely due to the destruction of soil structural integrity. While 2 mm plastics increased the rate of desiccation shrinkage, the shrinkage ratio was reduced at the residual stage. Results from this work suggest that plastic contamination can alter the water cycle in soils, which may exacerbate soil water shortages and affect the vertical transport of pollutants. Further work is required to study the effects of plastics of other shapes, and lab. observations should be tested at field scale.
- 23de Souza Machado, A. A.; Lau, C. W.; Kloas, W.; Bergmann, J.; Bachelier, J. B.; Faltin, E.; Becker, R.; Görlich, A. S.; Rillig, M. C. Microplastics Can Change Soil Properties and Affect Plant Performance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (10), 6044– 6052, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01339Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXot1ansb4%253D&md5=393c712d4bb8f84eafb940e0119eacd5Microplastics Can Change Soil Properties and Affect Plant Performancede Souza Machado, Anderson Abel; Lau, Chung W.; Kloas, Werner; Bergmann, Joana; Bachelier, Julien B.; Faltin, Erik; Becker, Roland; Goerlich, Anna S.; Rillig, Matthias C.Environmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (10), 6044-6052CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Microplastics can affect biophys. properties of the soil. However, little is known about the cascade of events in fundamental levels of terrestrial ecosystems, i.e., starting with the changes in soil abiotic properties and propagating across the various components of soil-plant interactions, including soil microbial communities and plant traits. We investigated here the effects of six different microplastics (polyester fibers, polyamide beads, and four fragment types: polyethylene, polyester terephthalate, polypropylene, and polystyrene) on a broad suite of proxies for soil health and performance of spring onion (Allium fistulosum). Significant changes were obsd. in plant biomass, tissue elemental compn., root traits, and soil microbial activities. These plant and soil responses to microplastic exposure were used to propose a causal model for the mechanism of the effects. Impacts were dependent on particle type, i.e., microplastics with a shape similar to other natural soil particles elicited smaller differences from control. Changes in soil structure and water dynamics may explain the obsd. results in which polyester fibers and polyamide beads triggered the most pronounced impacts on plant traits and function. The findings reported here imply that the pervasive microplastic contamination in soil may have consequences for plant performance and thus for agroecosystems and terrestrial biodiversity.
- 24Fei, Y.; Huang, S.; Zhang, H.; Tong, Y.; Wen, D.; Xia, X.; Wang, H.; Luo, Y.; Barceló, D. Response of Soil Enzyme Activities and Bacterial Communities to the Accumulation of Microplastics in an Acid Cropped Soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 707, 135634, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135634Google Scholar24https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1SrtbjI&md5=d7b556eeba0c6c8fe5595346e881c50eResponse of soil enzyme activities and bacterial communities to the accumulation of microplastics in an acid cropped soilFei, Yufan; Huang, Shunyin; Zhang, Haibo; Tong, Yazhi; Wen, Dishi; Xia, Xiaoyu; Wang, Han; Luo, Yongming; Barcelo, DamiaScience of the Total Environment (2020), 707 (), 135634CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)The ecol. stress of microplastics (MPs) contamination in agroecosystems raise worldwide concerns. However very few studies concd. on the effects of MPs exposure on soil microbial community. The alterations of enzymic activities and bacterial communities were assayed by spiking 1% and 5% (wt./wt.) of polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) MPs in an acid soil. The results showed that both PE and PVC addn. inhibited fluorescein diacetate hydrolase activity and stimulated urease and acid phosphatase activities, and declined the richness and diversity of the bacterial communities. More severe effects were obsd. in the PE treated soils compared to the PVC treated soils generally. The relative abundances of families Burkholderiaceae increased significantly (p<.05) after MPs addn., suggesting the bacteria assocd. with nitrogen fixation stimulated by the MPs input. Meanwhile, significant (p<.05) decline of Sphingomonadaceae and Xanthobacteraceae after addn. of 5% PVC and 1% PE MPs, resp. implied that MPs might inhibit the biodegrdn. of xenobiotics in the soil. Mover, the PICRUSt anal. demonstrated that membrane transporter was a sensitive prediction functional gene of microplastics exposure in the soil. Future studies could be focused on the role of MPs on the regulation of nitrogen cycling and org. compds. degrdn. in soils.
- 25Khalid, N.; Aqeel, M.; Noman, A. Microplastics Could Be a Threat to Plants in Terrestrial Systems Directly or Indirectly. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 267, 115653, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115653Google Scholar25https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhvFejsLbO&md5=b4381afd7cffd3b861243611507310eeMicroplastics could be a threat to plants in terrestrial systems directly or indirectlyKhalid, Noreen; Aqeel, Muhammad; Noman, AliEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 267 (), 115653CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review. Microplastics (MPs) are an emerging threat to ecosystem functioning and biota. The major sources of MPs are terrestrial and agricultural lands. But their fate, concn. in the terrestrial environment, and effects on soil and biota are poorly understood. There is a growing body of concern about the adverse effects of MPs on soil-dwelling organisms such as microbes in mycorrhizae and earthworms that mediate essential ecosystem services. Environmental concns. and effects of MPs are considered to increase with increasing trend of its global prodn. MPs in the soil could directly impact plants through blocking the seed pore, limiting the uptake of water and nutrient through roots, aggregation, and accumulation in the root, shoot, and leaves. However, MPs can also indirectly impact plants by affecting soil physicochem. characteristics, soil-dwelling microbes, and fauna. An affected soil could impact plant community structure and perhaps primary prodn. In this article, we have assessed the potential direct and indirect impacts of MPs on plants. We have discussed both the pos. and neg. impacts of MPs on plants in terrestrial systems based on currently available limited literature on this topic and our hypothetical understandings. We have summarized the most current progress in this regard highlighting the future directions on microplastic research in terrestrial systems.
- 26Zang, H.; Zhou, J.; Marshall, M. R.; Chadwick, D. R.; Wen, Y.; Jones, D. L. Microplastics in the Agroecosystem: Are They an Emerging Threat to the Plant-Soil System?. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2020, 148, 107926, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.107926Google Scholar26https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhsFGit73E&md5=8e9badc3a38a87043284f554ce75bbdfMicroplastics in the agroecosystem: Are they an emerging threat to the plant-soil system?Zang, Huadong; Zhou, Jie; Marshall, Miles R.; Chadwick, David R.; Wen, Yuan; Jones, Davey L.Soil Biology & Biochemistry (2020), 148 (), 107926CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Despite plastics providing great benefits to our daily life, plastics accumulating in the environment, esp. microplastics (MPs; defined as particles <5 mm), can lead to a range of problems and potential loss of ecosystem services. Current research has demonstrated the significant impact of MPs on aquatic systems, but little is known about their effects on the terrestrial environment, esp. within agroecosystems. Hereby, we investigated the effect of MPs type and amt. on plant growth, soil microorganisms, and photoassimilate carbon (C) allocation. MPs had a neg., dose-dependent impact on plant growth affecting both above- and below-ground productivity (-22.9% and -8.4%). MPs also influenced assimilated 14C allocation in soil (+70.6%) and CO2 emission (+43.9%). Although the activity of β-glucosidase was suppressed by MPs, other C- and N-cycling related enzyme activities were not affected. The type and amt. of MPs in soil greatly altered C flow through the plant-soil system, highlighting that MPs neg. affect a range of C-dependent soil functions. Moreover, MPs increased the soil microbial biomass (+43.6%; indicated by PLFAs), and changed the structure and metabolic status of the microbial community. The evidence presented here suggests that MPs can have a significant impact on key pools and fluxes within the terrestrial C cycle with the response being both dose-dependent and MPs specific. We conclude that MPs in soil are not benign and therefore every step should be made to minimize their entry into the soil ecosystem and potential to transfer into the food chain.
- 27Lei, L.; Liu, M.; Song, Y.; Lu, S.; Hu, J.; Cao, C.; Xie, B.; Shi, H.; He, D. Polystyrene (Nano)Microplastics Cause Size-Dependent Neurotoxicity, Oxidative Damage and Other Adverse Effects in Caenorhabditis Elegans. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2018, 5 (8), 2009– 2020, DOI: 10.1039/C8EN00412AGoogle Scholar27https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtlajsbbJ&md5=fb635d8d26124a2bd13466dad60c3cbdPolystyrene (nano)microplastics cause size-dependent neurotoxicity, oxidative damage and other adverse effects in Caenorhabditis elegansLei, Lili; Liu, Mengting; Song, Yang; Lu, Shibo; Hu, Jiani; Cao, Chengjin; Xie, Bing; Shi, Huahong; He, DefuEnvironmental Science: Nano (2018), 5 (8), 2009-2020CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)(Nano)microplastics (N/MPs) are emerging contaminants of increasing concern. However, little is known about the potential toxicity difference between nanoplastics and microplastics on organisms. In this study, we investigated the effects of polystyrene N/MPs with diam. sizes of 100 and 500 nm at the nanoscale and 1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 μm at the microscale on the survival, lifespan, motor behavior, movement-related neurons and oxidative stress in Caenorhabditis elegans. After 3 days of exposure to 1.0 mg L-1 polystyrene particles of the five sizes, the 1.0 μm group had the lowest survival rate, the largest decrease in body length and the shortest av. lifespan in nematodes. We demonstrated that exposure to N/MPs accelerated the frequency of body bending and head thrashing, and increased crawling speed, which indicate that N/MPs can induce size-dependent excitatory toxicity on locomotor behavior. Of the five sizes of N/MPs, 1.0 μm particles significantly downregulated the expression of unc-17 and unc-47, and resulted in obvious damage to cholinergic and GABAergic neurons. We also found that polystyrene N/MPs significantly elevated the expression of gst-4, which encodes glutathione S-transferase-4, a key enzyme in oxidative stress. Addnl., N/MPs-induced oxidative damage was effectively attenuated by natural antioxidants, curcumin and oligometric proanthocyanidins. Taken together, these findings suggest that (nano)microplastics can exert size-dependent toxicity and have extensive impacts on organisms.
- 28Zhu, D.; Chen, Q.-L.; An, X.-L.; Yang, X.-R.; Christie, P.; Ke, X.; Wu, L.-H.; Zhu, Y.-G. Exposure of Soil Collembolans to Microplastics Perturbs Their Gut Microbiota and Alters Their Isotopic Composition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2018, 116, 302– 310, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2017.10.027Google Scholar28https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhslOntLnE&md5=af6a8b00415883aba6f69118058aee27Exposure of soil collembolans to microplastics perturbs their gut microbiota and alters their isotopic compositionZhu, Dong; Chen, Qing-Lin; An, Xin-Li; Yang, Xiao-Ru; Christie, Peter; Ke, Xin; Wu, Long-Hua; Zhu, Yong-GuanSoil Biology & Biochemistry (2018), 116 (), 302-310CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms have been widely studied in recent years but effects on soil biota, and esp. on the gut microbiota of soil animals, remain poorly understood. An expt. was therefore conducted using the common soil collembolan Folsomia candida exposed to microplastics for 56 days to investigate the effects of plastics on gut microbiota, growth, reprodn. and isotopic turnover of collembolans in the soil ecosystem. A diverse microbial community was obsd. in the collembolan gut, consisting of (at phylum level) Actinobacteria (∼44%), Bacteroidetes (∼30%), Proteobacteria (∼12%) and Firmicutes (∼11%). Distinctly different bacterial communities and lower microbial diversity were found in the collembolan gut compared with the surrounding soil. The authors also found that exposure to microplastics significantly enhanced bacterial diversity and altered the microbiota in the collembolan gut. Moreover, collembolan growth and reprodn. were significantly inhibited (by 16.8 and 28.8%, resp.) and higher δ15N and δ13C values were obsd. in the tissues after exposure to microplastics. These results indicate that exposure to microplastics may impact non-target species via changes in their microbiota leading to alteration of isotopic and elemental incorporation, growth and reprodn. The collembolan gut microbial data acquired fill a gap in the authors' knowledge of the ecotoxicity of microplastics.
- 29Huerta Lwanga, E.; Gertsen, H.; Gooren, H.; Peters, P.; Salánki, T.; van der Ploeg, M.; Besseling, E.; Koelmans, A. A.; Geissen, V. Microplastics in the Terrestrial Ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus Terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (5), 2685– 2691, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05478Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitFSjsro%253D&md5=465bc813a10fae9b6baff17d981c7d92Microplastics in the Terrestrial Ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae)Huerta Lwanga, Esperanza; Gertsen, Hennie; Gooren, Harm; Peters, Piet; Salanki, Tamas; van der Ploeg, Martine; Besseling, Ellen; Koelmans, Albert A.; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (5), 2685-2691CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic debris is widespread in the environment, but information on the effects of microplastics on terrestrial fauna is completely lacking. Here, we studied the survival and fitness of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae) exposed to microplastics (Polyethylene, <150 μm) in litter at concns. of 7, 28, 45, and 60% dry wt., percentages that, after bioturbation, translate to 0.2 to 1.2% in bulk soil. Mortality after 60 days was higher at 28, 45, and 60% of microplastics in the litter than at 7% wt./wt. and in the control (0%). Growth rate was significantly reduced at 28, 45, and 60% wt./wt. microplastics, compared to the 7% and control treatments. Due to the digestion of ingested org. matter, microplastic was concd. in cast, esp. at the lowest dose (i.e., 7% in litter) because that dose had the highest proportion of digestible org. matter. Whereas 50 % of the microplastics had a size of <50 μm in the original litter, 90 % of the microplastics in the casts was <50 μm in all treatments, which suggests size-selective egestion by the earthworms. These concn.-transport and size-selection mechanisms may have important implications for fate and risk of microplastic in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 30Ju, H.; Zhu, D.; Qiao, M. Effects of Polyethylene Microplastics on the Gut Microbial Community, Reproduction and Avoidance Behaviors of the Soil Springtail, Folsomia Candida. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 247, 890– 897, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.097Google Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXisFGitrs%253D&md5=cf236020437c866d0ceac00a95308066Effects of polyethylene microplastics on the gut microbial community, reproduction and avoidance behaviors of the soil springtail, Folsomia candidaJu, Hui; Zhu, Dong; Qiao, MinEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 247 (), 890-897CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics (MPs) are an emerging contaminant and are confirmed to be ubiquitous in the environment. Adverse effects of MPs on aquatic organisms have been widely studied, whereas little research has focused on soil invertebrates. We exposed the soil springtail Folsomia candida to artificial soils contaminated with polyethylene MPs (<500μm) for 28 d to explore the effects of MPs on avoidance, reprodn., and gut microbiota. Springtails exhibited avoidance behaviors at 0.5% and 1% MPs (wt./wt. in dry soil), and the avoidance rate was 59% and 69%, resp. Reprodn. was inhibited when the concn. of MPs reached 0.1% and was reduced by 70.2% at the highest concn. of 1% MPs compared to control. The half-maximal effective concn. (EC50) value based on reprodn. for F. candida was 0.29% MPs. At concns. of 0.5% dry wt. in the soil, MPs significantly altered the microbial community and decreased bacterial diversity in the springtail gut. Specifically, the relative abundance of Wolbachia significantly decreased while the relative abundance of Bradyrhizobiaceae, Ensifer and Stenotrophomonas significantly increased. Our results demonstrated that MPs exerted a significant toxic effect on springtails and can change their gut microbial community. This can provide useful information for risk assessment of MPs in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 31Rodriguez-Seijo, A.; Lourenço, J.; Rocha-Santos, T. A. P.; da Costa, J.; Duarte, A. C.; Vala, H.; Pereira, R. Histopathological and Molecular Effects of Microplastics in Eisenia Andrei Bouché. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 495– 503, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.092Google Scholar31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xhs1ygsL7M&md5=8b0319fc5ab6821b2dd09e16421cee32Histopathological and molecular effects of microplastics in Eisenia andrei BoucheRodriguez-Seijo, A.; Lourenco, J.; Rocha-Santos, T. A. P.; da Costa, J.; Duarte, A. C.; Vala, H.; Pereira, R.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 495-503CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)The ocean has been assumed as the main sink of microplastics (MPs), however, soils may also receive MPs from different sources and through different pathways, which may affect the biota and their role in soil functions. To the best of our knowledge, only one study, until now, reported the effects of MPs on the survival and fitness of soil organisms (Lumbricus terrestris). In our study, epigeic earthworms, of the species E. andrei, were exposed to different concns. of MPs (0, 62.5, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg soildw) in an OECD artificial soil and tested for reprodn., survival and growth of adults, following a std. protocol. The size of the polyethylene MPs to which earthworms were exposed ranged between 250 and 1000μm. No significant effects were recorded on survival, no. of juveniles and, in the final wt. of adult earthworms after 28d of exposure, to the different concns. of MPs. Nevertheless, FTIR-ATR of earthworms and histopathol. anal. of the gut provided evidences of damages and immune system responses to MPs.
- 32Lahive, E.; Walton, A.; Horton, A. A.; Spurgeon, D. J.; Svendsen, C. Microplastic Particles Reduce Reproduction in the Terrestrial Worm Enchytraeus Crypticus in a Soil Exposure. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 255, 113174, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113174Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhvF2rur7I&md5=eefd6273f001a182fc16d22b304867c0Microplastic particles reduce reproduction in the terrestrial worm Enchytraeus crypticus in a soil exposureLahive, Elma; Walton, Alexander; Horton, Alice A.; Spurgeon, David J.; Svendsen, ClausEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 255 (Part_2), 113174CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)The aim of this study was to assess the ingestion and toxicity of nylon (polyamide) particles, in three different size ranges, to Enchytraeus crypticus in a soil exposure. Effects were also compared with those of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) particles, in a single size range. Nylon particle ingestion was confirmed using fluorescence microscopy, with greatest ingestion for particles in the smallest size range (13-18μm). To investigate how particle size affected survival and reprodn., E. crypticus were exposed to nylon particles in two well-defined size ranges (13-18 and 90-150μm) and concns. of 20, 50, 90 and 120 g/kg (2-12% wt./wt.). An intermediate nylon size range (63-90μm) and a larger sized PVC particle (106-150μm), both at 90 g/kg, were also tested. Survival was not affected by either of the polymer types or sizes. Reprodn. was significantly reduced, in a dose-dependent manner, by the nylon particles at high exposure concns. (>90 g/kg). Smaller size ranges (13-18μm) had a greater effect compared to larger size ranges (>63μm), with a calcd. EC50 for the 13-18μm size range of 108 ± 8.5 g/kg. This greater hazard could be qual. linked with the ingestion of a greater no. of smaller particles. This study highlights the potential for toxic effects of plastics in small size ranges to soil organisms at high exposure concns., providing understanding of the hazards microplastics may pose in the terrestrial environment.
- 33Krogh, P. H. Does a Heterogeneous Distribution of Food or Pesticide Affect the Outcome of Toxicity Tests with Collembola?. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 1995, 30 (2), 158– 163, DOI: 10.1006/eesa.1995.1020Google Scholar33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK2MXksVWqtLs%253D&md5=837958a38e4b7adc0299a91b513489a1Does a heterogeneous distribution of food or pesticide affect the outcome of toxicity tests with Collembola?Krogh, Paul HenningEcotoxicology and Environmental Safety (1995), 30 (2), 158-63CODEN: EESADV; ISSN:0147-6513. (Academic)The reprodn. of two closely related soil microarthropods, Folsomia candida and Folsomia fimetaria (Insecta: Collembola), was tested under the influence of the insecticide dimethoate. Dimethoate had an adverse effect on the survival of adults and their reprodn. in concns. of about the recommended field dose, with F. fimetaria being more sensitive than F. candida. The exptl. conditions were altered to evaluate the realism in the basic single species/single chem. reproductive test system. The importance of the spatial distribution of dimethoate was studied with food applied to the surface (original procedure), mixed homogeneously in the whole soil profile or only in the top layer, or mixed heterogeneously into the soil preserving the small granula of the yeast originally in the com. formulation. Toxicity decreased significantly when exposure could be avoided in an uncontaminated bottom layer and even more if food was available in this soil horizon. But the results indicate that Collembola were not able to completely avoid dimethoate when they had the choice. For extrapolation purposes a simple test system may be sufficient as EC50 was changed less than one order of magnitude with the different test designs. In terms of EC50 the outcome of a toxicity test with a heterogeneous distribution of food and dimethoate was changed only slightly but the effects to suboptimally fed populations should be considered because they may be more vulnerable.
- 34Qi, R.; Jones, D. L.; Li, Z.; Liu, Q.; Yan, C. Behavior of Microplastics and Plastic Film Residues in the Soil Environment: A Critical Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 703, 134722, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134722Google Scholar34https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1aju73P&md5=de36fd6d69bcc4061e9cea9f7723b1b5Behavior of microplastics and plastic film residues in the soil environment: A critical reviewQi, Ruimin; Jones, Davey L.; Li, Zhen; Liu, Qin; Yan, ChangrongScience of the Total Environment (2020), 703 (), 134722CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. It is now widely acknowledged that microplastic pollution represents one of the greatest anthropogenically mediated threats to Earth-system functioning. In freshwater and marine ecosystems the presence of large amts. of microplastic appears almost ubiquitous, with frequent reports of neg. impacts on aquatic health. In contrast, however, the impact of plastic in terrestrial environments remains poorly understood. In agroecosystems, microplastics (particles < 5 mm) can enter the soil environment either directly (e.g. from biosolids application, irrigation water, atm. deposition), or indirectly through the in situ degrdn. of large pieces of plastic (e.g. from plastic mulch films). Although we have encouraged the use of plastics over the last 50 years in agriculture to promote greater resource use efficiency and food security, the legacy of this is that many soils are now contaminated with large amts. of plastic residue (ca. 50-250 kg ha-1). Due to difficulties in sepg. and quantifying plastic particles from soil, our knowledge of their behavior, fate and potential to transfer to other receptors (e.g. surface and groundwater, air) and enter the human food chain remains poor. This information, however, is crit. for evaluating the risk of soil-borne microplastic pollution. In this crit. review, we systematically summarize (i) the distribution and migration of microplastics in soils, (ii) highlight the sepn., extn., and identification methods for monitoring microplastics in soils, (iii) discuss the ecol. effects and pollution mechanisms of soil microplastics, (iv) propose mitigation strategies to help prevent and reduce microplastic pollution, and (v) identify the most important future challenges in soil microplastics research.
- 35Rillig, M. C.; Kim, S. W.; Kim, T.-Y.; Waldman, W. R. The Global Plastic Toxicity Debt. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (5), 2717– 2719, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07781Google Scholar35https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXktFems7g%253D&md5=63764bed552f7dc5d6a82f3d27f09e54The Global Plastic Toxicity DebtRillig, Matthias C.; Kim, Shin Woong; Kim, Tae-Young; Waldman, Walter R.Environmental Science & Technology (2021), 55 (5), 2717-2719CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 36Alimi, O. S.; Farner Budarz, J.; Hernandez, L. M.; Tufenkji, N. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Environments: Aggregation, Deposition, and Enhanced Contaminant Transport. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (4), 1704– 1724, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b05559Google Scholar36https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXitVWmtL7K&md5=c141ad5845d3f643b3dcc7d864e94067Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Environments: Aggregation, Deposition, and Enhanced Contaminant TransportAlimi, Olubukola S.; Farner Budarz, Jeffrey; Hernandez, Laura M.; Tufenkji, NathalieEnvironmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (4), 1704-1724CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review is given. Plastic litter is widely acknowledged as a global environmental threat, and poor management and disposal lead to increasing levels in the environment. Of recent concern is the degrdn. of plastics from macro- to micro- and even to nanosized particles <100 nm in size. At the nanoscale, plastics are difficult to detect and can be transported in air, soil, and water compartments. While the impact of plastic debris on marine and fresh waters and organisms has been studied, the loads, transformations, transport, and fate of plastics in terrestrial and subsurface environments are largely overlooked. Here, we 1st present estd. loads of plastics in different environmental compartments. We also provide a crit. review of the current knowledge vis-a-vis nanoplastic (NP) and microplastic (MP) aggregation, deposition, and contaminant cotransport in the environment. Important factors that affect aggregation and deposition in natural subsurface environments are identified and critically analyzed. Factors affecting contaminant sorption onto plastic debris are discussed, and we show how polyethylene generally exhibits a greater sorption capacity than other plastic types. We highlight key knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to improve our ability to predict the risks assocd. with these ubiquitous contaminants in the environment by understanding their mobility, aggregation behavior and their potential to enhance the transport of other pollutants.
- 37Wu, X.; Lyu, X.; Li, Z.; Gao, B.; Zeng, X.; Wu, J.; Sun, Y. Transport of Polystyrene Nanoplastics in Natural Soils: Effect of Soil Properties, Ionic Strength and Cation Type. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 707, 136065, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136065Google Scholar37https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXisVeqtb%252FO&md5=5c11e414a268ae195bb693371e143ba6Transport of polystyrene nanoplastics in natural soils: Effect of soil properties, ionic strength and cation typeWu, Xiaoli; Lyu, Xueyan; Li, Zhengyu; Gao, Bin; Zeng, Xiankui; Wu, Jichun; Sun, YuanyuanScience of the Total Environment (2020), 707 (), 136065CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Nanoplastics as emerging pollutants have caused growing concerns and posed potential threats to the environment. Nonetheless, only few studies investigated transport behaviors of nanoplastics in natural soils. In this study, column expts. were conducted to investigate the effect of soil properties, ionic strength and cation type on the transport of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) in a desert soil (DS), a black soil (BS) and a red soil (RS). The effluent recovery of PSNPs in three soils followed the order of DS (0%-96.8%) > BS (0%-87.5%) > RS (0%). The retention of PSNPs was pos. correlated with Fe/Al oxides contents (DS: Fe-2.69%, Al-12.6%; BS: Fe-4.04%, Al-15.9%; RS: Fe-6.57%, Al-26.9%), whereas neg. correlated with soil pH (DS: 9.75; BS: 6.57; RS: 4.97). Soil minerals and pH were thus identified as the crucial soil properties detg. transport of PSNPs, due to their coupled effects on surface charges to affect electrostatic interactions between soils and PSNPs. In addn., increasing soln. ionic strength strongly inhibited the transport of PSNPs in the DS (0%-96.8%) and BS (0%-87.5%). Ca2+ (IS: 1-5 mM) was more pronounced in enhancing PSNP retention than Na+ (IS: 1-20 mM). Our findings highlight that the transport and fate of PSNPs in natural soils are highly sensitive to soil physicochem. properties, ionic strength and cation type, and reveal that nanoplastics have strong mobility ability in soils with high pH and low Fe/Al oxides contents, which may pose potential risks to the soil and groundwater environment.
- 38Chinju, H.; Kuno, Y.; Nagasaki, S.; Tanaka, S. Deposition Behavior of Polystyrene Latex Particles on Solid Surfaces during Migration through an Artificial Fracture in a Granite Rock Sample. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2001, 38, 439– 443, DOI: 10.3327/jnst.38.439Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 39Tufenkji, N.; Elimelech, M. Breakdown of Colloid Filtration Theory: Role of the Secondary Energy Minimum and Surface Charge Heterogeneities. Langmuir 2005, 21 (3), 841– 852, DOI: 10.1021/la048102gGoogle Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXht1altA%253D%253D&md5=32f6559e39b92aeb4be877c1aad8e986Breakdown of Colloid Filtration Theory: Role of the Secondary Energy Minimum and Surface Charge HeterogeneitiesTufenkji, Nathalie; Elimelech, MenachemLangmuir (2005), 21 (3), 841-852CODEN: LANGD5; ISSN:0743-7463. (American Chemical Society)The mechanisms and causes of deviation from the classical colloid filtration theory (CFT) in the presence of repulsive Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) interactions were investigated. The deposition behavior of uniform polystyrene latex colloids in columns packed with spherical soda-lime glass beads was systematically examd. over a broad range of physicochem. conditions, whereby both the fluid-phase effluent particle concn. and the profile of retained particles were measured. Expts. conducted with three different-sized particles in a simple (1:1) electrolyte soln. reveal the controlling influence of secondary min. deposition on the deviation from CFT. In a second series of expts., sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was added to the background electrolyte soln. with the intent of masking near-neutrally charged regions of particle and collector surfaces. These results indicate that the addn. of a small amt. of anionic surfactant is sufficient to reduce the influence of certain surface charge inhomogeneities on the deviation from CFT. To verify the validity of CFT in the absence of surface charge heterogeneities, a third set of expts. was conducted using solns. of high pH to mask the influence of metal oxide impurities on glass bead surfaces. The results demonstrate that both secondary min. deposition and surface charge heterogeneities contribute significantly to the deviation from CFT generally obsd. in colloid deposition studies. It is further shown that agreement with CFT is obtained even in the presence of an energy barrier (i.e., repulsive colloidal interactions), suggesting that it is not the general existence of repulsive conditions which causes deviation but rather the combined occurrence of "fast" and "slow" particle deposition.
- 40Quevedo, I. R.; Tufenkji, N. Mobility of Functionalized Quantum Dots and a Model Polystyrene Nanoparticle in Saturated Quartz Sand and Loamy Sand. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (8), 4449– 4457, DOI: 10.1021/es2045458Google Scholar40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XktVGgs7s%253D&md5=73c83e1e681db88f49d9650f13912a04Mobility of Functionalized Quantum Dots and a Model Polystyrene Nanoparticle in Saturated Quartz Sand and Loamy SandQuevedo, Ivan R.; Tufenkji, NathalieEnvironmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (8), 4449-4457CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Quantum dots (QDs) are one example of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) with demonstrated toxic effects. Yet, little is known about the behavior of QDs in the natural environment. This study assessed the transport of 2 com. carboxylated QDs (CdTe and CdSe) and carboxylated polystyrene latex (nPL) as a model nanoparticle using satd. lab.-scale columns. The influence of soln. ionic strength (IS) and cation type (K+ or Ca2+) on the transport potential of these ENPs was examd. in 2 granular matrixes, quartz sand and loamy sand. The retention of all 3 particles was generally low in the quartz sand columns within the range of studied IS (0.1-100mM) for the monovalent salt (KCl). In contrast, the retention of the 3 ENPs in the quartz sand was significant in the presence of 10mM Ca2+. ENP attachment efficiencies (α) were enhanced by ≥1 order of magnitude in columns packed with loamy sand (for IS 0.1-10mM KCl). Although all three ENPs used here are carboxylated, they differ in the type of surface coating (e.g., choice of polymers or polyelectrolytes). Regardless of the surface coatings, the 3 ENPs exhibit comparable mobility in the quartz sand. However, the ENPs demonstrate variable transport potential in loamy sand suggesting that differences in the binding affinities of surface-modified ENPs for specific soil constituents can play a key role in the fate of ENPs in soils.
- 41Keller, A. S.; Jimenez-Martinez, J.; Mitrano, D. M. Transport of Nano- and Microplastic through Unsaturated Porous Media from Sewage Sludge Application. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 (2), 911– 920, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06483Google Scholar41https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXitl2mu7bM&md5=c104fc6be51c40fa634cb3daa4679ea7Transport of Nano- and Microplastic through Unsaturated Porous Media from Sewage Sludge ApplicationKeller, Andreas S.; Jimenez-Martinez, Joaquin; Mitrano, Denise M.Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (2), 911-920CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as important hubs for small particulate plastic, down to the nanometer scale, from urban areas to the environment. The reuse of sludge as fertilizer in agricultural practices can lead to accumulation of plastic in the soil. In this study, nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers were synthesized with a passive inorg. tracer to aid in faster and more quant. anal. using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Using the anaerobic digestate of a pilot wastewater treatment plant spiked with metal-doped plastic, the excess sludge was dewatered, ensuring realistic assocns. between sludge and plastic. The resulting sludge cake was affixed atop an unsatd. porous-medium column of glass beads to assess: (i) the release of particulate plastic from the sludge, and (ii) the accumulation and mobility of plastic and org. matter through the column (analogous to a soil). A total of three particulate plastic treatments were assessed, in triplicate, where the plastic and mobile org. fractions were monitored for 14 pore water vols. Due to size-limited transport, low deattachment from the sludge and reduced mobility through the column were found for microplastic fibers (>95% retention). However, cotransport between the mobile org. fraction and nanoplastic particles was obsd., with 50% of both retained in the column. These results contribute to the understanding of the fate of particulate plastics and to assessing the assocd. environmental risks of particle mobility and percolation, particularly for nanoplastics.
- 42Fujita, Y.; Kobayashi, M. Transport of Colloidal Silica in Unsaturated Sand: Effect of Charging Properties of Sand and Silica Particles. Chemosphere 2016, 154, 179– 186, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.03.105Google Scholar42https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XlsVWrsLo%253D&md5=7ac7d16cdb20a89a5de0091d32932c39Transport of colloidal silica in unsaturated sand: Effect of charging properties of sand and silica particlesFujita, Yosuke; Kobayashi, MotoyoshiChemosphere (2016), 154 (), 179-186CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.)We have studied the transport of colloidal silica in various degrees of a water-satd. Toyoura sand column, because silica particles are widely used as catalyst carriers and abrasive agents, and their toxicity is reported recently. Since water-silica, water-sand, and air-water interfaces have pH-dependent neg. charges, the magnitude of surface charge was controlled by changing the soln. pH. The results show that, at high pH conditions (pH 7.4), the deposition of colloidal silica to the sand surface is interrupted and the silica concn. at the column outlet immediately reaches the input concn. in satd. conditions. In addn., the relative concn. of silica at the column outlet only slightly decreases to 0.9 with decreasing degrees of water satn. to 38%, because silica particles are trapped in straining regions in the soil pore and air-water interface. On the other hand, at pH 5 conditions (low pH), where sand and colloid have less charge, reduced repulsive forces result in colloidal silica attaching onto the sand in satd. conditions. The deposition amt. of silica particles remarkably increases with decreasing degrees of water satn. to 37%, which is explained by more particles being retained in the sand column assocd. with the air-water interface. In conclusion, at higher pH, the mobility of silica particles is high, and the air-water interface is inactive for the deposition of silica. On the other hand, at low pH, the deposition amt. increases with decreasing water satn., and the particle transport is inhibited.
- 43Kumahor, S. K.; Hron, P.; Metreveli, G.; Schaumann, G. E.; Vogel, H.-J. Transport of Citrate-Coated Silver Nanoparticles in Unsaturated Sand. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 535, 113– 121, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.023Google Scholar43https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjvF2msb8%253D&md5=b1263e5e6b03b352dc23cd70ccb2b072Transport of citrate-coated silver nanoparticles in unsaturated sandKumahor, Samuel K.; Hron, Pavel; Metreveli, George; Schaumann, Gabriele E.; Vogel, Hans-JoergScience of the Total Environment (2015), 535 (), 113-121CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Chem. factors and phys. constraints lead to coupled effects during particle transport in unsatd. porous media. Studies on unsatd. transport as typical for soils are currently scarce. In unsatd. porous media, particle mobility is detd. by the existence of an air-water interface in addn. to a solid-water interface. We measured breakthrough curves and retention profiles of citrate-coated Ag nanoparticles in unsatd. sand at 2 pH values (5 and 9) and 3 different flow rates corresponding to different water contents with 1mM KNO3 as background electrolyte. The classical DLVO theory suggests unfavorable deposition conditions at the air-water and solid-water interfaces. The breakthrough curves indicate modification in curve shapes and retardation of nanoparticles compared to inert solute. Retention profiles show sensitivity to flow rate and pH and this ranged from almost no retention for the highest flow rate at pH 9 to almost complete retention for the lowest flow rate at pH 5. Modeling of the breakthrough curves, thus, required coupling 2 parallel processes: a kinetically controlled attachment process far from equil., responsible for the shape modification, and an equil. sorption, responsible for particle retardation. The non-equil. process and equil. sorption are suggested to relate to the solid-water and air-water interfaces, resp. This is supported by the DLVO model extended for hydrophobic interactions which suggests reversible attachment, characterized by a secondary min. (depth 3-5 KT) and a repulsive barrier at the air-water interface. In contrast, the solid-water interface is characterized by a significant repulsive barrier and the absence of a secondary min. suggesting kinetically controlled and non-equil. interaction. This study provides new insights into particle transport in unsatd. porous media and offers a model concept representing the relevant processes.
- 44Torkzaban, S.; Bradford, S. A.; van Genuchten, M. Th; Walker, S. L. Colloid Transport in Unsaturated Porous Media: The Role of Water Content and Ionic Strength on Particle Straining. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2008, 96 (1), 113– 127, DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2007.10.006Google Scholar44https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhtlGgsbk%253D&md5=b2bb2bf0e9bceb0da3f43fa06c15ef0bColloid transport in unsaturated porous media: the role of water content and ionic strength on particle strainingTorkzaban, Saeed; Bradford, Scott A.; van Genuchten, Martinus Th.; Walker, Sharon L.Journal of Contaminant Hydrology (2008), 96 (1-4), 113-127CODEN: JCOHE6; ISSN:0169-7722. (Elsevier B.V.)Packed column and math. modeling studies were conducted to explore the influence of water satn., pore-water ionic strength, and grain size on the transport of latex microspheres (1.1 μm) in porous media. Expts. were carried out under chem. unfavorable conditions for colloid attachment to both solid-water interfaces (SWI) and air-water interfaces (AWI) using neg. charged and hydrophilic colloids and modifying the soln. chem. with a bicarbonate buffer to pH 10. Interaction energy calcns. and complementary batch expts. were conducted and demonstrated that partitioning of colloids to the SWI and AWI was insignificant across the range of the ionic strengths considered. The breakthrough curve and final deposition profile were measured in each expt. indicating colloid retention was highly dependent on the suspension ionic strength, water content, and sand grain size. In contrast to conventional filtration theory, most colloids were found deposited close to the column inlet, and hyper-exponential deposition profiles were obsd. A math. model, accounting for time- and depth-dependent straining, produced a reasonably good fit for both the breakthrough curves and final deposition profiles. Exptl. and modeling results suggest that straining - the retention of colloids in low velocity regions of porous media such as grain junctions - was the primary mechanism of colloid retention under both satd. and unsatd. conditions. The extent of stagnant regions of flow within the pore structure is enhanced with decreasing water content, leading to a greater amt. of retention. Ionic strength also contributes to straining, because the no. of colloids that are held in the secondary energy min. increases with ionic strength. These weakly assocd. colloids are prone to be translated to stagnation regions formed at grain-grain junctions, the solid-water-air triple point, and dead-end pores and then becoming trapped.
- 45Flury, M.; Aramrak, S. Role of Air-Water Interfaces in Colloid Transport in Porous Media: A Review. Water Resour. Res. 2017, 53 (7), 5247– 5275, DOI: 10.1002/2017WR020597Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46Jégou, D.; Cluzeau, D.; Balesdent, J.; Tréhen, P. Effects of Four Ecological Categories of Earthworms on Carbon Transfer in Soil. Appl. Soil Ecol. 1998, 9 (1), 249– 255, DOI: 10.1016/S0929-1393(97)00057-7Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 47Don, A.; Steinberg, B.; Schöning, I.; Pritsch, K.; Joschko, M.; Gleixner, G.; Schulze, E.-D. Organic Carbon Sequestration in Earthworm Burrows. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2008, 40 (7), 1803– 1812, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.03.003Google Scholar47https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXnt1eks7k%253D&md5=fc79adc797fe54e0ee9b6e5d1985a276Organic carbon sequestration in earthworm burrowsDon, Axel; Steinberg, Bert; Schoening, Ingo; Pritsch, Karin; Joschko, Monika; Gleixner, Gerd; Schulze, Ernst-DetlefSoil Biology & Biochemistry (2008), 40 (7), 1803-1812CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Earthworms strongly affect soil org. carbon cycling. The aim of this study was to det. whether deep burrowing anecic earthworms enhance carbon storage in soils and decrease C turnover. Earthworm burrow linings were sepd. into thin cylindrical sections with different distances from the burrow wall to det. gradients from the burrow wall to the surrounding soil. Org. C, total N, radiocarbon (14C) concn., stable isotope values (δ 13C, δ 15N) and extracellular enzyme activities were measured in these samples. Anecic earthworms increased C stocks by 270 and 310 g m-2 accumulated in the vertical burrows. C-enrichment of the burrow linings was spatially highly variable within a distance of millimeters around the burrow walls. C accumulation in burrows can be fast with C sequestration rates of about 22 g C m-2 yr-1 in the burrow linings, but accumulated C in the burrows may be mineralized fast with turnover times of only 3-5 years. Carbon stocks in earthworm burrows strongly depended on the earthworm activity which maintains continuous C input into the burrows. The enhanced extracellular enzyme activity of fresh casts was not persistent, but was 47% lower in inhabited burrows and 62% lower in abandoned burrows. Enzyme activities followed the C concns. in the burrows and were not further suppressed due to earthworms. Radiocarbon concns. and stable isotopes in the burrow linings showed an exponential gradient with the youngest and less degraded org. matter in the innermost part of the burrow wall. Carbon accumulation by anecic earthworm is restricted to distinct burrows with less influence to the surrounding soil. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, that org. C is stabilized due to earthworms, relaxation time expts. with NMR spectroscopy (NMR) did not reveal any enhanced adsorption of C on iron oxides with C stabilizing effect. Thus, earthworm activity does not substantially increase subsoil C stocks but burrows serve as fast ways for fresh C transport into deep soil horizons.
- 48Bouché, M. B. Strategies Lombriciennes. Ecol. Bull. 1977, (25), 122– 132Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Platt, B. F.; Kolb, D. J.; Kunhardt, C. G.; Milo, S. P.; New, L. G. Burrowing Through the Literature: The Impact of Soil-Disturbing Vertebrates on Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil. Soil Sci. 2016, 181 (3/4), 175, DOI: 10.1097/SS.0000000000000150Google Scholar49https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xmt12lsrs%253D&md5=890e0372cee6b3610fac9fbef8c28709Burrowing Through the Literature: The Impact of Soil-Disturbing Vertebrates on Physical and Chemical Properties of SoilPlatt, Brian F.; Kolb, Dakota J.; Kunhardt, Christian G.; Milo, Scott P.; New, Lee G.Soil Science (2016), 181 (3/4), 175-191CODEN: SOSCAK; ISSN:0038-075X. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins)Soil-disturbing vertebrates (SDV) are relatively low in biodiversity and biomass compared with the dominant soil fauna (microorganisms and invertebrates), but they can nevertheless have a great impact on the phys. and chem. properties of soils. Our goal is to take an ichnol. (organism-substrate interactions)-based approach to review the impacts of SDV on soils; these impacts result in three basic categories of phys. structures (traces): subterranean excavations, constructed surficial mounds, and surficial excavations and depressions. We focus on direct rather than indirect effects and frame these in terms of soil addns., losses, translocations, and transformations. We look at publication trends in the SDV literature and graphically summarize examples of max. reported construction heights, excavation depths, and vols. of soil displacement for various SDV. We then review SDV impacts on soil color, texture, horizonation, structure, bulk d., soil moisture, porosity and permeability, org. matter, pH, cation exchange capacity, and the nutrients Ca, Mg, N, K, P, S, and Si. Translocations are common sources of variation in these properties and may be esp. important in creating nutrient-rich patches in otherwise limited landscapes. Common results of SDV activity include destruction of soil structure, decreases in bulk d., and increases in infiltration rates, porosity, and permeability. Addns. of excrement and plant material are important sources of org. matter, N, and K. Direct soil losses may occur through geophagy and trampling and wallowing behaviors. Erosion is an important indirect impact often related to killing of surface vegetation from mounding and foraging behaviors.
- 50Taylor, A. R.; Lenoir, L.; Vegerfors, B.; Persson, T. Ant and Earthworm Bioturbation in Cold-Temperate Ecosystems. Ecosystems 2019, 22, 981– 994, DOI: 10.1007/s10021-018-0317-2Google Scholar50https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXis1WitbjE&md5=2fab43b7383cf0ac9d6b213bb71a1613Ant and Earthworm Bioturbation in Cold-Temperate EcosystemsTaylor, A. R.; Lenoir, L.; Vegerfors, B.; Persson, T.Ecosystems (2019), 22 (5), 981-994CODEN: ECOSFJ; ISSN:1432-9840. (Springer)In temperate ecosystems, earthworms and ants are the most important organisms for bioturbation. Little is known about how these groups contribute to bioturbation in different environments and to what extent overall bioturbation depends on their diversity. We developed a formula that allows quantification of annual earthworm bioturbation, thereby taking differences between earthworm ecotypes into account. With this formula, we calcd. earthworm bioturbation at three sites, each with vegetation types typically found in Northern Europe. Earthworm bioturbation was low (1 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1) in Scots pine and Norway spruce forests with acidic soil (pH 3.9-4.4) and high (between 15 and 34 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1) in broadleaf forests, grasslands, alder carr and spruce forests on calcareous soil. Burrowing (endogeic and anecic) earthworms accounted for most of the earthworm bioturbation, and these worms had the highest population densities at moderate-to-high soil pH (pH 5-7.2). Ests. of ant bioturbation at the same sites were based on nest abundance, size and residence time. Mean ant bioturbation varied between 0.2 and 1 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1, but individual plots had up to 2.4 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1. In soils with pH higher than 5, the relative contribution of ants to total bioturbation was only 1-5%. Ant bioturbation was higher than earthworm bioturbation only in some forest soils with pH 3.9-4.4. Thus, earthworms appear to be the dominant cause of bioturbation in most types of terrestrial ecosystems in the cold-temperate areas of Europe and when information on local earthworm communities and monthly soil temps. is available, bioturbation can be quantified using the presented 'earthworm bioturbation formula'.
- 51Jégou, D.; Cluzeau, D.; Hallaire, V.; Balesdent, J.; Tréhen, P. Burrowing Activity of the Earthworms Lumbricus Terrestris and Aporrectodea Giardi and Consequences on C Transfers in Soil. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 2000, 36 (1), 27– 34, DOI: 10.1016/S1164-5563(00)01046-3Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 52Jarvis, N. J.; Taylor, A.; Larsbo, M.; Etana, A.; Rosén, K. Modelling the Effects of Bioturbation on the Re-Distribution of 137Cs in an Undisturbed Grassland Soil. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2010, 61 (1), 24– 34, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01209.xGoogle Scholar52https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhvFajs78%253D&md5=a55b6ff68d62163a43173738aa223835Modelling the effects of bioturbation on the re-distribution of 137Cs in an undisturbed grassland soilJarvis, N. J.; Taylor, A.; Larsbo, M.; Etana, A.; Rosen, K.European Journal of Soil Science (2010), 61 (1), 24-34CODEN: ESOSES; ISSN:1351-0754. (Wiley-Blackwell)Under favorable conditions, soil ingestion by earthworm populations can be equiv. to approx. 5-10% of the topsoil mass per yr. This suggests that for contaminants that are strongly bound to soil, earthworm 'bioturbation' may be a more important transport mechanism than water-borne advection dispersion. It is therefore quite surprising that few modeling studies to date have explicitly considered the effects of biol. processes on contaminant transport in soil. In this study, we present a general model that incorporates the effects of both 'local' and 'non-local' biol. mixing into the framework of the std. phys. (advective-dispersive) transport model. The model is tested against measurements of the redistribution of caesium-137 (137Cs) derived from the Chernobyl accident, in a grassland soil during 21 years after fallout. Three model parameters related to biol. transport were calibrated within ranges defined by measured data and literature information on earthworm biomasses and feeding rates. Other parameters such as decay half-life and sorption const. were set to known or measured values. A phys. advective-dispersive transport model based on measured sorption strongly underestimated the downward displacement of 137Cs. A dye-tracing expt. suggested the occurrence of phys. non-equil. transport in soil macropores, but this was inadequate to explain the extent of the deep penetration of 137Cs obsd. at the site. A simple bio-diffusion model representing 'local' mixing worked reasonably well, but failed to reproduce the deep penetration of Cs as well as a diln. obsd. close to the soil surface. A comprehensive model including phys. advective-dispersive transport, and both 'local' and 'non-local' mixing caused by the activities of both endogeic and anecic earthworms, gave an excellent match to the measured depth profiles of 137Cs, with predictions mostly lying within confidence intervals for the means of measured data and model efficiencies exceeding 0.9 on all sampling occasions but the first.
- 53Rillig, M. C.; Ziersch, L.; Hempel, S. Microplastic Transport in Soil by Earthworms. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7 (1), 1362, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01594-7Google Scholar53https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1crjsVanug%253D%253D&md5=6cbf77df501d391053be2a1d82609304Microplastic transport in soil by earthwormsRillig Matthias C; Ziersch Lisa; Hempel Stefan; Rillig Matthias C; Hempel StefanScientific reports (2017), 7 (1), 1362 ISSN:.Despite great general benefits derived from plastic use, accumulation of plastic material in ecosystems, and especially microplastic, is becoming an increasing environmental concern. Microplastic has been extensively studied in aquatic environments, with very few studies focusing on soils. We here tested the idea that microplastic particles (polyethylene beads) could be transported from the soil surface down the soil profile via earthworms. We used Lumbricus terrestris L., an anecic earthworm species, in a factorial greenhouse experiment with four different microplastic sizes. Presence of earthworms greatly increased the presence of microplastic particles at depth (we examined 3 soil layers, each 3.5 cm deep), with smaller PE microbeads having been transported downward to a greater extent. Our study clearly shows that earthworms can be significant transport agents of microplastics in soils, incorporating this material into soil, likely via casts, burrows (affecting soil hydraulics), egestion and adherence to the earthworm exterior. This movement has potential consequences for exposure of other soil biota to microplastics, for the residence times of microplastic at greater depth, and for the possible eventual arrival of microplastics in the groundwater.
- 54Baccaro, M.; Harrison, S.; van den Berg, H.; Sloot, L.; Hermans, D.; Cornelis, G.; van Gestel, C. A.M.; van den Brink, N. W. Bioturbation of Ag2S-NPs in Soil Columns by Earthworms. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 252, 155– 162, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.106Google Scholar54https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtVGhurbK&md5=fdc41df602acefec5e03ce9867d04df2Bioturbation of Ag2S-NPs in soil columns by earthwormsBaccaro, Marta; Harrison, Samuel; van den Berg, Hans; Sloot, Laura; Hermans, Davy; Cornelis, Geert; van Gestel, Cornelis A. M.; van den Brink, Nico W.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 252 (Part_A), 155-162CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Sewage sludge contains Ag2S-NPs causing NP exposure of soil fauna when sludge is applied as soil amendment. Earthworm bioturbation is an important process affecting many soil functions. Bioturbation may be affected by the presence of Ag2S-NPs, but the earthworm activity itself may also influence the displacement of these NPs that otherwise show little transport in the soil. The aim of this study was to det. effects of Ag2S-NPs on earthworm bioturbation and effect of this bioturbation on the vertical distribution of Ag2S-NPs. Columns (12 cm) of a sandy loamy soil with and without Lumbricus rubellus were prepd. with and without 10 mg Ag kg-1, applied as Ag2S-NPs in the top 2 cm of the soil, while artificial rainwater was applied at ∼1.2 mm day-1. The soil columns were sampled at three depths weekly for 28 days and leachate collected from the bottom. Total Ag measurements showed more displacement of Ag to deeper soil layers in the columns with earthworms. The application of rain only did not significantly affect Ag transport in the soil. No Ag was detected in column leachates. X-ray tomog. showed that changes in macro porosity and pore size distribution as a result of bioturbation were not different between columns with and without Ag2S-NPs. Earthworm activity was therefore not affected by Ag2S-NPs at the used exposure concn. Ag concns. along the columns and the earthworm d. allowed the calcn. of the bioturbation rate. The effect on the Ag transport in the soil shows that earthworm burrowing activity is a relevant process that must be taken into account when studying the fate of nanoparticles in soils.
- 55Capowiez, Y.; Sammartino, S.; Michel, E. Using X-Ray Tomography to Quantify Earthworm Bioturbation Non-Destructively in Repacked Soil Cores. Geoderma 2011, 162 (1), 124– 131, DOI: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.01.011Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 56Astete, C. E.; Constant, W. D.; Thibodeaux, L. J.; Seals, R. K.; Selim, H. M. Bioturbation-Driven Particle Transport in Surface Soil: The Biodiffusion Coefficient Mobility Parameter. Soil Sci. 2015, 180 (1), 2– 9, DOI: 10.1097/SS.0000000000000109Google Scholar56https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXntFSnsLs%253D&md5=677b76570e5b9422e81d8ea2073b8250Bioturbation-Driven Particle Transport in Surface Soil: The Biodiffusion Coefficient Mobility ParameterAstete, Carlos E.; Constant, W. David; Thibodeaux, Louis J.; Seals, Roger K.; Selim, H. MagdiSoil Science (2015), 180 (1), 2-9CODEN: SOSCAK; ISSN:0038-075X. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins)Macrofauna-induced bioturbation of soil is dominated by earthworms, among other invertebrates, in most grassland and forest soil. First obsd. by Darwin, bioturbation drives particle mixing in the upper surface layers, leading to beneficial results to agricultural soils, including enhanced porosity, water permeability, and aeration and improved org. matter and nutrient distributions. Applied pesticides and other chems. residing on surface soils are transported downward into the soil column by a random mixing of particles. This phys. particle diffusion, which conceptually mimics the random mixing of mol. species in fluids, is treated as a Fickian chem. flux mechanism. Using this mechanism, for the mobility rate, while extending the soil-water advection-dispersion model to particles, yields a theor. approach for obtaining the biodiffusion coeff. (Db). The Db is a numerical soil parameter reflecting biol.-induced particle movement and differs significantly from the conventional phys. and chem. diffusion coeffs. It is a kinetic parameter with units of square centimeters per yr and when used with the bulk d. gradient quantifies the soil particle mobility rate within the bioturbated surface layer. Field measurements on soil turnover rates and mixing depth from the literature, including Darwin's work, were used to produce Db data sets for earthworms, ants, termites, and so on. The highly variable coeffs. necessitate lognormal statistics to summarize the findings. However, the av. Db values for the three invertebrates were 2.12, 0.39, and 0.75 cm year, resp., and surprisingly similar. The need for more field and lab. data, process-based and species-specific theor. models, and chem.-based soil Db are discussed.
- 57Meysman, F. J. R.; Boudreau, B. P.; Middelburg, J. J. Relations between Local, Nonlocal, Discrete and Continuous Models of Bioturbation. J. Mar. Res. 2003, 61, 391– 410, DOI: 10.1357/002224003322201241Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 58Huerta Lwanga, E.; Gertsen, H.; Gooren, H.; Peters, P.; Salanki, T.; van der Ploeg, M.; Besseling, E.; Koelmans, A. A.; Geissen, V. Incorporation of Microplastics from Litter into Burrows of Lumbricus Terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 523– 531, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.096Google Scholar58https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xhs1CltLvJ&md5=d64c76f4f696a171cf487dbe61906c58Incorporation of microplastics from litter into burrows of Lumbricus terrestrisHuerta Lwanga, Esperanza; Gertsen, Hennie; Gooren, Harm; Peters, Piet; Salanki, Tamas; van der Ploeg, Martine; Besseling, Ellen; Koelmans, Albert A.; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 523-531CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Pollution caused by plastic debris is an urgent environmental problem. Here, we assessed the effects of microplastics in the soil surface litter on the formation and characterization of burrows built by the anecic earthworm Lumbricus terrestris in soil and quantified the amt. of microplastics that was transported and deposited in L. terrestris burrows. Worms were exposed to soil surface litter treatments contg. microplastics (Low D. Polyethylene) for 2 wk at concns. of 0%, 7%, 28%, 45% and 60%. The latter representing environmentally realistic concns. found in hot spot soil locations. There were significantly more burrows found when soil was exposed to the surface treatment composed of 7% microplastics than in all other treatments. The highest amt. of org. matter in the walls of the burrows was obsd. after using the treatments contg. 28 and 45% microplastics. The highest microplastic bioturbation efficiency ratio (total microplastics (mg) in burrow walls/initial total surface litter microplastics (mg)) was found using the concn. of 7% microplastics, where L. terrestris introduced 73.5% of the surface microplastics into the burrow walls. The highest burrow wall microplastic content per unit wt. of soil (11.8 ± 4.8 g kg-1) was found using a concn. of 60% microplastics. L. terrestris was responsible for size-selective downward transport when exposed to concns. of 7, 28 and 45% microplastics in the surface litter, as the fraction ≤50 μm microplastics in burrow walls increased by 65% compared to this fraction in the original surface litter plastic. We conclude that the high biogenic incorporation rate of the small-fraction microplastics from surface litter into burrow walls causes a risk of leaching through preferential flow into groundwater bodies. Furthermore, this leaching may have implications for the subsequent availability of microplastics to terrestrial organisms or for the transport of plastic-assocd. org. contaminants in soil.
- 59Huerta Lwanga, E.; Mendoza Vega, J.; Ku Quej, V.; Chi, J. d. l. A.; Sanchez del Cid, L.; Chi, C.; Escalona Segura, G.; Gertsen, H.; Salanki, T.; van der Ploeg, M.; Koelmans, A. A.; Geissen, V. Field Evidence for Transfer of Plastic Debris along a Terrestrial Food Chain. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7 (1), 14071, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14588-2Google Scholar59https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1M7kvFOitg%253D%253D&md5=a2f98aa8402763d5c3481b87a65229f8Field evidence for transfer of plastic debris along a terrestrial food chainHuerta Lwanga Esperanza; Mendoza Vega Jorge; Ku Quej Victor; Chi Jesus de Los Angeles; Sanchez Del Cid Lucero; Huerta Lwanga Esperanza; Gertsen Henny; van der Ploeg Martine; Geissen Violette; Chi Cesar; Escalona Segura Griselda; Salanki Tamas; Koelmans Albert A; Koelmans Albert AScientific reports (2017), 7 (1), 14071 ISSN:.Although plastic pollution happens globally, the micro- (<5 mm) and macroplastic (5-150 mm) transfer of plastic to terrestrial species relevant to human consumption has not been examined. We provide first-time evidence for micro- and macroplastic transfer from soil to chickens in traditional Mayan home gardens in Southeast Mexico where waste mismanagement is common. We assessed micro- and macroplastic in soil, earthworm casts, chicken feces, crops and gizzards (used for human consumption). Microplastic concentrations increased from soil (0.87 ± 1.9 particles g(-1)), to earthworm casts (14.8 ± 28.8 particles g(-1)), to chicken feces (129.8 ± 82.3 particles g(-1)). Chicken gizzards contained 10.2 ± 13.8 microplastic particles, while no microplastic was found in crops. An average of 45.82 ± 42.6 macroplastic particles were found per gizzard and 11 ± 15.3 macroplastic particles per crop, with 1-10 mm particles being significantly more abundant per gizzard (31.8 ± 27.27 particles) compared to the crop (1 ± 2.2 particles). The data show that micro- and macroplastic are capable of entering terrestrial food webs.
- 60Sanchez-Hernandez, J. C.; Capowiez, Y.; Ro, K. S. Potential Use of Earthworms to Enhance Decaying of Biodegradable Plastics. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2020, 8 (11), 4292– 4316, DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b05450Google Scholar60https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXisF2hsbg%253D&md5=38929ca7a1e49ba120f4ea0e698fc542Potential Use of Earthworms to Enhance Decaying of Biodegradable PlasticsSanchez-Hernandez, Juan C.; Capowiez, Yvan; Ro, Kyoung S.ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2020), 8 (11), 4292-4316CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)A review. Biosolid application, wastewater irrigation, and plastic mulching technologies are major sources of plastic pollution in agroecosystems. Microplastics may interact with soil physicochem. properties and organisms and neg. affect plant growth. To alleviate environmental plastic pollution, synthetic and biobased biodegradable polymers are replacing nonbiodegradable polymers, but their biodegrdn. rate in the field is frequently lower than that estd. from standardized biodegrdn. testing. Plastic polymer biodegrdn. is a multistep process that involves plastic deterioration, microbial colonization, prodn. of polymer-degrading exoenzymes, and mineralization. However, these physicochem. and biol. processes are not always efficient because of unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g., temp., soil moisture). We propose to use earthworms to increase the biodegradable polymer biodegrdn. rate by creating optimal habitats for microbial proliferation. Earthworm-induced processes that lead to soil alteration (bioturbation) and solid org. wastes decompn. (vermicomposting) are described to understand how earthworms may favor biodegradable plastic mineralization. Therefore, we suggest two practical sustainable bioengineering strategies: (1) enhancing bioturbation by inoculating agricultural soils with soil-dwelling earthworms, which is viable for horticulture where using biodegradable mulching films increases plastic debris in the soil and (2) vermicomposting with blended biodegradable plastic debris and solid org. wastes, which is complementary to industrial or home composting of single-use biodegradable plastics. Earthworm bioturbation and vermicomposting are sustainable strategies for end-of-life management of biodegradable plastics.
- 61Thomas, D.; Schütze, B.; Heinze, W. M.; Steinmetz, Z. Sample Preparation Techniques for the Analysis of Microplastics in Soil─A Review. Sustainability 2020, 12 (21), 9074, DOI: 10.3390/su12219074Google Scholar61https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXis1emtrrF&md5=c7d5505d4558181bd0e08b3fa01aac14Sample preparation techniques for the analysis of microplastics in soil-a reviewThomas, Daniela; Schuetze, Berit; Heinze, Wiebke Mareile; Steinmetz, ZachariasSustainability (2020), 12 (21), 9074CODEN: SUSTDE; ISSN:2071-1050. (MDPI AG)Although most plastic pollution originates on land, current research largely remains focused on aquatic ecosystems. Studies pioneering terrestrial microplastic research have adapted anal. methods from aquatic research without acknowledging the complex nature of soil. Meanwhile, novel methods have been developed and further refined. However, methodical inconsistencies still challenge a comprehensive understanding of microplastic occurrence and fate in and on soil. This review aims to disentangle the variety of state-of-the-art sample prepn. techniques for heterogeneous solid matrixes to identify and discuss best-practice methods for soil-focused microplastic analyses. We show that soil sampling, homogenization, and aggregate dispersion are often neglected or incompletely documented. Microplastic preconcn. is typically performed by sepg. inorg. soil constituents with high-d. salt solns. Not yet standardized but currently most used sepn. setups involve overflowing beakers to retrieve supernatant plastics, although closed-design sepn. funnels probably reduce the risk of contamination. Fenton reagent may be particularly useful to digest soil org. matter if suspected to interfere with subsequent microplastic quantification. A promising new approach is extn. of target polymers with org. solvents. However, insufficiently characterized soils still impede an informed decision on optimal sample prepn. Further research and method development thus requires thorough validation and quality control with well-characterized matrixes to enable robust routine analyses for terrestrial microplastics.
- 62Li, J.; Song, Y.; Cai, Y. Focus Topics on Microplastics in Soil: Analytical Methods, Occurrence, Transport, and Ecological Risks. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 257, 113570, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113570Google Scholar62https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1KrtLfJ&md5=02e5b84c8d38ea97909ed7410431f5f0Focus topics on microplastics in soil: Analytical methods, occurrence, transport, and ecological risksLi, Jia; Song, Yang; Cai, YongbingEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 257 (), 113570CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review. Microplastics with extremely high abundances are universally detected in marine and terrestrial systems. Microplastic pollution in the aquatic environment, esp. in ocean, has become a hot topic and raised global attention. However, microplastics in soils has been largely overlooked. In this paper, the anal. methods, occurrence, transport, and potential ecol. risks of microplastics in soil environments have been reviewed. Although several anal. methods have been established, a universal, efficient, faster, and low-cost anal. method is still not available. Current data on abundance and distribution of microplastics in soils are still limited, and results obtained from different studies differ significantly. Once entering into surface soil, microplastics can migrate to deep soil through different processes, e.g. leaching, bioturbation, and farming activities. Presence of microplastics with high abundance in soils can alter fundamental properties of soils. But current conclusions on microplastics on soil organisms are still conflicting. Overall, research on microplastics pollution in soils is still in its infancy and there are gaps in the knowledge of microplastics pollution in soil environments. Many questions such as pollution level, ecol. risks, transport behaviors and the control mechanisms are still unclear, which needs further systematical study.
- 63Wang, W.; Ge, J.; Yu, X.; Li, H. Environmental Fate and Impacts of Microplastics in Soil Ecosystems: Progress and Perspective. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 708, 134841, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134841Google Scholar63https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1Ohsb3N&md5=a50914a4d2b1d966c69e136aa8bf92a7Environmental fate and impacts of microplastics in soil ecosystems: Progress and perspectiveWang, Wenfeng; Ge, Jing; Yu, Xiangyang; Li, HuiScience of the Total Environment (2020), 708 (), 134841CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. The wide and intensive application of plastics and their derived products has resulted in global environmental contamination of plastic waste. Large-sized plastic litter can be fragmented into microplastics (<5 mm), which have attracted increasing concerns from the general public and scientific communities worldwide. Until recently, the majority of microplastics research reported in literatures has been focusing on the aquatic settings, esp. the marine environment, while information about microplastics contamination in terrestrial soil systems is highly insufficient. In this paper, we reviewed the latest data regarding the occurrence of microplastics in terrestrial soils and discussed their potential pathways into the soil environment. We also summarized the currently used methodologies for extn. and characterization of microplastics in soil matrixes and evaluated their advantages and limitations. Addnl., we assessed the ecotoxicol. consequences of microplastics contamination on soil ecosystems, including the effects on soil physiochem. properties, terrestrial plants, soil fauna, and soil microbes. Finally, based on the most current progress summarized in this review, we suggested several directions for future research on microplastics in soil ecosystems.
- 64Löder, M. G. J.; Kuczera, M.; Mintenig, S.; Lorenz, C.; Gerdts, G. Focal Plane Array Detector-Based Micro-Fourier-Transform Infrared Imaging for the Analysis of Microplastics in Environmental Samples. Environ. Chem. 2015, 12 (5), 563– 581, DOI: 10.1071/EN14205Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 65He, D.; Luo, Y.; Lu, S.; Liu, M.; Song, Y.; Lei, L. Microplastics in Soils: Analytical Methods, Pollution Characteristics and Ecological Risks. TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. 2018, 109, 163– 172, DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.006Google Scholar65https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhvFygurnN&md5=b44eeffd850362343a4c6f72414e5cc2Microplastics in soils: Analytical methods, pollution characteristics and ecological risksHe, Defu; Luo, Yongming; Lu, Shibo; Liu, Mengting; Song, Yang; Lei, LiliTrAC, Trends in Analytical Chemistry (2018), 109 (), 163-172CODEN: TTAEDJ; ISSN:0165-9936. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Microplastics are emerging persistent contaminants of increasing concern. Although microplastics have been extensively detected in aquatic environments, their occurrence in soil ecosystems remains largely unexplored. This review focused on recent progress in anal. methods, pollution characteristics and ecol. effects of microplastics in soils. In spite of the presence of microplastics in soils, no standardized methods are available for the quantification. Uniform protocols including microplastic extn. and identification are urgently needed to develop. In soil environments, main sources of microplastics include mulching film, sludge, wastewater irrigation and atm. deposition. The fate of microplastics is closely related to soil physio-chem. and biota. Existing evidence shows that microplastics can influence soil biota at different trophic levels, and even threaten human health through food chains. Therefore, further research is needed to fully reveal the fate and ecol. risks of microplastics in soils; and necessary action is required to control microplastic pollution in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 66Dierkes, G.; Lauschke, T.; Becher, S.; Schumacher, H.; Földi, C.; Ternes, T. Quantification of Microplastics in Environmental Samples via Pressurized Liquid Extraction and Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2019, 411 (26), 6959– 6968, DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-02066-9Google Scholar66https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhslWktLzL&md5=d227254291f7c3683c700cdb4a9fa445Quantification of microplastics in environmental samples via pressurized liquid extraction and pyrolysis-gas chromatographyDierkes, Georg; Lauschke, Tim; Becher, Susanne; Schumacher, Heike; Foeldi, Corinna; Ternes, ThomasAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2019), 411 (26), 6959-6968CODEN: ABCNBP; ISSN:1618-2642. (Springer)Quantifying microplastics (MP) in environmental samples is a challenging task. To enable low quantification limits, an anal. method was developed which combines pressurized liq. extn. (PLE) and pyrolysis gas chromatog./mass spectrometry. Automated extn. includes a pre-extn. step with methanol followed by a subsequent PLE with THF. For the most frequently used synthetic polymers (polyethylene [PE], polypropylene [P] polystyrene [S]), limits of quantification achieved were down to 0.007 mg/g. Recoveries >80% were attained in solid matrixes, e.g., soil and sediment. This method was used to quantify MP in environmental matrixes (sediment, suspended matter, soil, wastewater sludge). In these matrixes, PE and PP were detected at concns. of 0.03-3.3 mg/g. In sludge, all three polymers were present at concns. of 0.08 ± 0.02 mg/g (PP) and 3.3 ± 0.3 mg/g (PE). For solid matrixes in particular, anal. of triplicates showed elevated statistical uncertainties due to the inhomogeneous distribution of MP particles. Thus, care must be taken when milling and homogenizing samples due to agglomerate formation.
- 67Mitrano, D. M.; Beltzung, A.; Frehland, S.; Schmiedgruber, M.; Cingolani, A.; Schmidt, F. Synthesis of Metal-Doped Nanoplastics and Their Utility to Investigate Fate and Behaviour in Complex Environmental Systems. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2019, 14 (4), 362, DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0360-3Google Scholar67https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXmtF2nsLk%253D&md5=00ec219e04c358c61d03bf69f3247ce2Synthesis of metal-doped nanoplastics and their utility to investigate fate and behaviour in complex environmental systemsMitrano, Denise M.; Beltzung, Anna; Frehland, Stefan; Schmiedgruber, Michael; Cingolani, Alberto; Schmidt, FelixNature Nanotechnology (2019), 14 (4), 362-368CODEN: NNAABX; ISSN:1748-3387. (Nature Research)Research on the distribution and effects of particulate plastic has intensified in recent years and yet, due to anal. challenges, our understanding of nanoplastic occurrence and behavior has remained comparatively elusive. However, process studies could greatly aid in defining key parameters for nanoplastic interactions within and transfers between tech. and environmental compartments. Here we provide a method to synthesize nanoplastic particles doped with a chem. entrapped metal used as a tracer, which provides a robust way to detect nanoplastics more easily, accurately and quant. in complex media. We show the utility of this approach in batch studies that simulate the activated sludge process of a municipal waste water treatment plant and so better understand the fate of nanoplastics in urban environments. We found that the majority of particles were assocd. with the sludge (>98%), with an av. recovery of over 93% of the spiked material achieved. We believe that this approach can be developed further to study the fate, transport, mechanistic behavior and biol. uptake of nanoplastics in a variety of systems on different scales.
- 68Redondo-Hasselerharm, P. E.; Vink, G.; Mitrano, D. M.; Koelmans, A. A. Metal-Doping of Nanoplastics Enables Accurate Assessment of Uptake and Effects on Gammarus Pulex. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2021, 8 (6), 1761– 1770, DOI: 10.1039/D1EN00068CGoogle Scholar68https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtFanu7%252FN&md5=7086dba7f14d14f92566e6fe6dcba467Metal-doping of nanoplastics enables accurate assessment of uptake and effects on Gammarus pulexRedondo-Hasselerharm, P. E.; Vink, G.; Mitrano, D. M.; Koelmans, A. A.Environmental Science: Nano (2021), 8 (6), 1761-1770CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Because of the difficulty of measuring nanoplastics (NP), the use of NPs doped with trace metals has been proposed as a promising approach to detect NP in environmental media and biota. In the present study, the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex were exposed to palladium (Pd)-doped NP via natural sediment at six spiking concns. (0, 0.3, 1, 3, 10 and 30 g plastic per kg of sediment dry wt.) with the aim of assessing their uptake and chronic effects using 28 days standardized single species toxicity tests. NP concns. were quantified based on Pd concns. measured by ICP-MS on digests of the exposed organisms and faecal pellets excreted during a post-exposure 24 h depuration period. Addnl., NP concns. were measured in sediments and water to demonstrate accuracy of NP dosing and to quantify the resuspension of NP from the sediment caused by the organisms. A significant pos. linear relationship between the uptake of NP by G. pulex and the concn. of NP in the sediments was obsd., yet no statistically significant effects were found on the survival or growth of G. pulex. A biodynamic model fitted well to the data and suggested bioaccumulation would occur in two kinetic compartments, the major one being reversible with rapid depuration to clean medium. Model fitting yielded a mass based trophic transfer factor (TTF), conceptually similar to the traditional biota sediment accumulation factor, for NP in the gut of 0.031. This value is close to a TTF value of 0.025 that was obtained for much larger microplastic particles in a similar expt. performed previously. Mechanistically, this suggests that ingestion of plastic is limited by the total vol. of ingested particles. We demonstrated that using metal-doped plastics provides opportunities for precise quantification of NP accumulation and exposure in fate and effect studies, which can be a clear benefit for NP risk assessment.
- 69Schlemmer, D.; Sales, M. J. A.; Resck, I. S. Degradation of Different Polystyrene/Thermoplastic Starch Blends Buried in Soil. Carbohydr. Polym. 2009, 75 (1), 58– 62, DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.06.010Google Scholar69https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhtFCiu7nE&md5=98661df86ac42433c1b93df8ac8efbc8Degradation of different polystyrene/thermoplastic starch blends buried in soilSchlemmer, Daniela; Sales, Maria J. A.; Resck, Ines S.Carbohydrate Polymers (2009), 75 (1), 58-62CODEN: CAPOD8; ISSN:0144-8617. (Elsevier Ltd.)Blends of PS and TPS were prepd. using 2 different plasticizers: glycerol or buriti oil by solvent casting technique. PS/TPS blends were submitted to degrdn. by soil burial tests in perforated boxes for 6 mo and later analyzed by TG and CPMAS 13C NMR. After degrdn., blends with glycerol presented less stages of thermal degrdn. and NMR signals of minor intensity compared to the original blends. The presence of TPS at contents of ≥50% improved the degrdn. of the blends. After 6 mo, PS/TPS blends with buriti oil presented only one thermal degrdn. stage with a significant increase in mass loss. All absorptions related to starch disappeared in NMR spectra after soil buried test, probably due to the consumption of starch by microorganisms. These results revealed that PS's degradability can be improved when TPS plasticized with buriti oil is added to it.
- 70Kaplan, D.; Hartenstein, R.; Sutter, J. Biodegradation of Polystyrene, Poly(Methyl Methacrylate), and Phenol Formaldehyde. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1979, 38, 551– 553, DOI: 10.1128/aem.38.3.551-553.1979Google Scholar70https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL3cXhtF2r&md5=aeea00a5e7e48d01b1461abfea7c7e86Biodegradation of polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), and phenol formaldehydeKaplan, David L.; Hartenstein, Roy; Sutter, JimApplied and Environmental Microbiology (1979), 38 (3), 551-3CODEN: AEMIDF; ISSN:0099-2240.The biodegrdn. of 3 synthetic 14C-labeled polymers, poly(Me methacrylate) [9011-14-7], phenol formaldehyde polymer [9003-35-4], and polystyrene [9003-53-6], was studied with 17 species of fungi in axenic cultures, 5 groups of soil invertebrates, and a variety of mixed microbial communities including sludges, soils, manures, garbages, and decaying plastics. Extremely low decompn. rates were found. The addn. of cellulose and minerals failed to increase decompn. rates.
- 71Fründ, H.-C.; Butt, K.; Capowiez, Y.; Eisenhauer, N.; Emmerling, C.; Ernst, G.; Potthoff, M.; Schädler, M.; Schrader, S. Using Earthworms as Model Organisms in the Laboratory: Recommendations for Experimental Implementations. Pedobiologia 2010, 53 (2), 119– 125, DOI: 10.1016/j.pedobi.2009.07.002Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 72Andriuzzi, W. S.; Bolger, T.; Schmidt, O. The Drilosphere Concept: Fine-Scale Incorporation of Surface Residue-Derived N and C around Natural Lumbricus Terrestris Burrows. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2013, 64, 136– 138, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.04.016Google Scholar72https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXptFOksb0%253D&md5=8d40be2d68b6bb212f9865a49fcf7706The drilosphere concept: Fine-scale incorporation of surface residue-derived N and C around natural Lumbricus terrestris burrowsAndriuzzi, Walter S.; Bolger, Thomas; Schmidt, OlafSoil Biology & Biochemistry (2013), 64 (), 136-138CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Anecic (deep-burrowing) earthworms are important for soil biogeochem. functioning, but the fine-scale spatial range at which they incorporate C and N around their burrows (the drilosphere sensu stricto) needs to be investigated under realistic conditions. We conducted a field expt. to delimit spatially the extent to which soil around natural Lumbricus terrestris burrows is influenced biochem. We placed plant litter dual-labeled with 13C and 15N stable isotope tracers on L. terrestris burrow openings and we measured residue-derived 13C and 15N in thin concentric layers (0-2, 2-4, 4-8 mm) around burrows with or without a resident earthworm. After 45 days, earthworms were significantly enriched in 13C and 15N as a result of feeding on the plant litter. At 0-5 cm soil depth, soil 15N concns. were significantly higher around occupied than unoccupied burrows, and they were significantly higher in all burrow layers (including 4-8 mm) than in bulk soil (50-75 mm from burrow). This suggests that biochem. drilosphere effects of anecic earthworms, at least in the uppermost portion of the burrow, extend farther than the 2 mm layer assumed traditionally.
- 73Jarvis, N. J. A Review of Non-Equilibrium Water Flow and Solute Transport in Soil Macropores: Principles, Controlling Factors and Consequences for Water Quality. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2007, 58 (3), 523– 546, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2007.00915.xGoogle ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 74Balseiro-Romero, M.; Mazurier, A.; Monoshyn, D.; Baveye, P. C.; Clause, J. Using X-Ray Microtomography to Characterize the Burrowing Behaviour of Earthworms in Heterogeneously Polluted Soils. Pedobiologia 2020, 83, 150671, DOI: 10.1016/j.pedobi.2020.150671Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 75Schindelin, J.; Arganda-Carreras, I.; Frise, E.; Kaynig, V.; Longair, M.; Pietzsch, T.; Preibisch, S.; Rueden, C.; Saalfeld, S.; Schmid, B.; Tinevez, J.-Y.; White, D. J.; Hartenstein, V.; Eliceiri, K.; Tomancak, P.; Cardona, A. Fiji: An Open-Source Platform for Biological-Image Analysis. Nat. Methods 2012, 9 (7), 676– 682, DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.2019Google Scholar75https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVKnurbJ&md5=ad150521a33367d37a800bee853dd9dbFiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysisSchindelin, Johannes; Arganda-Carreras, Ignacio; Frise, Erwin; Kaynig, Verena; Longair, Mark; Pietzsch, Tobias; Preibisch, Stephan; Rueden, Curtis; Saalfeld, Stephan; Schmid, Benjamin; Tinevez, Jean-Yves; White, Daniel James; Hartenstein, Volker; Eliceiri, Kevin; Tomancak, Pavel; Cardona, AlbertNature Methods (2012), 9 (7_part1), 676-682CODEN: NMAEA3; ISSN:1548-7091. (Nature Publishing Group)Fiji is a distribution of the popular open-source software ImageJ focused on biol.-image anal. Fiji uses modern software engineering practices to combine powerful software libraries with a broad range of scripting languages to enable rapid prototyping of image-processing algorithms. Fiji facilitates the transformation of new algorithms into ImageJ plugins that can be shared with end users through an integrated update system. We propose Fiji as a platform for productive collaboration between computer science and biol. research communities.
- 76Schneider, C. A.; Rasband, W. S.; Eliceiri, K. W. NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 Years of Image Analysis. Nat. Methods 2012, 9 (7), 671– 675, DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.2089Google Scholar76https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVKntb7P&md5=85ab928cd79f1e2f2351c834c0c600f0NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysisSchneider, Caroline A.; Rasband, Wayne S.; Eliceiri, Kevin W.Nature Methods (2012), 9 (7_part1), 671-675CODEN: NMAEA3; ISSN:1548-7091. (Nature Publishing Group)For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the anal. of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solns. of these two programs, and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.
- 77Koestel, J. SoilJ: An ImageJ Plugin for the Semiautomatic Processing of Three-Dimensional X-Ray Images of Soils. Vadose Zone J. 2018, 17 (1), 170062, DOI: 10.2136/vzj2017.03.0062Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 78Koestel, J.; Dathe, A.; Skaggs, T. H.; Klakegg, O.; Ahmad, M. A.; Babko, M.; Giménez, D.; Farkas, C.; Nemes, A.; Jarvis, N. Estimating the Permeability of Naturally Structured Soil From Percolation Theory and Pore Space Characteristics Imaged by X-Ray. Water Resour. Res. 2018, 54 (11), 9255– 9263, DOI: 10.1029/2018WR023609Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 79Legland, D.; Arganda-Carreras, I.; Andrey, P. MorphoLibJ: Integrated Library and Plugins for Mathematical Morphology with ImageJ. Bioinformatics 2016, 32 (22), 3532– 3534, DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btw413Google Scholar79https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtlyktL%252FK&md5=00954035a2b1379f78adea7b78d79316MorphoLibJ: integrated library and plugins for mathematical morphology with ImageJLegland, David; Arganda-Carreras, Ignacio; Andrey, PhilippeBioinformatics (2016), 32 (22), 3532-3534CODEN: BOINFP; ISSN:1367-4803. (Oxford University Press)Motivation: Math. morphol. (MM) provides many powerful operators for processing 2D and 3D images. However, most MM plugins currently implemented for the popular ImageJ/Fiji platform are limited to the processing of 2D images. Results: The MorphoLibJ library proposes a large collection of generic tools based on MM to process binary and gray-level 2D and 3D images, integrated into user-friendly plugins. We illustrate how MorphoLibJ can facilitate the exploitation of 3D images of plant tissues.
- 80Limaye, A. Drishti: A Volume Exploration and Presentation Tool. Proc. SPIE 2012, 85060X, DOI: 10.1117/12.935640Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 81ISO 11466:1995. Soil Quality – Extraction of Trace Elements Soluble in Aqua Regia; ISO: Geneva, 1995.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 82Method 3051A (SW-846): Microwave Assisted Acid Digestion of Sediments, Sludges, and Oils; Revision 1; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 83Rodriguez, M. D. The Bioturbation Transport of Chemicals in Surface Soils; Master’s Thesis, Louisiana State University, 2006.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 84Pitkänen, J.; Nuutinen, V. Distribution and Abundance of Burrows Formed by Lumbricus Terrestris L. and Aporrectodea Caliginosa Sav. in the Soil Profile. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1997, 29 (3), 463– 467, DOI: 10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00040-5Google Scholar84https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK2sXktFCnsL8%253D&md5=5e6b8708bf38fe45e6c242321b379ebbDistribution and abundance of burrows formed by Lumbricus terrestris L. and Aporrectodea caliginosa Sav. in the soil profilePitkanen, Jyrki; Nuutinen, VisaSoil Biology & Biochemistry (1997), 29 (3/4), 463-467CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier)The distribution of burrows made by L. terrestris. and A. caliginosa was studied on an unplowed field. The positions of earthworm burrows were mapped in 9 horizontal planes to a depth of 80 cm in a pit of 70 by 40 cm. Burrow diam. and presence of plant roots growing in burrows were also recorded. Burrows on 6 of the 9 planes were considered as two-dimensional point patterns and analyzed as spatial point processes. A three-dimensional image was constructed for burrows formed by L. terrestris. The total no. of burrows ranged between 180 and 1260 m-2 at depths of 80 and 30 cm, resp. The majority of burrows were formed by A. caliginosa. The smallest size class (2-3 mm) of burrows was dominant at depths between 8 and 40 cm. Deeper in the soil profile, the proportion of larger burrows increased markedly. Burrows formed by L. terrestris appeared to be non-branching, and extended vertically beyond 80 cm. In all soil layers studied, burrow distribution was found to be completely random. The proportion of burrows contg. plant roots was between 18 and 60%, at depths of 80 and 15 cm, resp.
- 85Larsbo, M.; Koestel, J.; Jarvis, N. Relations between Macropore Network Characteristics and the Degree of Preferential Solute Transport. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2014, 18 (12), 5255– 5269, DOI: 10.5194/hess-18-5255-2014Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 86Selonen, S.; Dolar, A.; Jemec Kokalj, A.; Skalar, T.; Parramon Dolcet, L.; Hurley, R.; van Gestel, C. A. M. Exploring the Impacts of Plastics in Soil - The Effects of Polyester Textile Fibers on Soil Invertebrates. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 700, 134451, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134451Google Scholar86https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXitFShtbfO&md5=1ae7dca9920f28960407fadd3c7a45dfExploring the impacts of plastics in soil - The effects of polyester textile fibers on soil invertebratesSelonen, Salla; Dolar, Andraz; Jemec Kokalj, Anita; Skalar, Tina; Parramon Dolcet, Lidia; Hurley, Rachel; van Gestel, Cornelis A. M.Science of the Total Environment (2020), 700 (), 134451CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Polyester fiber is one of the most abundant types of microplastics in the environment. A major proportion of the fibers entering wastewater treatment plants end up in sewage sludge, which is used as a soil fertilizer in many countries. As their impacts in the terrestrial environment are still poorly understood, we studied the effects of polyester fibers on enchytraeids (Enchytraeus crypticus), springtails (Folsomia candida), isopods (Porcellio scaber) and oribatid mites (Oppia nitens), all playing an important role in soil decomposer food webs. We exposed these invertebrates in the lab. to short (12 μm-2.87 mm) and long (4-24 mm) polyester fibers, spiked in soil or in food at five concns. ranging from 0.02% to 1.5% (wt./wt.) and using five replicates. Overall the effects of polyester fibers on the soil invertebrates were slight. Energy reserves of the isopods were slightly affected by both fiber types, and enchytraeid reprodn. decreased up to 30% with increasing fiber concn., but only for long fibers in soil. The low ingestion of long fibers by the enchytraeids suggests that this neg. impact arose from a phys. harm outside the organism, or from indirect effects resulting from changes in environmental conditions. The short fibers were clearly ingested by enchytraeids and isopods, with the rate of ingestion pos. related to fiber concn. in the soil. This study shows that polyester fibers are not very harmful to soil invertebrates upon short-term exposure. However, longer lasting, multigeneration studies with functional endpoints are needed to reveal the possible long-term effects on soil invertebrates and their role in the decompn. process. This study also shows that polyester fibers can enter terrestrial food web via ingestion of fibers by soil invertebrates.
- 87Kwak, J. I.; An, Y.-J. Microplastic Digestion Generates Fragmented Nanoplastics in Soils and Damages Earthworm Spermatogenesis and Coelomocyte Viability. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 402, 124034, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124034Google Scholar87https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitVClt77L&md5=7e6404ab2c2389d3e7dc6d3368e273efMicroplastic digestion generates fragmented nanoplastics in soils and damages earthworm spermatogenesis and coelomocyte viabilityKwak, Jin Il; An, Youn-JooJournal of Hazardous Materials (2021), 402 (), 124034CODEN: JHMAD9; ISSN:0304-3894. (Elsevier B.V.)Despite concerns about the ecotoxicol. effects of microplastics in soils, there is a limited understanding of the reproductive toxicity of microplastics to soil organisms and the prodn. of nanoplastics through biol. fragmentation. We used the earthworm Eisenia andrei to investigate the generation of nanoplastics from polyethylene microplastics in soil ecosystems and to det. the neg. effects of microplastic exposure on soil invertebrates. Earthworms were exposed to two different sizes of microplastic for 21 days, and various physiol. features, including those pertaining to reprodn., were subsequently analyzed. Exposure to microplastics affected coelomocyte viability and caused damage to male reproductive organs, while having negligible effects on female reproductive organs. Earthworm-induced fragmentation of microplastics to nanoplastics was confirmed using SEM and energy dispersive X-ray anal. These nanoplastics were introduced into soils through cast excretion. We provide the evidence of nanoplastic generation from ingested microplastics and damage caused to earthworm spermatogenesis through microplastic exposure.
- 88Lahive, E.; Cross, R.; Saarloos, A. I.; Horton, A. A.; Svendsen, C.; Hufenus, R.; Mitrano, D. M. Earthworms Ingest Microplastic Fibres and Nanoplastics with Effects on Egestion Rate and Long-Term Retention. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 151022, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151022Google Scholar88https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB2cjhsFGjsQ%253D%253D&md5=8fc6e655c91432405c07bef2e6500fbaEarthworms ingest microplastic fibres and nanoplastics with effects on egestion rate and long-term retentionLahive Elma; Cross Richard; Svendsen Claus; Saarloos Aafke I; Horton Alice A; Hufenus Rudolf; Mitrano Denise MThe Science of the total environment (2021), (), 151022 ISSN:.Microplastic fibres (MPFs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have the potential to be hazardous to soil organisms. Understanding uptake into organisms is key in assessing these effects, but this is often limited by the analytical challenges to quantify smaller-sized plastics in complex matrices. This study used MPFs and NPs containing inorganic tracers (In, Pd) to quantify uptake in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. Following seven days exposure, tracer concentrations were measured in earthworms and faeces. Earthworms exposed to 500 μg MPFs/g soil retained an estimated 32 MPFs in their tissues, while at 5000 μg MPFs/g earthworms retained between 2 and 593 MPFs. High variation in body burdens of MPFs was linked to soil retention in earthworms and reduced faeces production, suggesting egestion was being affected by MPFs. NPs uptake and elimination was also assessed over a more extended time-period of 42 days. After 1 day, NPs were no longer detectable in faeces during the elimination phase. However, some retention of NPs in the earthworms was estimated, not linked to retained soil, indicating not all NPs were eliminated. MPFs and NPs uptake can be quantified in earthworms and both particle types can be retained beyond the depuration period, suggesting the potential for longer-term accumulation.
- 89Arnold, R. E.; Hodson, M. E. Effect of Time and Mode of Depuration on Tissue Copper Concentrations of the Earthworms Eisenia Andrei, Lumbricus Rubellus and Lumbricus Terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 148 (1), 21– 30, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2006.11.003Google Scholar89https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXlt1Chsbc%253D&md5=c01225f118abeeb8cb8dda4bbdd92141Effect of time and mode of depuration on tissue copper concentrations of the earthworms Eisenia andrei, Lumbricus rubellus and Lumbricus terrestrisArnold, R. E.; Hodson, M. E.Environmental Pollution (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2007), 148 (1), 21-30CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier B.V.)Eisenia andrei, Lumbricus rubellus and Lumbricus terrestris were exposed to 250, 250 and 350 mg kg-1 Cu resp. in Cu(NO3)2(aq) amended soil for 28 days. Earthworms were then depurated for 24 to 72 h, digested and analyzed for Cu and Ti or, subsequent to depuration were dissected to remove any remaining soil particles from the alimentary canal and then digested and analyzed. This latter treatment proved impossible for E. andrei due to its small size. Regardless of depuration time, soil particles were retained in the alimentary canal of L. rubellus and L. terrestris. Tissue concn. detns. indicate that E. andrei should be depurated for 24 h, L. rubellus for 48 h and L. terrestris should be dissected. Ti was bioaccumulated and therefore could not be used as an inert tracer to det. mass of retained soil. Calcns. indicate that after 28 days earthworms were still absorbing Cu from soil.
- 90Prendergast-Miller, M. T.; Katsiamides, A.; Abbass, M.; Sturzenbaum, S. R.; Thorpe, K. L.; Hodson, M. E. Polyester-Derived Microfibre Impacts on the Soil-Dwelling Earthworm Lumbricus Terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 251, 453– 459, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.037Google Scholar90https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXps1Gltr8%253D&md5=4a48bd29740173ebfc06b3e3ddb559a1Polyester-derived microfibre impacts on the soil-dwelling earthworm Lumbricus terrestrisPrendergast-Miller, Miranda T.; Katsiamides, Andreas; Abbass, Mustafa; Sturzenbaum, Stephen R.; Thorpe, Karen L.; Hodson, Mark E.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 251 (), 453-459CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)The aim of this study was to assess the effect of MFs on a keystone soil organism. We exposed the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris to soil with polyester MFs incorporated at rates of 0, 0.1 and 1.0%wt./wt. MF for a period of 35 days (in the dark at 15°C; n = 4 for each treatment). Dried plant litter was applied at the soil surface as a food source for the earthworms. We assessed earthworm vitality through mortality, wt. change, depurate prodn. and MF avoidance testing. In addn., we measured stress biomarker responses via the expression of metallothionein-2 (mt-2), heat shock protein (hsp70) and superoxide dismutase (sod-1). Our results showed that exposure and ingestion of MFs (as evidenced by subsequent retrieval of MFs within earthworm depurates) were not lethal to earthworms, nor did earthworms actively avoid MFs. However, earthworms in the MF1.0% treatment showed a 1.5-fold lower cast prodn., a 24.3-fold increase in expression of mt-2 (p < 0.001) and a 9.9-fold decline in hsp70 expression (p < 0.001). Further anal. of soil and MF samples indicated that metal content was not a contributor to the biomarker results. Given that burrowing and feeding behavior, as well as mol. genetic biomarkers, were modulated in earthworms exposed to MFs, our study highlights potential implications for soil ecosystem processes due to MF contamination.
- 91Zhang, L.; Sintim, H. Y.; Bary, A. I.; Hayes, D. G.; Wadsworth, L. C.; Anunciado, M. B.; Flury, M. Interaction of Lumbricus Terrestris with Macroscopic Polyethylene and Biodegradable Plastic Mulch. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 635, 1600– 1608, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.054Google Scholar91https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXnvVSku7s%253D&md5=9651985de4af941f873222758595259bInteraction of Lumbricus terrestris with macroscopic polyethylene and biodegradable plastic mulchZhang, Liang; Sintim, Henry Y.; Bary, Andy I.; Hayes, Douglas G.; Wadsworth, Larry C.; Anunciado, Marife B.; Flury, MarkusScience of the Total Environment (2018), 635 (), 1600-1608CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Polyethylene mulch films used in agriculture are a major source of plastic pollution in soils. Biodegradable plastics have been introduced as alternative to commonly-used polyethylene. Here we studied the interaction of earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) with polyethylene and biodegradable plastic mulches. The objective was to assess whether earthworms would select between different types of mulches when foraging for food, and whether they drag macroscopic plastic mulch into the soil. Lab. expts. were carried out with earthworms in Petri dishes and mesocosms. The treatments were std. polyethylene mulch, four biodegradable plastic mulches (PLA/PHA [polylactic acid/polyhydroxy alkanoate], Organix, BioAgri, Naturecycle), a biodegradable paper mulch (WeedGuardPlus), and poplar litter, which served as control. Four and three replicates for the Petri dish and mesocosm expts. were used, resp. Macroscopic plastic and paper mulch pieces (1.5 cm × 1.5 cm and 2 cm × 2 cm) were collected from an agricultural field after a growing season, after being buried in the soil for 6 and 12 mo, and after being composted for 2 wk. We found that earthworms did not ingest polyethylene. Field-weathered biodegradable plastic mulches were not ingested either, however, after soil burial and composting, some biodegradable plastics were eaten and could not be recovered from soil any longer. Earthworms, when foraging for food, dragged plastic mulch, including polyethylene and biodegradable plastic, and poplar leaves into their burrows. The burial of macroscopic plastic mulch underground led to a redistribution of plastics in the soil profile, and likely enhances the degrdn. of biodegradable mulches in soil, but also can lead to leaching of plastic fragments by macropore flow.
- 92Tiunov, A. V.; Bonkowski, M.; Bonkowski, M.; Tiunov, J. A.; Scheu, S. Microflora, Protozoa and Nematoda in Lumbricus Terrestris Burrow Walls: A Laboratory Experiment. Pedobiologia 2001, 45 (1), 46– 60, DOI: 10.1078/0031-4056-00067Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 93Jégou, D.; Schrader, S.; Diestel, H.; Cluzeau, D. Morphological, Physical and Biochemical Characteristics of Burrow Walls Formed by Earthworms. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2001, 17 (2), 165– 174, DOI: 10.1016/S0929-1393(00)00136-0Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 94Taylor, A. R.; Taylor, A. F. S. Assessing Daily Egestion Rates in Earthworms: Using Fungal Spores as a Natural Soil Marker to Estimate Gut Transit Time. Biol. Fertil. Soils 2014, 50 (1), 179– 183, DOI: 10.1007/s00374-013-0823-5Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 95Spurgeon, D. J.; Keith, A. M.; Schmidt, O.; Lammertsma, D. R.; Faber, J. H. Land-Use and Land-Management Change: Relationships with Earthworm and Fungi Communities and Soil Structural Properties. BMC Ecol. 2013, 13, 46– 46, DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-13-46Google Scholar95https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2c3hvFShsQ%253D%253D&md5=13e6df3fbd7e2f413db92a969f324101Land-use and land-management change: relationships with earthworm and fungi communities and soil structural propertiesSpurgeon David J; Keith Aidan M; Schmidt Olaf; Lammertsma Dennis R; Faber Jack HBMC ecology (2013), 13 (), 46 ISSN:.BACKGROUND: Change in land use and management can impact massively on soil ecosystems. Ecosystem engineers and other functional biodiversity in soils can be influenced directly by such change and this in turn can affect key soil functions. Here, we employ meta-analysis to provide a quantitative assessment of the effects of changes in land use and land management across a range of successional/extensification transitions (conventional arable → no or reduced tillage → grassland → wooded land) on community metrics for two functionally important soil taxa, earthworms and fungi. An analysis of the relationships between community change and soil structural properties was also included. RESULTS: Meta-analysis highlighted a consistent trend of increased earthworm and fungal community abundances and complexity following transitions to lower intensity and later successional land uses. The greatest changes were seen for early stage transitions, such as introduction of reduced tillage regimes and conversion to grassland from arable land. Not all changes, however, result in positive effects on the assessed community metrics. For example, whether woodland conversion positively or negatively affects community size and complexity depends on woodland type and, potentially, the changes in soil properties, such as pH, that may occur during conversion. Alterations in soil communities tended to facilitate subsequent changes in soil structure and hydrology. For example, increasing earthworm abundances and functional group composition were shown to be positively correlated with water infiltration rate (dependent on tillage regime and habitat characteristics); while positive changes in fungal biomass measures were positively associated with soil microaggregate stability. CONCLUSIONS: These findings raise the potential to manage landscapes to increase ecosystem service provision from soil biota in relation to regulation of soil structure and water flow.
- 96Bergendahl, J.; Grasso, D. Colloid Generation during Batch Leaching Tests: Mechanics of Disaggregation. Colloids Surf., A 1998, 135 (1), 193– 205, DOI: 10.1016/S0927-7757(97)00248-3Google Scholar96https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1cXhvF2iu74%253D&md5=29ba729844dc852bbdf82fd85ed5e797Colloid generation during batch leaching tests: mechanics of disaggregationBergendahl, John; Grasso, DomenicoColloids and Surfaces, A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects (1998), 135 (1-3), 193-205CODEN: CPEAEH; ISSN:0927-7757. (Elsevier Science B.V.)Batch leaching tests are commonly used to assess the leaching potential of various org. and inorg. contaminants from soil. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), a batch leaching test developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, employs an aggressive mixing technique that may allow colloidal fractions to appear in the filtrate. This study quantified the generation of colloid fractions during TCLP testing of a coal-tar contaminated soil, and explored the mechanics of disaggregation. Particle count data indicated that the concn. of 0.72 and 0.83 μm diam. colloids in the filtrate increased with agitation time. The shear rate in the agitation vessel was detd., as well as the hydrodynamic forces acting on the 0.72 and 0.83 μm colloids attached to the soil grains. Through use of force and moment balances, and the Johnson-Kendall-Roberts and Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov adhesion models, it was detd. that the operative detachment mechanism is most likely rolling or sliding, depending on the contact radius and the coeff. of static friction. Colloid generation during the TCLP test results in an increase in total colloidal surface area in the filtrate, and may concomitantly result in an overprediction of the aq. phase concn. of hydrophobic contaminants.
- 97Yu, M.; van der Ploeg, M.; Lwanga, E. H.; Yang, X.; Zhang, S.; Ma, X.; Ritsema, C. J.; Geissen, V. Leaching of Microplastics by Preferential Flow in Earthworm (Lumbricus Terrestris) Burrows. Environ. Chem. 2019, 16 (1), 31– 40, DOI: 10.1071/EN18161Google Scholar97https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXis1amt78%253D&md5=701a164bfbeffcbd97854ad319dc68c5Leaching of microplastics by preferential flow in earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) burrowsYu, Miao; van der Ploeg, Martine; Lwanga, Esperanza Huerta; Yang, Xiaomei; Zhang, Shaoliang; Ma, Xiaoyi; Ritsema, Coen J.; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Chemistry (2019), 16 (1), 31-40CODEN: ECNHAA; ISSN:1449-8979. (CSIRO Publishing)Environmental contextMicroplastics found in soil pose several potential environmental risks. This study shows that microplastics on the soil surface can be ingested by earthworms and transported to the lower soil layers. In this way, microplastics may enter the food chain and find their way into groundwater systems, esp. in cases where the water table is shallow. In the current study, we examine how the activities of earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect microplastic (MP) distribution and concn. in soil, with a focus on low d. polyethylene (LDPE). We also want to det. if MPs can be flushed out with water. We used a lab. sandy soil column (polyvinyl chloride tube) exptl. set-up and tested five different treatments: (1) treatment with just soil (control) to check if the satd. cond. (Ksat) could be impacted by MP, (2) treatment with MP, (3) treatment with MP and litter, (4) treatment with earthworms and litter as a second control for treatment 5 and (5) treatment with MPs, earthworms and litter. Each treatment consisted of eight replicates. For the treatments with MP, the concn. of MP added at the start of the expt. was 7% by wt. (3.97g, polyethylene, 50% 1mm-250μm, 30% 250μm-150μm and 20% <150μm) based on 52.78g of dry litter from Populus nigra. In the treatments using earthworms, two adult earthworms, with an initial av. wt. of (7.14±0.26) g, were placed in each column. Results showed that LDPE particles could be introduced into the soil by the earthworms. MP particles were detected in each soil sample and within different soil layers for the earthworm treatments. Earthworms showed a tendency to transport the smaller MP particles and that the amt. of MPs in size class <250μm increased in soil samples with increasing soil depth in comparison to the other size classes. After leaching, MPs were only detected in the leachate from the treatments with the earthworms, and the MP had similar size distributions as the soil samples in the 40-50 cm layer of the treatment with MP, earthworms and litter. The results of this study clearly show that biogenic activities can mobilize MP transport from the surface into the soil and even be leached into drainage. It is highly likely that biogenic activities constitute a potential pathway for MPs to be transported into soil and groundwater.
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- Weizhen Cui, Panpan Gao, Miaoyuan Zhang, Lei Wang, Hongwen Sun, Chunguang Liu. Adverse effects of microplastics on earthworms: A critical review. Science of The Total Environment 2022, 850 , 158041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158041
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Abstract
Figure 1
Figure 1. Example of burrows in a soil column after 28 days showing the drilosphere and soil matrix (Exp 2). The different texture of material around burrows is due to casts of earthworms and shows excretion occurs throughout burrows.
Figure 2
Figure 2. Concentrations of nanoplastics at different soil profile depths across burrowing times by Lumbricus terrestris (7, 14, 21, 28 days) and for control columns without L. terrestris sampled after 28 days shaded in gray (C-28). Box plots represent the distribution of the first to third quartile. Whiskers display the minimum and maximum (excluding outliers). Points represent individual data points. The lines within the box plots mark the median, and crosses mark the mean. Observations with the same letters do not show significant differences across the respective depth layer (p > 0.05).
Figure 3
Figure 3. 3-D images of the burrow system of L. terrestris derived from X-ray CT analysis in experiment 2 (Exp 2) for each replicate column after 7 and 28 days of bioturbation without (top) and in the presence of nanoplastics (bottom). White dotted lines indicate layer boundaries. Note that for replicate 3 with plastics the later image represents 21 days exposure.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Biomacroporosity in different column segments of experiment 2 after 7 and 28 days of bioturbation without (w/o nanoplastics, n = 3) and in the presence of nanoplastics (with nanoplastics, n = 3 except after 28 days n = 2). Biomacroporosity represents the relative share of the total biopore volume of the respective microcosm soil column for each designated depth layer. The soil column was divided according to sampling layers, with the top two layers merged. Error bars represent standard deviations.
Figure 5
Figure 5. Concentrations of nanoplastics in burrow walls (drilosphere) and unaffected soil matrix at different soil depths after 28 days of soil column exposure to bioturbation by Lumbricus terrestris, experiment 2. Results are sorted according to sampling layer. Layer depths correspond to layer 1:0–2 cm, layer 2:2–6 cm, layer 3:6–15 cm, layer 4:15–29 cm. Box plots represent the distribution of the first to third quartile. Whiskers display the minimum and maximum (excluding outliers). Points represent individual data points. The lines within the box plots mark the median, and crosses mark the mean.
References
This article references 97 other publications.
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- 2Kawecki, D.; Nowack, B. Polymer-Specific Modeling of the Environmental Emissions of Seven Commodity Plastics as Macro- and Microplastics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (16), 9664– 9676, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b029002https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtlalu7%252FM&md5=21d3e2dfb4c08204e273c976ef872c39Polymer-Specific Modeling of the Environmental Emissions of Seven Commodity Plastics As Macro- and MicroplasticsKawecki, Delphine; Nowack, BerndEnvironmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (16), 9664-9676CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic has been identified as an emerging contaminant in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Uncertainties remain concerning the amts. present in the environment and the main responsible sources. In this study, the emissions of macro- and microplastics have been mapped for seven polymers in Switzerland. The modeling is based on a complete anal. of the flows from prodn. and use to end-of-life using probabilistic material flow anal. We est. that 94 ± 34 g/capita/yr of low-d. polyethylene, 98 ± 50 g/cap/a of high-d. polyethylene, 126 ± 43 g/cap/a of polypropylene, 24 ± 13 g/cap/a of polystyrene, 16 ± 12 g/cap/a of expanded polystyrene, 65 ± 36 g/cap/a of polyvinyl chloride, and 200 ± 120 g/cap/a of polyethylene terephthalate enter the Swiss environment. All polymers combined, 540 ± 140 and 73 ± 14 g/cap/a are emitted into soil as macroplastics and microplastics, resp., and 13.3 ± 4.9 and 1.8 ± 1.1 g/cap/a are emitted into freshwater as macroplastics and microplastics, resp. The leading emission pathway is littering for both terrestrial and aquatic environments. Construction, agriculture, and pre- and postconsumer processes cause important emissions of microplastics into soils, and postconsumer processes, textiles, and personal care products release most of the microplastics into waters. Because mass flows into soils are predicted to be 40 times larger than those into waters, more attention should be placed on this compartment. Our work also highlights the importance of referring to specific polymers instead of just "plastics".
- 3Nizzetto, L.; Futter, M.; Langaas, S. Are Agricultural Soils Dumps for Microplastics of Urban Origin?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (20), 10777– 10779, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b041403https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFOjsrnJ&md5=784f3dd6d841657f5a86ec6a2ea6bc7dAre Agricultural Soils Dumps for Microplastics of Urban Origin?Nizzetto, Luca; Futter, Martyn; Langaas, SindreEnvironmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (20), 10777-10779CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 4Bläsing, M.; Amelung, W. Plastics in Soil: Analytical Methods and Possible Sources. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 612, 422– 435, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.0864https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1cbjvVKqtA%253D%253D&md5=6d359876751061f4dac2e71dfd7e4dbaPlastics in soil: Analytical methods and possible sourcesBlasing Melanie; Amelung WulfThe Science of the total environment (2018), 612 (), 422-435 ISSN:.At least 300 Mio t of plastic are produced annually, from which large parts end up in the environment, where it persists over decades, harms biota and enters the food chain. Yet, almost nothing is known about plastic pollution of soil; hence, the aims of this work are to review current knowledge on i) available methods for the quantification and identification of plastic in soil, ii) the quantity and possible input pathways of plastic into soil, (including first preliminary screening of plastic in compost), and iii) its fate in soil. Methods for plastic analyses in sediments can potentially be adjusted for application to soil; yet, the applicability of these methods for soil needs to be tested. Consequently, the current data base on soil pollution with plastic is still poor. Soils may receive plastic inputs via plastic mulching or the application of plastic containing soil amendments. In compost up to 2.38-1200mg plastic kg(-1) have been found so far; the plastic concentration of sewage sludge varies between 1000 and 24,000 plastic items kg(-1). Also irrigation with untreated and treated wastewater (1000-627,000 and 0-125,000 plastic items m(-3), respectively) as well as flooding with lake water (0.82-4.42 plastic items m(-3)) or river water (0-13,751 items km(-2)) can provide major input pathways for plastic into soil. Additional sources comprise littering along roads and trails, illegal waste dumping, road runoff as well as atmospheric input. With these input pathways, plastic concentrations in soil might reach the per mill range of soil organic carbon. Most of plastic (especially >1μm) will presumably be retained in soil, where it persists for decades or longer. Accordingly, further research on the prevalence and fate of such synthetic polymers in soils is urgently warranted.
- 5Horton, A. A.; Walton, A.; Spurgeon, D. J.; Lahive, E.; Svendsen, C. Microplastics in Freshwater and Terrestrial Environments: Evaluating the Current Understanding to Identify the Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Priorities. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 586, 127– 141, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.1905https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXitFGjs7s%253D&md5=88e6bd25cfebe878f4fd13d748b388c1Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research prioritiesHorton, Alice A.; Walton, Alexander; Spurgeon, David J.; Lahive, Elma; Svendsen, ClausScience of the Total Environment (2017), 586 (), 127-141CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Plastic debris is an environmentally persistent and complex contaminant of increasing concern. Understanding the sources, abundance and compn. of microplastics present in the environment is a huge challenge due to the fact that hundreds of millions of tonnes of plastic material is manufd. for societal use annually, some of which is released to the environment. The majority of microplastics research to date has focussed on the marine environment. Although freshwater and terrestrial environments are recognized as origins and transport pathways of plastics to the oceans, there is still a comparative lack of knowledge about these environmental compartments. It is highly likely that microplastics will accumulate within continental environments, esp. in areas of high anthropogenic influence such as agricultural or urban areas. This review critically evaluates the current literature on the presence, behavior and fate of microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments and, where appropriate, also draws on relevant studies from other fields including nanotechnol., agriculture and waste management. Furthermore, we evaluate the relevant biol. and chem. information from the substantial body of marine microplastic literature, detg. the applicability and comparability of this data to freshwater and terrestrial systems. With the evidence presented, the authors have set out the current state of the knowledge, and identified the key gaps. These include the vol. and compn. of microplastics entering the environment, behavior and fate of microplastics under a variety of environmental conditions and how characteristics of microplastics influence their toxicity. Given the tech. challenges surrounding microplastics research, it is esp. important that future studies develop standardised techniques to allow for comparability of data. The identification of these research needs will help inform the design of future studies, to det. both the extent and potential ecol. impacts of microplastic pollution in freshwater and terrestrial environments.
- 6Bergmann, M.; Mützel, S.; Primpke, S.; Tekman, M. B.; Trachsel, J.; Gerdts, G. White and Wonderful? Microplastics Prevail in Snow from the Alps to the Arctic. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5 (8), na, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax1157There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 7Sommer, F.; Dietze, V.; Baum, A.; Sauer, J.; Gilge, S.; Maschowski, C.; Gieré, R. Tire Abrasion as a Major Source of Microplastics in the Environment. Aerosol Air Qual. Res. 2018, 18 (8), 2014– 2028, DOI: 10.4209/aaqr.2018.03.00997https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXpt1yhs7k%253D&md5=062eb0413d95d84cc5388e7422d30d1aTire abrasion as a major source of microplastics in the environmentSommer, Frank; Dietze, Volker; Baum, Anja; Sauer, Jan; Gilge, Stefan; Maschowski, Christoph; Giere, RetoAerosol and Air Quality Research (2018), 18 (8), 2014-2028CODEN: AAQRAV; ISSN:1680-8584. (Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research)Traffic-related non-exhaust particulate matter mainly consists of tire wear, brake wear, and road wear. For this study, passive-samplers were placed near highly frequented roads in industrial, agricultural, and urban environments with the aim of collecting and characterizing super-coarse (> 10μm) airborne particles. Single-particle anal. using SEM-EDX was conducted on more than 500 particles with nearly 1500 spectra to det. their size, shape, vol., and chem. compn. The ambient aerosol near all studied roads is dominated by traffic-related abrasion particles, amounting to approx. 90 vol%. The majority of the particles were composites of tire-, road-, and brake-abrasion material. The particle assemblages differed in size distribution, compn., and structure depending on driving speed, traffic flow, and traffic fleet. Our study documents that tire wear significantly contributes to the flux of microplastics into the environment. A decrease in the release of this abrasion material, however, is unlikely in the near future.
- 8Mahon, A. M.; O’Connell, B.; Healy, M. G.; O’Connor, I.; Officer, R.; Nash, R.; Morrison, L. Microplastics in Sewage Sludge: Effects of Treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (2), 810– 818, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b040488https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVGrurvP&md5=3ca88463f76a0336aa9251d61bd92e6fMicroplastics in Sewage Sludge: Effects of TreatmentMahon, A. M.; O'Connell, B.; Healy, M. G.; O'Connor, I.; Officer, R.; Nash, R.; Morrison, L.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (2), 810-818CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) are receptors for the cumulative loading of microplastics (MPs) derived from industry, landfill, domestic wastewater and storm water. The partitioning of MPs through the settlement processes of wastewater treatment results in the majority becoming entrained in the sewage sludge. This study characterized MPs in sludge samples from 7 WWTPs in Ireland which use anaerobic digestion (AD), thermal drying (TD), or lime stabilization (LS) treatment processes. Abundances were 4196-15,385 particles/Kg (dry wt.). Results of a general linear mixed model (GLMM) showed significantly higher abundances of MPs in smaller size classes in the LS samples, suggesting that the treatment process of LS sheer MP particles. In contrast, lower abundances of MPs found in the AD samples suggests that this process may reduce MP abundances. Surface morphologies examd. using SEM showed characteristics of melting and blistering of TD MPs and shredding and flaking of LS MPs. This study highlights the potential for sewage sludge treatment processes to increase or reduce the risk of MP pollution prior to land spreading and may have implications for legislation governing the application of biosolids to agricultural land.
- 9Corradini, F.; Meza, P.; Eguiluz, R.; Casado, F.; Huerta-Lwanga, E.; Geissen, V. Evidence of Microplastic Accumulation in Agricultural Soils from Sewage Sludge Disposal. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 671, 411– 420, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.3689https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXmsVWhs78%253D&md5=cc36f0631af7b4aaef4a9244268ef8e0Evidence of microplastic accumulation in agricultural soils from sewage sludge disposalCorradini, Fabio; Meza, Pablo; Eguiluz, Raul; Casado, Francisco; Huerta-Lwanga, Esperanza; Geissen, VioletteScience of the Total Environment (2019), 671 (), 411-420CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Microplastics are emerging as a steadily increasing environmental threat. Wastewater treatment plants efficiently remove microplastics from sewage, trapping the particles in the sludge and preventing their entrance into aquatic environments. Treatment plants are essentially taking the microplastics out of the waste water and concg. them in the sludge, however. It has become common practice to use this sludge on agricultural soils as a fertilizer. The aim of the current research was to evaluate the microplastic contamination of soils by this practice, assessing the implications of successive sludge applications by looking at the total count of microplastic particles in soil samples. Thirty-one agricultural fields with different sludge application records and similar edaphoclimatic conditions were evaluated. Field records of sludge application covered a ten year period. For all fields, historical disposal events used the same amt. of sludge (40 ton ha-1 dry wt.). Extn. of microplastics was done by flotation and particles were then counted and classified with the help of a microscope. Seven sludge samples were collected in the fields that underwent sludge applications during the study period. Soils where 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 applications of sludge had been performed had a median of 1.1, 1.6, 1.7, 2.3, and 3.5 particles g-1 dry soil, resp. There were statistical differences in the microplastic contents related to the no. of applications that a field had undergone (1, 2, 3 < 4, 5). Microplastic content in sludge ranged from 18 to 41 particles g-1, with a median of 34 particles g-1. The majority of the obsd. microplastics were fibers (90% in sludge, and 97% in soil). Our results indicate that microplastic counts increase over time where successive sludge applications are performed. Microplastics obsd. in soil samples stress the relevance of sludge as a driver of soil microplastic contamination.
- 10Frehland, S.; Kaegi, R.; Hufenus, R.; Mitrano, D. M. Long-Term Assessment of Nanoplastic Particle and Microplastic Fiber Flux through a Pilot Wastewater Treatment Plant Using Metal-Doped Plastics. Water Res. 2020, 182, 115860, DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.11586010https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhtFSrsLvE&md5=7d5db5313a1cf025517ab02c2791ae9eLong-term assessment of nanoplastic particle and microplastic fiber flux through a pilot wastewater treatment plant using metal-doped plasticsFrehland, Stefan; Kaegi, Ralf; Hufenus, Rudolf; Mitrano, Denise M.Water Research (2020), 182 (), 115860CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)In recent years, several studies have investigated the flux of particulate plastic through municipal waste water treatment plants (WWTP). By synthesizing nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers labeled with a rare metal (Pd and In, resp.) which can be measured as a proxy for the plastic itself, we have circumvented major anal. pitfalls assocd. with (micro)plastic measurements. In this study, we spiked the labeled materials to a pilot WWTP mimicking the activated sludge process (nitrification, de-nitrification and secondary clarification). Using a mass flow model for WWTP sludge, we assessed the behavior of particulate plastic in relation to the removal of org. matter. Triplicate samples were collected from the mixed liquor and from the effluent at least twice weekly over the entire exptl. run time of 40 d. Our findings show that in discrete grab samples during steady state conditions, at least 98% of particulate plastics were assocd. with the biosolids. A pos. correlation between total suspended solids (TSS) and plastic concns. was obsd. in the sludge as well as in the effluent. Because of the strong assocn. between particulate plastic and TSS, TSS removal is likely a good indicator of plastic removal in a full scale WWTP. Therefore, addnl. process steps in a full-scale WWTP which further reduce the TSS load will likely retain nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers effectively and consequently increase the removal rates.
- 11van den Berg, P.; Huerta-Lwanga, E.; Corradini, F.; Geissen, V. Sewage Sludge Application as a Vehicle for Microplastics in Eastern Spanish Agricultural Soils. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 261, 114198, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.11419811https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXjvVGqs70%253D&md5=6caba80c4a2ce5ef3b057d0c0b4963c8Sewage sludge application as a vehicle for microplastics in eastern Spanish agricultural soilsvan den Berg, Pim; Huerta-Lwanga, Esperanza; Corradini, Fabio; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 261 (), 114198CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastic pollution is becoming a major challenge with the growing use of plastic. In recent years, research about microplastic pollution in the environment has become a field of study with increased interest, with ever expanding findings on sources, sinks and pathways of microplastics. Wastewater treatment plants effectively remove microplastics from wastewater and conc. them in sewage sludge which is often used to fertilise agricultural fields. Despite this, quantification of microplastic pollution in agricultural fields through the application of sewage sludge is largely unknown. In light of this issue, four wastewater treatment plants and 16 agricultural fields (0-8 sewage sludge applications of 20-22 tons ha-1 per application), located in the east of Spain, were sampled. Microplastics were extd. using a floatation and filtration method, making a distinction between light d. microplastics (ρ < 1 g cm-3) and heavy d. microplastics (ρ > 1 g cm-3). Sewage sludge, on av., had a light d. plastic load of 18,000 ± 15,940 microplastics kg-1 and a heavy d. plastic load of 32,070 ± 19,080 microplastics kg-1. Soils without addn. of sewage sludge had an av. light d. plastic load of 930 ± 740 microplastics kg-1 and a heavy d. plastic load of 1100 ± 570 microplastics kg-1.
- 12Weithmann, N.; Möller, J. N.; Löder, M. G. J.; Piehl, S.; Laforsch, C.; Freitag, R. Organic Fertilizer as a Vehicle for the Entry of Microplastic into the Environment. Sci. Adv. 2018, 4 (4), na, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aap8060There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 13Beriot, N.; Peek, J.; Zornoza, R.; Geissen, V.; Huerta Lwanga, E. Low Density-Microplastics Detected in Sheep Faeces and Soil: A Case Study from the Intensive Vegetable Farming in Southeast Spain. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 755, 142653, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.14265313https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitV2lsL%252FJ&md5=be6a8571d66863a35d83cafcdff0725eLow density-microplastics detected in sheep faeces and soil: A case study from the intensive vegetable farming in Southeast SpainBeriot, Nicolas; Peek, Joost; Zornoza, Raul; Geissen, Violette; Huerta Lwanga, EsperanzaScience of the Total Environment (2021), 755 (Part_1), 142653CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)One of the main sources of plastic pollution in agricultural fields is the plastic mulch used by farmers to improve crop prodn. The plastic mulch is often not removed completely from the fields after harvest. Over time, the plastic mulch that is left of the fields is broken down into smaller particles which are dispersed by the wind or runoff. In the Region of Murcia in Spain, plastic mulch is heavily used for intensive vegetable farming. After harvest, sheep are released into the fields to graze on the vegetable residues. The objective of the study was to assess the plastic contamination in agricultural soil in Spain and the ingestion of plastic by sheep. Therefore, three research questions were established: (i) What is the plastic content in agricultural soils where plastic mulch is commonly used. (ii) Do livestock ingest the microplastics found in the soil. (iii) How much plastic could be transported by the livestock. To answer these questions, we sampled top soils (0-10 cm) from 6 vegetable fields and collected sheep feces from 5 different herds. The microplastic content was measured using d. sepn. and visual identification. We found ∼2 × 103 particles•kg-1 in the soil and ∼103 particles•kg-1 in the feces. The data show that plastic particles were present in the soil and that livestock ingested them. After ingesting plastic from one field, the sheep can become a source of microplastic contamination as they graze on other farms or grasslands. The potential transport of microplastics due to a herd of 1000 sheep was estd. to be ∼106 particles•ha-1•y-1. Further studies should focus on: assessing how much of the plastic found in feces comes directly from plastic mulching, estg. the plastic degrdn. in the guts of sheep and understanding the potential effects of these plastic residues on the health of livestock.
- 14Judy, J. D.; Williams, M.; Gregg, A.; Oliver, D.; Kumar, A.; Kookana, R.; Kirby, J. K. Microplastics in Municipal Mixed-Waste Organic Outputs Induce Minimal Short to Long-Term Toxicity in Key Terrestrial Biota. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 252, 522– 531, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.02714https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtFeqs7fI&md5=47be260216994208315c8086520af56bMicroplastics in municipal mixed-waste organic outputs induce minimal short to long-term toxicity in key terrestrial biotaJudy, Jonathan D.; Williams, Mike; Gregg, Adrienne; Oliver, Danni; Kumar, Anu; Kookana, Rai; Kirby, Jason K.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 252 (Part_A), 522-531CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Sustainable alternatives to landfill disposal for municipal mixed wastes represents a major challenge to governments and waste management industries. In the state of New South Wales (NSW) Australia, mech. biol. treatment (MBT) is being used to reduce the vol. and pathogen content of org. matter isolated from municipal waste. The product of this treatment, a compost-like output (CLO) referred to as mixed waste org. output (MWOO), is being recycled and applied as a soil amendment. However, the presence of contaminants in MWOO including trace orgs., trace metals and phys. contaminants such as microplastic fragments has raised concerns about potential neg. effects on soil health and agriculture following land application. Here, we used multiple lines of evidence to examine the effects of land application of MWOO contg. microplastics in three soils to a variety of terrestrial biota. Treatments included unamended soil, MWOO-amended soil and MWOO-amended soil into which addnl. high-d. polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) microplastics were added. Tests were conducted in soil media that had been incubated for 0, 3 or 9 mo. Addn. of microplastics had no significant neg. effect on wheat seedling emergence, wheat biomass prodn., earthworm growth, mortality or avoidance behavior and nematode mortality or reprodn. compared to controls. There was also little evidence the microplastics affected microbial community diversity, although measurements of microbial community structure were highly variable with no clear trends.
- 15Steinmetz, Z.; Wollmann, C.; Schaefer, M.; Buchmann, C.; David, J.; Tröger, J.; Muñoz, K.; Frör, O.; Schaumann, G. E. Plastic Mulching in Agriculture. Trading Short-Term Agronomic Benefits for Long-Term Soil Degradation?. Sci. Total Environ. 2016, 550, 690– 705, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.15315https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitV2mt70%253D&md5=b7daf97ea6258f629ea8aebc14073533Plastic mulching in agriculture. Trading short-term agronomic benefits for long-term soil degradation?Steinmetz, Zacharias; Wollmann, Claudia; Schaefer, Miriam; Buchmann, Christian; David, Jan; Troeger, Josephine; Munoz, Katherine; Froer, Oliver; Schaumann, Gabriele EllenScience of the Total Environment (2016), 550 (), 690-705CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Plastic mulching has become a globally applied agricultural practice for its instant economic benefits such as higher yields, earlier harvests, improved fruit quality and increased water-use efficiency. However, knowledge of the sustainability of plastic mulching remains vague in terms of both an environmental and agronomic perspective. This review critically discusses the current understanding of the environmental impact of plastic mulch use by linking knowledge of agricultural benefits and research on the life cycle of plastic mulches with direct and indirect implications for long-term soil quality and ecosystem services. Adverse effects may arise from plastic additives, enhanced pesticide runoff and plastic residues likely to fragment into microplastics but remaining chem. intact and accumulating in soil where they can successively sorb agrochems. The quantification of microplastics in soil remains challenging due to the lack of appropriate anal. techniques. The cost and effort of recovering and recycling used mulching films may offset the aforementioned benefits in the long term. However, comparative and long-term agronomic assessments have not yet been conducted. Furthermore, plastic mulches have the potential to alter soil quality by shifting the edaphic biocoenosis (e.g. towards mycotoxigenic fungi), accelerate C/N metab. eventually depleting soil org. matter stocks, increase soil water repellency and favor the release of greenhouse gases. A substantial process understanding of the interactions between the soil microclimate, water supply and biol. activity under plastic mulches is still lacking but required to est. potential risks for long-term soil quality. Currently, farmers mostly base their decision to apply plastic mulches rather on expected short-term benefits than on the consideration of long-term consequences. Future interdisciplinary research should therefore gain a deeper understanding of the incentives for farmers and public perception from both a psychol. and economic perspective in order to develop new support strategies for the transition into a more environment-friendly food prodn.
- 16Scarascia-Mugnozza, G.; Sica, C.; Russo, G. Plastic Materials in European Agriculture: Actual Use and Perspectives. J. Agric. Eng. 2011, 42, 15, DOI: 10.4081/jae.2011.3.15There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 17Kim, H. M.; Lee, D.-K.; Long, N. P.; Kwon, S. W.; Park, J. H. Uptake of Nanopolystyrene Particles Induces Distinct Metabolic Profiles and Toxic Effects in Caenorhabditis Elegans. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 246, 578– 586, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.12.04317https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtlKhsQ%253D%253D&md5=0b30ba26ac1aabf02a00d49d22bab1caUptake of nanopolystyrene particles induces distinct metabolic profiles and toxic effects in Caenorhabditis elegansKim, Hyung Min; Lee, Dong-Kyu; Nguyen, Phuoc Long; Kwon, Sung Won; Park, Jeong HillEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 246 (), 578-586CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Nanoplastics are widely used in modern life, for example, in cosmetics and daily use products, and are attracting concern due to their potential toxic effects on environments. In this study, the uptake of nanopolystyrene particles by Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) and their toxic effects were evaluated. Nanopolystyrene particles with sizes of 50 and 200 nm were prepd., and the L4 stage of C. elegans was exposed to these particles for 24 h. Their uptake was monitored by confocal microscopy, and various phenotypic alterations of the exposed nematode such as locomotion, reprodn. and oxidative stress were measured. In addn., a metabolomics study was performed to det. the significantly affected metabolites in the exposed C. elegans group. Exposure to nanopolystyrene particles caused the perturbation of metabolites related to energy metab., such as TCA cycle intermediates, glucose and lactic acid. Nanopolystyrene also resulted in toxic effect including induction of oxidative stress and redn. of locomotion and reprodn. Collectively, these findings provide new insights into the toxic effects of nanopolystyrene particles.
- 18Hartmann, N. B.; Hüffer, T.; Thompson, R. C.; Hassellöv, M.; Verschoor, A.; Daugaard, A. E.; Rist, S.; Karlsson, T.; Brennholt, N.; Cole, M.; Herrling, M. P.; Hess, M. C.; Ivleva, N. P.; Lusher, A. L.; Wagner, M. Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (3), 1039– 1047, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b0529718https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXktV2gsw%253D%253D&md5=05f4b7854783a279e20d8eced57151ffAre We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic DebrisHartmann, Nanna B.; Huffer, Thorsten; Thompson, Richard C.; Hassellov, Martin; Verschoor, Anja; Daugaard, Anders E.; Rist, Sinja; Karlsson, Therese; Brennholt, Nicole; Cole, Matthew; Herrling, Maria P.; Hess, Maren C.; Ivleva, Natalia P.; Lusher, Amy L.; Wagner, MartinEnvironmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (3), 1039-1047CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review is given. The accumulation of plastic litter in natural environments is a global issue. Concerns over potential neg. impacts on the economy, wildlife, and human health provide strong incentives for improving the sustainable use of plastics. Despite the many voices raised on the issue, we lack a consensus on how to define and categorize plastic debris. This is evident for microplastics, where inconsistent size classes are used and where the materials to be included are under debate. While this is inherent in an emerging research field, an ambiguous terminol. results in confusion and miscommunication that may compromise progress in research and mitigation measures. Therefore, we need to be explicit on what exactly we consider plastic debris. Thus, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a unified terminol., propose a definition and categorization framework, and highlight areas of uncertainty. Going beyond size classes, our framework includes physicochem. properties (polymer compn., solid state, soly.) as defining criteria and size, shape, color, and origin as classifiers for categorization. Acknowledging the rapid evolution of our knowledge on plastic pollution, our framework will promote consensus building within the scientific and regulatory community based on a solid scientific foundation.
- 19Mitrano, D. M.; Wick, P.; Nowack, B. Placing Nanoplastics in the Context of Global Plastic Pollution. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2021, 16 (5), 491– 500, DOI: 10.1038/s41565-021-00888-219https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtVShtb7N&md5=b5a7d72d35bddd743bb824d6168e2730Placing nanoplastics in the context of global plastic pollutionMitrano, Denise M.; Wick, Peter; Nowack, BerndNature Nanotechnology (2021), 16 (5), 491-500CODEN: NNAABX; ISSN:1748-3387. (Nature Portfolio)A review. Numerous studies have made the ubiquitous presence of plastic in the environment undeniable, and thus it no longer comes as a surprise when scientists measure the accumulation of macroplastic litter and microplastic fragments in both urban and remote sites. Nanoplastics have recently emerged in the discussions of scientists, regulators and the public, as the weathering of macroplastics may lead to a substantial burden of nanoplastics in various ecosystems. While nanoplastics particles themselves have not (yet) been extensively measured in the environment, there is increased concern that this size fraction of plastic may be more extensively distributed and hazardous that larger-sized particles. This assessment may emanate from an unease with the term 'nano', which may elicit a neg. response over uncertainties of the pervasiveness of nanoplastics specifically, or from the lessons learned by many years of intensive environmental health and safety research of engineered nanomaterials. Ultimately, the different phys. and chem. characteristics of the different size classes of plastic pollution (macroplastics, microplastics and nanoplastics) will result in divergent fate and hazards. As nanoscientists specializing in understanding the fate, transport and interactions of nanoparticles in human and environmental systems, in this Perspective, we try to place nanoplastics in the context of global plastic pollution by assessing its sources and risks, and by assessing commonalities nanoplastics may share with other nanosized objects in environmental systems, such as engineered nanomaterials and natural colloids.
- 20de Souza Machado, A. A.; Lau, C. W.; Till, J.; Kloas, W.; Lehmann, A.; Becker, R.; Rillig, M. C. Impacts of Microplastics on the Soil Biophysical Environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (17), 9656– 9665, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b0221220https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhsVSiu7bO&md5=eadaabfc391f940952575fb7f2586ddfImpacts of Microplastics on the Soil Biophysical Environmentde Souza Machado, Anderson Abel; Lau, Chung Wai; Till, Jennifer; Kloas, Werner; Lehmann, Anika; Becker, Roland; Rillig, Matthias C.Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (17), 9656-9665CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Soils are essential components of terrestrial ecosystems that experience strong pollution pressure. Microplastic contamination of soils is being increasingly documented, with potential consequences for soil biodiversity and function. Notwithstanding, data on effects of such contaminants on fundamental properties potentially impacting soil biota are lacking. The present study explores the potential of microplastics to disturb vital relationships between soil and water, as well as its consequences for soil structure and microbial function. During a 5-wk garden expt. we exposed a loamy sand soil to environmentally relevant nominal concns. (up to 2 %) of four common microplastic types (polyacrylic fibers, polyamide beads, polyester fibers, and polyethylene fragments). Then, we measured bulk d., water holding capacity, hydraulic cond., soil aggregation, and microbial activity. Microplastics affected the bulk d., water holding capacity, and the functional relationship between the microbial activity and water stable aggregates. The effects are underestimated if idiosyncrasies of particle type and concns. are neglected, suggesting that purely qual. environmental microplastic data might be of limited value for the assessment of effects in soil. If extended to other soils and plastic types, the processes unravelled here suggest that microplastics are relevant long-term anthropogenic stressors and drivers of global change in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 21Lozano, Y. M.; Rillig, M. C. Effects of Microplastic Fibers and Drought on Plant Communities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 (10), 6166– 6173, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c0105121https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXntFCntr4%253D&md5=c3f2da458118566d912d4c18c6bbc5cfEffects of Microplastic Fibers and Drought on Plant CommunitiesLozano, Yudi M.; Rillig, Matthias C.Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (10), 6166-6173CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Microplastics in soils can affect plant performance, as shown in studies using individual plants. However, we currently have no information about potential effects on plant community productivity and structure. In a plant community consisting of seven plant species that co-occur in temperate grassland ecosystems, we thus investigated the effect of microplastics (i.e., microfibers) and drought, a factor with which microfibers might interact, on plant productivity and community structure. Our results showed that at the community level, shoot and root mass decreased with drought but increased with microfibers, an effect likely linked to reduced soil bulk d., improved aeration, and better penetration of roots in the soil. Addnl., we obsd. that microfibers affected plant community structure. Species such as Calamagrostis, invasive in Europe, and the allelophatic Hieracium, became more dominant with microfibers, while species that potentially have the ability to facilitate the establishment of other plant species (e.g., Holcus), decreased in biomass. As microfibers affect plant species dominance, the examn. of cascade effects on ecosystem functions should be a high priority for future research.
- 22Wan, Y.; Wu, C.; Xue, Q.; Hui, X. Effects of Plastic Contamination on Water Evaporation and Desiccation Cracking in Soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 654, 576– 582, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.12322https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXit1WlsrjP&md5=72abb2b149c89d7835b2e22e4f21afceEffects of plastic contamination on water evaporation and desiccation cracking in soilWan, Yong; Wu, Chenxi; Xue, Qiang; Hui, XinminnanScience of the Total Environment (2019), 654 (), 576-582CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Environmental contamination of plastics is becoming an issue of concern globally. Detection of plastics, particularly microplastics, has been increasingly reported in both marine environments and inland waters. Recent work has indicated that soil in terrestrial environments has also been contaminated by plastics. Research has also shown that plastics can have adverse effects on soil biota. However, the impact of plastics on soil phys. properties is still unclear. In this work, effects of plastic film of different sizes at environmental relevant concns. on water evapn. and desiccation cracking in two clay soils were studied. The results showed that the presence of plastics in soil significantly increased the rate of soil water evapn. by creating channels for water movement. The effect was more pronounced in soils treated with 2 mm plastics than in soils treated with 5 and 10 mm plastics, and increased with increasing plastic content. Desiccation cracking was obsd. on the surface of soil treated with 5 and 10 mm plastics likely due to the destruction of soil structural integrity. While 2 mm plastics increased the rate of desiccation shrinkage, the shrinkage ratio was reduced at the residual stage. Results from this work suggest that plastic contamination can alter the water cycle in soils, which may exacerbate soil water shortages and affect the vertical transport of pollutants. Further work is required to study the effects of plastics of other shapes, and lab. observations should be tested at field scale.
- 23de Souza Machado, A. A.; Lau, C. W.; Kloas, W.; Bergmann, J.; Bachelier, J. B.; Faltin, E.; Becker, R.; Görlich, A. S.; Rillig, M. C. Microplastics Can Change Soil Properties and Affect Plant Performance. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (10), 6044– 6052, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b0133923https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXot1ansb4%253D&md5=393c712d4bb8f84eafb940e0119eacd5Microplastics Can Change Soil Properties and Affect Plant Performancede Souza Machado, Anderson Abel; Lau, Chung W.; Kloas, Werner; Bergmann, Joana; Bachelier, Julien B.; Faltin, Erik; Becker, Roland; Goerlich, Anna S.; Rillig, Matthias C.Environmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (10), 6044-6052CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Microplastics can affect biophys. properties of the soil. However, little is known about the cascade of events in fundamental levels of terrestrial ecosystems, i.e., starting with the changes in soil abiotic properties and propagating across the various components of soil-plant interactions, including soil microbial communities and plant traits. We investigated here the effects of six different microplastics (polyester fibers, polyamide beads, and four fragment types: polyethylene, polyester terephthalate, polypropylene, and polystyrene) on a broad suite of proxies for soil health and performance of spring onion (Allium fistulosum). Significant changes were obsd. in plant biomass, tissue elemental compn., root traits, and soil microbial activities. These plant and soil responses to microplastic exposure were used to propose a causal model for the mechanism of the effects. Impacts were dependent on particle type, i.e., microplastics with a shape similar to other natural soil particles elicited smaller differences from control. Changes in soil structure and water dynamics may explain the obsd. results in which polyester fibers and polyamide beads triggered the most pronounced impacts on plant traits and function. The findings reported here imply that the pervasive microplastic contamination in soil may have consequences for plant performance and thus for agroecosystems and terrestrial biodiversity.
- 24Fei, Y.; Huang, S.; Zhang, H.; Tong, Y.; Wen, D.; Xia, X.; Wang, H.; Luo, Y.; Barceló, D. Response of Soil Enzyme Activities and Bacterial Communities to the Accumulation of Microplastics in an Acid Cropped Soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 707, 135634, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.13563424https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1SrtbjI&md5=d7b556eeba0c6c8fe5595346e881c50eResponse of soil enzyme activities and bacterial communities to the accumulation of microplastics in an acid cropped soilFei, Yufan; Huang, Shunyin; Zhang, Haibo; Tong, Yazhi; Wen, Dishi; Xia, Xiaoyu; Wang, Han; Luo, Yongming; Barcelo, DamiaScience of the Total Environment (2020), 707 (), 135634CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)The ecol. stress of microplastics (MPs) contamination in agroecosystems raise worldwide concerns. However very few studies concd. on the effects of MPs exposure on soil microbial community. The alterations of enzymic activities and bacterial communities were assayed by spiking 1% and 5% (wt./wt.) of polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) MPs in an acid soil. The results showed that both PE and PVC addn. inhibited fluorescein diacetate hydrolase activity and stimulated urease and acid phosphatase activities, and declined the richness and diversity of the bacterial communities. More severe effects were obsd. in the PE treated soils compared to the PVC treated soils generally. The relative abundances of families Burkholderiaceae increased significantly (p<.05) after MPs addn., suggesting the bacteria assocd. with nitrogen fixation stimulated by the MPs input. Meanwhile, significant (p<.05) decline of Sphingomonadaceae and Xanthobacteraceae after addn. of 5% PVC and 1% PE MPs, resp. implied that MPs might inhibit the biodegrdn. of xenobiotics in the soil. Mover, the PICRUSt anal. demonstrated that membrane transporter was a sensitive prediction functional gene of microplastics exposure in the soil. Future studies could be focused on the role of MPs on the regulation of nitrogen cycling and org. compds. degrdn. in soils.
- 25Khalid, N.; Aqeel, M.; Noman, A. Microplastics Could Be a Threat to Plants in Terrestrial Systems Directly or Indirectly. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 267, 115653, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.11565325https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhvFejsLbO&md5=b4381afd7cffd3b861243611507310eeMicroplastics could be a threat to plants in terrestrial systems directly or indirectlyKhalid, Noreen; Aqeel, Muhammad; Noman, AliEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 267 (), 115653CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review. Microplastics (MPs) are an emerging threat to ecosystem functioning and biota. The major sources of MPs are terrestrial and agricultural lands. But their fate, concn. in the terrestrial environment, and effects on soil and biota are poorly understood. There is a growing body of concern about the adverse effects of MPs on soil-dwelling organisms such as microbes in mycorrhizae and earthworms that mediate essential ecosystem services. Environmental concns. and effects of MPs are considered to increase with increasing trend of its global prodn. MPs in the soil could directly impact plants through blocking the seed pore, limiting the uptake of water and nutrient through roots, aggregation, and accumulation in the root, shoot, and leaves. However, MPs can also indirectly impact plants by affecting soil physicochem. characteristics, soil-dwelling microbes, and fauna. An affected soil could impact plant community structure and perhaps primary prodn. In this article, we have assessed the potential direct and indirect impacts of MPs on plants. We have discussed both the pos. and neg. impacts of MPs on plants in terrestrial systems based on currently available limited literature on this topic and our hypothetical understandings. We have summarized the most current progress in this regard highlighting the future directions on microplastic research in terrestrial systems.
- 26Zang, H.; Zhou, J.; Marshall, M. R.; Chadwick, D. R.; Wen, Y.; Jones, D. L. Microplastics in the Agroecosystem: Are They an Emerging Threat to the Plant-Soil System?. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2020, 148, 107926, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.10792626https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhsFGit73E&md5=8e9badc3a38a87043284f554ce75bbdfMicroplastics in the agroecosystem: Are they an emerging threat to the plant-soil system?Zang, Huadong; Zhou, Jie; Marshall, Miles R.; Chadwick, David R.; Wen, Yuan; Jones, Davey L.Soil Biology & Biochemistry (2020), 148 (), 107926CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Despite plastics providing great benefits to our daily life, plastics accumulating in the environment, esp. microplastics (MPs; defined as particles <5 mm), can lead to a range of problems and potential loss of ecosystem services. Current research has demonstrated the significant impact of MPs on aquatic systems, but little is known about their effects on the terrestrial environment, esp. within agroecosystems. Hereby, we investigated the effect of MPs type and amt. on plant growth, soil microorganisms, and photoassimilate carbon (C) allocation. MPs had a neg., dose-dependent impact on plant growth affecting both above- and below-ground productivity (-22.9% and -8.4%). MPs also influenced assimilated 14C allocation in soil (+70.6%) and CO2 emission (+43.9%). Although the activity of β-glucosidase was suppressed by MPs, other C- and N-cycling related enzyme activities were not affected. The type and amt. of MPs in soil greatly altered C flow through the plant-soil system, highlighting that MPs neg. affect a range of C-dependent soil functions. Moreover, MPs increased the soil microbial biomass (+43.6%; indicated by PLFAs), and changed the structure and metabolic status of the microbial community. The evidence presented here suggests that MPs can have a significant impact on key pools and fluxes within the terrestrial C cycle with the response being both dose-dependent and MPs specific. We conclude that MPs in soil are not benign and therefore every step should be made to minimize their entry into the soil ecosystem and potential to transfer into the food chain.
- 27Lei, L.; Liu, M.; Song, Y.; Lu, S.; Hu, J.; Cao, C.; Xie, B.; Shi, H.; He, D. Polystyrene (Nano)Microplastics Cause Size-Dependent Neurotoxicity, Oxidative Damage and Other Adverse Effects in Caenorhabditis Elegans. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2018, 5 (8), 2009– 2020, DOI: 10.1039/C8EN00412A27https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtlajsbbJ&md5=fb635d8d26124a2bd13466dad60c3cbdPolystyrene (nano)microplastics cause size-dependent neurotoxicity, oxidative damage and other adverse effects in Caenorhabditis elegansLei, Lili; Liu, Mengting; Song, Yang; Lu, Shibo; Hu, Jiani; Cao, Chengjin; Xie, Bing; Shi, Huahong; He, DefuEnvironmental Science: Nano (2018), 5 (8), 2009-2020CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)(Nano)microplastics (N/MPs) are emerging contaminants of increasing concern. However, little is known about the potential toxicity difference between nanoplastics and microplastics on organisms. In this study, we investigated the effects of polystyrene N/MPs with diam. sizes of 100 and 500 nm at the nanoscale and 1.0, 2.0 and 5.0 μm at the microscale on the survival, lifespan, motor behavior, movement-related neurons and oxidative stress in Caenorhabditis elegans. After 3 days of exposure to 1.0 mg L-1 polystyrene particles of the five sizes, the 1.0 μm group had the lowest survival rate, the largest decrease in body length and the shortest av. lifespan in nematodes. We demonstrated that exposure to N/MPs accelerated the frequency of body bending and head thrashing, and increased crawling speed, which indicate that N/MPs can induce size-dependent excitatory toxicity on locomotor behavior. Of the five sizes of N/MPs, 1.0 μm particles significantly downregulated the expression of unc-17 and unc-47, and resulted in obvious damage to cholinergic and GABAergic neurons. We also found that polystyrene N/MPs significantly elevated the expression of gst-4, which encodes glutathione S-transferase-4, a key enzyme in oxidative stress. Addnl., N/MPs-induced oxidative damage was effectively attenuated by natural antioxidants, curcumin and oligometric proanthocyanidins. Taken together, these findings suggest that (nano)microplastics can exert size-dependent toxicity and have extensive impacts on organisms.
- 28Zhu, D.; Chen, Q.-L.; An, X.-L.; Yang, X.-R.; Christie, P.; Ke, X.; Wu, L.-H.; Zhu, Y.-G. Exposure of Soil Collembolans to Microplastics Perturbs Their Gut Microbiota and Alters Their Isotopic Composition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2018, 116, 302– 310, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2017.10.02728https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhslOntLnE&md5=af6a8b00415883aba6f69118058aee27Exposure of soil collembolans to microplastics perturbs their gut microbiota and alters their isotopic compositionZhu, Dong; Chen, Qing-Lin; An, Xin-Li; Yang, Xiao-Ru; Christie, Peter; Ke, Xin; Wu, Long-Hua; Zhu, Yong-GuanSoil Biology & Biochemistry (2018), 116 (), 302-310CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms have been widely studied in recent years but effects on soil biota, and esp. on the gut microbiota of soil animals, remain poorly understood. An expt. was therefore conducted using the common soil collembolan Folsomia candida exposed to microplastics for 56 days to investigate the effects of plastics on gut microbiota, growth, reprodn. and isotopic turnover of collembolans in the soil ecosystem. A diverse microbial community was obsd. in the collembolan gut, consisting of (at phylum level) Actinobacteria (∼44%), Bacteroidetes (∼30%), Proteobacteria (∼12%) and Firmicutes (∼11%). Distinctly different bacterial communities and lower microbial diversity were found in the collembolan gut compared with the surrounding soil. The authors also found that exposure to microplastics significantly enhanced bacterial diversity and altered the microbiota in the collembolan gut. Moreover, collembolan growth and reprodn. were significantly inhibited (by 16.8 and 28.8%, resp.) and higher δ15N and δ13C values were obsd. in the tissues after exposure to microplastics. These results indicate that exposure to microplastics may impact non-target species via changes in their microbiota leading to alteration of isotopic and elemental incorporation, growth and reprodn. The collembolan gut microbial data acquired fill a gap in the authors' knowledge of the ecotoxicity of microplastics.
- 29Huerta Lwanga, E.; Gertsen, H.; Gooren, H.; Peters, P.; Salánki, T.; van der Ploeg, M.; Besseling, E.; Koelmans, A. A.; Geissen, V. Microplastics in the Terrestrial Ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus Terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (5), 2685– 2691, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b0547829https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitFSjsro%253D&md5=465bc813a10fae9b6baff17d981c7d92Microplastics in the Terrestrial Ecosystem: Implications for Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae)Huerta Lwanga, Esperanza; Gertsen, Hennie; Gooren, Harm; Peters, Piet; Salanki, Tamas; van der Ploeg, Martine; Besseling, Ellen; Koelmans, Albert A.; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (5), 2685-2691CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic debris is widespread in the environment, but information on the effects of microplastics on terrestrial fauna is completely lacking. Here, we studied the survival and fitness of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta, Lumbricidae) exposed to microplastics (Polyethylene, <150 μm) in litter at concns. of 7, 28, 45, and 60% dry wt., percentages that, after bioturbation, translate to 0.2 to 1.2% in bulk soil. Mortality after 60 days was higher at 28, 45, and 60% of microplastics in the litter than at 7% wt./wt. and in the control (0%). Growth rate was significantly reduced at 28, 45, and 60% wt./wt. microplastics, compared to the 7% and control treatments. Due to the digestion of ingested org. matter, microplastic was concd. in cast, esp. at the lowest dose (i.e., 7% in litter) because that dose had the highest proportion of digestible org. matter. Whereas 50 % of the microplastics had a size of <50 μm in the original litter, 90 % of the microplastics in the casts was <50 μm in all treatments, which suggests size-selective egestion by the earthworms. These concn.-transport and size-selection mechanisms may have important implications for fate and risk of microplastic in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 30Ju, H.; Zhu, D.; Qiao, M. Effects of Polyethylene Microplastics on the Gut Microbial Community, Reproduction and Avoidance Behaviors of the Soil Springtail, Folsomia Candida. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 247, 890– 897, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.01.09730https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXisFGitrs%253D&md5=cf236020437c866d0ceac00a95308066Effects of polyethylene microplastics on the gut microbial community, reproduction and avoidance behaviors of the soil springtail, Folsomia candidaJu, Hui; Zhu, Dong; Qiao, MinEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 247 (), 890-897CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics (MPs) are an emerging contaminant and are confirmed to be ubiquitous in the environment. Adverse effects of MPs on aquatic organisms have been widely studied, whereas little research has focused on soil invertebrates. We exposed the soil springtail Folsomia candida to artificial soils contaminated with polyethylene MPs (<500μm) for 28 d to explore the effects of MPs on avoidance, reprodn., and gut microbiota. Springtails exhibited avoidance behaviors at 0.5% and 1% MPs (wt./wt. in dry soil), and the avoidance rate was 59% and 69%, resp. Reprodn. was inhibited when the concn. of MPs reached 0.1% and was reduced by 70.2% at the highest concn. of 1% MPs compared to control. The half-maximal effective concn. (EC50) value based on reprodn. for F. candida was 0.29% MPs. At concns. of 0.5% dry wt. in the soil, MPs significantly altered the microbial community and decreased bacterial diversity in the springtail gut. Specifically, the relative abundance of Wolbachia significantly decreased while the relative abundance of Bradyrhizobiaceae, Ensifer and Stenotrophomonas significantly increased. Our results demonstrated that MPs exerted a significant toxic effect on springtails and can change their gut microbial community. This can provide useful information for risk assessment of MPs in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 31Rodriguez-Seijo, A.; Lourenço, J.; Rocha-Santos, T. A. P.; da Costa, J.; Duarte, A. C.; Vala, H.; Pereira, R. Histopathological and Molecular Effects of Microplastics in Eisenia Andrei Bouché. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 495– 503, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.09231https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xhs1ygsL7M&md5=8b0319fc5ab6821b2dd09e16421cee32Histopathological and molecular effects of microplastics in Eisenia andrei BoucheRodriguez-Seijo, A.; Lourenco, J.; Rocha-Santos, T. A. P.; da Costa, J.; Duarte, A. C.; Vala, H.; Pereira, R.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 495-503CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)The ocean has been assumed as the main sink of microplastics (MPs), however, soils may also receive MPs from different sources and through different pathways, which may affect the biota and their role in soil functions. To the best of our knowledge, only one study, until now, reported the effects of MPs on the survival and fitness of soil organisms (Lumbricus terrestris). In our study, epigeic earthworms, of the species E. andrei, were exposed to different concns. of MPs (0, 62.5, 125, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/kg soildw) in an OECD artificial soil and tested for reprodn., survival and growth of adults, following a std. protocol. The size of the polyethylene MPs to which earthworms were exposed ranged between 250 and 1000μm. No significant effects were recorded on survival, no. of juveniles and, in the final wt. of adult earthworms after 28d of exposure, to the different concns. of MPs. Nevertheless, FTIR-ATR of earthworms and histopathol. anal. of the gut provided evidences of damages and immune system responses to MPs.
- 32Lahive, E.; Walton, A.; Horton, A. A.; Spurgeon, D. J.; Svendsen, C. Microplastic Particles Reduce Reproduction in the Terrestrial Worm Enchytraeus Crypticus in a Soil Exposure. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 255, 113174, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.11317432https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhvF2rur7I&md5=eefd6273f001a182fc16d22b304867c0Microplastic particles reduce reproduction in the terrestrial worm Enchytraeus crypticus in a soil exposureLahive, Elma; Walton, Alexander; Horton, Alice A.; Spurgeon, David J.; Svendsen, ClausEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 255 (Part_2), 113174CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)The aim of this study was to assess the ingestion and toxicity of nylon (polyamide) particles, in three different size ranges, to Enchytraeus crypticus in a soil exposure. Effects were also compared with those of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) particles, in a single size range. Nylon particle ingestion was confirmed using fluorescence microscopy, with greatest ingestion for particles in the smallest size range (13-18μm). To investigate how particle size affected survival and reprodn., E. crypticus were exposed to nylon particles in two well-defined size ranges (13-18 and 90-150μm) and concns. of 20, 50, 90 and 120 g/kg (2-12% wt./wt.). An intermediate nylon size range (63-90μm) and a larger sized PVC particle (106-150μm), both at 90 g/kg, were also tested. Survival was not affected by either of the polymer types or sizes. Reprodn. was significantly reduced, in a dose-dependent manner, by the nylon particles at high exposure concns. (>90 g/kg). Smaller size ranges (13-18μm) had a greater effect compared to larger size ranges (>63μm), with a calcd. EC50 for the 13-18μm size range of 108 ± 8.5 g/kg. This greater hazard could be qual. linked with the ingestion of a greater no. of smaller particles. This study highlights the potential for toxic effects of plastics in small size ranges to soil organisms at high exposure concns., providing understanding of the hazards microplastics may pose in the terrestrial environment.
- 33Krogh, P. H. Does a Heterogeneous Distribution of Food or Pesticide Affect the Outcome of Toxicity Tests with Collembola?. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 1995, 30 (2), 158– 163, DOI: 10.1006/eesa.1995.102033https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK2MXksVWqtLs%253D&md5=837958a38e4b7adc0299a91b513489a1Does a heterogeneous distribution of food or pesticide affect the outcome of toxicity tests with Collembola?Krogh, Paul HenningEcotoxicology and Environmental Safety (1995), 30 (2), 158-63CODEN: EESADV; ISSN:0147-6513. (Academic)The reprodn. of two closely related soil microarthropods, Folsomia candida and Folsomia fimetaria (Insecta: Collembola), was tested under the influence of the insecticide dimethoate. Dimethoate had an adverse effect on the survival of adults and their reprodn. in concns. of about the recommended field dose, with F. fimetaria being more sensitive than F. candida. The exptl. conditions were altered to evaluate the realism in the basic single species/single chem. reproductive test system. The importance of the spatial distribution of dimethoate was studied with food applied to the surface (original procedure), mixed homogeneously in the whole soil profile or only in the top layer, or mixed heterogeneously into the soil preserving the small granula of the yeast originally in the com. formulation. Toxicity decreased significantly when exposure could be avoided in an uncontaminated bottom layer and even more if food was available in this soil horizon. But the results indicate that Collembola were not able to completely avoid dimethoate when they had the choice. For extrapolation purposes a simple test system may be sufficient as EC50 was changed less than one order of magnitude with the different test designs. In terms of EC50 the outcome of a toxicity test with a heterogeneous distribution of food and dimethoate was changed only slightly but the effects to suboptimally fed populations should be considered because they may be more vulnerable.
- 34Qi, R.; Jones, D. L.; Li, Z.; Liu, Q.; Yan, C. Behavior of Microplastics and Plastic Film Residues in the Soil Environment: A Critical Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 703, 134722, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.13472234https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1aju73P&md5=de36fd6d69bcc4061e9cea9f7723b1b5Behavior of microplastics and plastic film residues in the soil environment: A critical reviewQi, Ruimin; Jones, Davey L.; Li, Zhen; Liu, Qin; Yan, ChangrongScience of the Total Environment (2020), 703 (), 134722CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. It is now widely acknowledged that microplastic pollution represents one of the greatest anthropogenically mediated threats to Earth-system functioning. In freshwater and marine ecosystems the presence of large amts. of microplastic appears almost ubiquitous, with frequent reports of neg. impacts on aquatic health. In contrast, however, the impact of plastic in terrestrial environments remains poorly understood. In agroecosystems, microplastics (particles < 5 mm) can enter the soil environment either directly (e.g. from biosolids application, irrigation water, atm. deposition), or indirectly through the in situ degrdn. of large pieces of plastic (e.g. from plastic mulch films). Although we have encouraged the use of plastics over the last 50 years in agriculture to promote greater resource use efficiency and food security, the legacy of this is that many soils are now contaminated with large amts. of plastic residue (ca. 50-250 kg ha-1). Due to difficulties in sepg. and quantifying plastic particles from soil, our knowledge of their behavior, fate and potential to transfer to other receptors (e.g. surface and groundwater, air) and enter the human food chain remains poor. This information, however, is crit. for evaluating the risk of soil-borne microplastic pollution. In this crit. review, we systematically summarize (i) the distribution and migration of microplastics in soils, (ii) highlight the sepn., extn., and identification methods for monitoring microplastics in soils, (iii) discuss the ecol. effects and pollution mechanisms of soil microplastics, (iv) propose mitigation strategies to help prevent and reduce microplastic pollution, and (v) identify the most important future challenges in soil microplastics research.
- 35Rillig, M. C.; Kim, S. W.; Kim, T.-Y.; Waldman, W. R. The Global Plastic Toxicity Debt. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (5), 2717– 2719, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c0778135https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXktFems7g%253D&md5=63764bed552f7dc5d6a82f3d27f09e54The Global Plastic Toxicity DebtRillig, Matthias C.; Kim, Shin Woong; Kim, Tae-Young; Waldman, Walter R.Environmental Science & Technology (2021), 55 (5), 2717-2719CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 36Alimi, O. S.; Farner Budarz, J.; Hernandez, L. M.; Tufenkji, N. Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Environments: Aggregation, Deposition, and Enhanced Contaminant Transport. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (4), 1704– 1724, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b0555936https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXitVWmtL7K&md5=c141ad5845d3f643b3dcc7d864e94067Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Environments: Aggregation, Deposition, and Enhanced Contaminant TransportAlimi, Olubukola S.; Farner Budarz, Jeffrey; Hernandez, Laura M.; Tufenkji, NathalieEnvironmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (4), 1704-1724CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review is given. Plastic litter is widely acknowledged as a global environmental threat, and poor management and disposal lead to increasing levels in the environment. Of recent concern is the degrdn. of plastics from macro- to micro- and even to nanosized particles <100 nm in size. At the nanoscale, plastics are difficult to detect and can be transported in air, soil, and water compartments. While the impact of plastic debris on marine and fresh waters and organisms has been studied, the loads, transformations, transport, and fate of plastics in terrestrial and subsurface environments are largely overlooked. Here, we 1st present estd. loads of plastics in different environmental compartments. We also provide a crit. review of the current knowledge vis-a-vis nanoplastic (NP) and microplastic (MP) aggregation, deposition, and contaminant cotransport in the environment. Important factors that affect aggregation and deposition in natural subsurface environments are identified and critically analyzed. Factors affecting contaminant sorption onto plastic debris are discussed, and we show how polyethylene generally exhibits a greater sorption capacity than other plastic types. We highlight key knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to improve our ability to predict the risks assocd. with these ubiquitous contaminants in the environment by understanding their mobility, aggregation behavior and their potential to enhance the transport of other pollutants.
- 37Wu, X.; Lyu, X.; Li, Z.; Gao, B.; Zeng, X.; Wu, J.; Sun, Y. Transport of Polystyrene Nanoplastics in Natural Soils: Effect of Soil Properties, Ionic Strength and Cation Type. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 707, 136065, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.13606537https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXisVeqtb%252FO&md5=5c11e414a268ae195bb693371e143ba6Transport of polystyrene nanoplastics in natural soils: Effect of soil properties, ionic strength and cation typeWu, Xiaoli; Lyu, Xueyan; Li, Zhengyu; Gao, Bin; Zeng, Xiankui; Wu, Jichun; Sun, YuanyuanScience of the Total Environment (2020), 707 (), 136065CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Nanoplastics as emerging pollutants have caused growing concerns and posed potential threats to the environment. Nonetheless, only few studies investigated transport behaviors of nanoplastics in natural soils. In this study, column expts. were conducted to investigate the effect of soil properties, ionic strength and cation type on the transport of polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) in a desert soil (DS), a black soil (BS) and a red soil (RS). The effluent recovery of PSNPs in three soils followed the order of DS (0%-96.8%) > BS (0%-87.5%) > RS (0%). The retention of PSNPs was pos. correlated with Fe/Al oxides contents (DS: Fe-2.69%, Al-12.6%; BS: Fe-4.04%, Al-15.9%; RS: Fe-6.57%, Al-26.9%), whereas neg. correlated with soil pH (DS: 9.75; BS: 6.57; RS: 4.97). Soil minerals and pH were thus identified as the crucial soil properties detg. transport of PSNPs, due to their coupled effects on surface charges to affect electrostatic interactions between soils and PSNPs. In addn., increasing soln. ionic strength strongly inhibited the transport of PSNPs in the DS (0%-96.8%) and BS (0%-87.5%). Ca2+ (IS: 1-5 mM) was more pronounced in enhancing PSNP retention than Na+ (IS: 1-20 mM). Our findings highlight that the transport and fate of PSNPs in natural soils are highly sensitive to soil physicochem. properties, ionic strength and cation type, and reveal that nanoplastics have strong mobility ability in soils with high pH and low Fe/Al oxides contents, which may pose potential risks to the soil and groundwater environment.
- 38Chinju, H.; Kuno, Y.; Nagasaki, S.; Tanaka, S. Deposition Behavior of Polystyrene Latex Particles on Solid Surfaces during Migration through an Artificial Fracture in a Granite Rock Sample. J. Nucl. Sci. Technol. 2001, 38, 439– 443, DOI: 10.3327/jnst.38.439There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 39Tufenkji, N.; Elimelech, M. Breakdown of Colloid Filtration Theory: Role of the Secondary Energy Minimum and Surface Charge Heterogeneities. Langmuir 2005, 21 (3), 841– 852, DOI: 10.1021/la048102g39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXht1altA%253D%253D&md5=32f6559e39b92aeb4be877c1aad8e986Breakdown of Colloid Filtration Theory: Role of the Secondary Energy Minimum and Surface Charge HeterogeneitiesTufenkji, Nathalie; Elimelech, MenachemLangmuir (2005), 21 (3), 841-852CODEN: LANGD5; ISSN:0743-7463. (American Chemical Society)The mechanisms and causes of deviation from the classical colloid filtration theory (CFT) in the presence of repulsive Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) interactions were investigated. The deposition behavior of uniform polystyrene latex colloids in columns packed with spherical soda-lime glass beads was systematically examd. over a broad range of physicochem. conditions, whereby both the fluid-phase effluent particle concn. and the profile of retained particles were measured. Expts. conducted with three different-sized particles in a simple (1:1) electrolyte soln. reveal the controlling influence of secondary min. deposition on the deviation from CFT. In a second series of expts., sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) was added to the background electrolyte soln. with the intent of masking near-neutrally charged regions of particle and collector surfaces. These results indicate that the addn. of a small amt. of anionic surfactant is sufficient to reduce the influence of certain surface charge inhomogeneities on the deviation from CFT. To verify the validity of CFT in the absence of surface charge heterogeneities, a third set of expts. was conducted using solns. of high pH to mask the influence of metal oxide impurities on glass bead surfaces. The results demonstrate that both secondary min. deposition and surface charge heterogeneities contribute significantly to the deviation from CFT generally obsd. in colloid deposition studies. It is further shown that agreement with CFT is obtained even in the presence of an energy barrier (i.e., repulsive colloidal interactions), suggesting that it is not the general existence of repulsive conditions which causes deviation but rather the combined occurrence of "fast" and "slow" particle deposition.
- 40Quevedo, I. R.; Tufenkji, N. Mobility of Functionalized Quantum Dots and a Model Polystyrene Nanoparticle in Saturated Quartz Sand and Loamy Sand. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (8), 4449– 4457, DOI: 10.1021/es204545840https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XktVGgs7s%253D&md5=73c83e1e681db88f49d9650f13912a04Mobility of Functionalized Quantum Dots and a Model Polystyrene Nanoparticle in Saturated Quartz Sand and Loamy SandQuevedo, Ivan R.; Tufenkji, NathalieEnvironmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (8), 4449-4457CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Quantum dots (QDs) are one example of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) with demonstrated toxic effects. Yet, little is known about the behavior of QDs in the natural environment. This study assessed the transport of 2 com. carboxylated QDs (CdTe and CdSe) and carboxylated polystyrene latex (nPL) as a model nanoparticle using satd. lab.-scale columns. The influence of soln. ionic strength (IS) and cation type (K+ or Ca2+) on the transport potential of these ENPs was examd. in 2 granular matrixes, quartz sand and loamy sand. The retention of all 3 particles was generally low in the quartz sand columns within the range of studied IS (0.1-100mM) for the monovalent salt (KCl). In contrast, the retention of the 3 ENPs in the quartz sand was significant in the presence of 10mM Ca2+. ENP attachment efficiencies (α) were enhanced by ≥1 order of magnitude in columns packed with loamy sand (for IS 0.1-10mM KCl). Although all three ENPs used here are carboxylated, they differ in the type of surface coating (e.g., choice of polymers or polyelectrolytes). Regardless of the surface coatings, the 3 ENPs exhibit comparable mobility in the quartz sand. However, the ENPs demonstrate variable transport potential in loamy sand suggesting that differences in the binding affinities of surface-modified ENPs for specific soil constituents can play a key role in the fate of ENPs in soils.
- 41Keller, A. S.; Jimenez-Martinez, J.; Mitrano, D. M. Transport of Nano- and Microplastic through Unsaturated Porous Media from Sewage Sludge Application. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 (2), 911– 920, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b0648341https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXitl2mu7bM&md5=c104fc6be51c40fa634cb3daa4679ea7Transport of Nano- and Microplastic through Unsaturated Porous Media from Sewage Sludge ApplicationKeller, Andreas S.; Jimenez-Martinez, Joaquin; Mitrano, Denise M.Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (2), 911-920CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Wastewater treatment plants have been identified as important hubs for small particulate plastic, down to the nanometer scale, from urban areas to the environment. The reuse of sludge as fertilizer in agricultural practices can lead to accumulation of plastic in the soil. In this study, nanoplastic particles and microplastic fibers were synthesized with a passive inorg. tracer to aid in faster and more quant. anal. using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Using the anaerobic digestate of a pilot wastewater treatment plant spiked with metal-doped plastic, the excess sludge was dewatered, ensuring realistic assocns. between sludge and plastic. The resulting sludge cake was affixed atop an unsatd. porous-medium column of glass beads to assess: (i) the release of particulate plastic from the sludge, and (ii) the accumulation and mobility of plastic and org. matter through the column (analogous to a soil). A total of three particulate plastic treatments were assessed, in triplicate, where the plastic and mobile org. fractions were monitored for 14 pore water vols. Due to size-limited transport, low deattachment from the sludge and reduced mobility through the column were found for microplastic fibers (>95% retention). However, cotransport between the mobile org. fraction and nanoplastic particles was obsd., with 50% of both retained in the column. These results contribute to the understanding of the fate of particulate plastics and to assessing the assocd. environmental risks of particle mobility and percolation, particularly for nanoplastics.
- 42Fujita, Y.; Kobayashi, M. Transport of Colloidal Silica in Unsaturated Sand: Effect of Charging Properties of Sand and Silica Particles. Chemosphere 2016, 154, 179– 186, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.03.10542https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XlsVWrsLo%253D&md5=7ac7d16cdb20a89a5de0091d32932c39Transport of colloidal silica in unsaturated sand: Effect of charging properties of sand and silica particlesFujita, Yosuke; Kobayashi, MotoyoshiChemosphere (2016), 154 (), 179-186CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.)We have studied the transport of colloidal silica in various degrees of a water-satd. Toyoura sand column, because silica particles are widely used as catalyst carriers and abrasive agents, and their toxicity is reported recently. Since water-silica, water-sand, and air-water interfaces have pH-dependent neg. charges, the magnitude of surface charge was controlled by changing the soln. pH. The results show that, at high pH conditions (pH 7.4), the deposition of colloidal silica to the sand surface is interrupted and the silica concn. at the column outlet immediately reaches the input concn. in satd. conditions. In addn., the relative concn. of silica at the column outlet only slightly decreases to 0.9 with decreasing degrees of water satn. to 38%, because silica particles are trapped in straining regions in the soil pore and air-water interface. On the other hand, at pH 5 conditions (low pH), where sand and colloid have less charge, reduced repulsive forces result in colloidal silica attaching onto the sand in satd. conditions. The deposition amt. of silica particles remarkably increases with decreasing degrees of water satn. to 37%, which is explained by more particles being retained in the sand column assocd. with the air-water interface. In conclusion, at higher pH, the mobility of silica particles is high, and the air-water interface is inactive for the deposition of silica. On the other hand, at low pH, the deposition amt. increases with decreasing water satn., and the particle transport is inhibited.
- 43Kumahor, S. K.; Hron, P.; Metreveli, G.; Schaumann, G. E.; Vogel, H.-J. Transport of Citrate-Coated Silver Nanoparticles in Unsaturated Sand. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 535, 113– 121, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.02343https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjvF2msb8%253D&md5=b1263e5e6b03b352dc23cd70ccb2b072Transport of citrate-coated silver nanoparticles in unsaturated sandKumahor, Samuel K.; Hron, Pavel; Metreveli, George; Schaumann, Gabriele E.; Vogel, Hans-JoergScience of the Total Environment (2015), 535 (), 113-121CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Chem. factors and phys. constraints lead to coupled effects during particle transport in unsatd. porous media. Studies on unsatd. transport as typical for soils are currently scarce. In unsatd. porous media, particle mobility is detd. by the existence of an air-water interface in addn. to a solid-water interface. We measured breakthrough curves and retention profiles of citrate-coated Ag nanoparticles in unsatd. sand at 2 pH values (5 and 9) and 3 different flow rates corresponding to different water contents with 1mM KNO3 as background electrolyte. The classical DLVO theory suggests unfavorable deposition conditions at the air-water and solid-water interfaces. The breakthrough curves indicate modification in curve shapes and retardation of nanoparticles compared to inert solute. Retention profiles show sensitivity to flow rate and pH and this ranged from almost no retention for the highest flow rate at pH 9 to almost complete retention for the lowest flow rate at pH 5. Modeling of the breakthrough curves, thus, required coupling 2 parallel processes: a kinetically controlled attachment process far from equil., responsible for the shape modification, and an equil. sorption, responsible for particle retardation. The non-equil. process and equil. sorption are suggested to relate to the solid-water and air-water interfaces, resp. This is supported by the DLVO model extended for hydrophobic interactions which suggests reversible attachment, characterized by a secondary min. (depth 3-5 KT) and a repulsive barrier at the air-water interface. In contrast, the solid-water interface is characterized by a significant repulsive barrier and the absence of a secondary min. suggesting kinetically controlled and non-equil. interaction. This study provides new insights into particle transport in unsatd. porous media and offers a model concept representing the relevant processes.
- 44Torkzaban, S.; Bradford, S. A.; van Genuchten, M. Th; Walker, S. L. Colloid Transport in Unsaturated Porous Media: The Role of Water Content and Ionic Strength on Particle Straining. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2008, 96 (1), 113– 127, DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2007.10.00644https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhtlGgsbk%253D&md5=b2bb2bf0e9bceb0da3f43fa06c15ef0bColloid transport in unsaturated porous media: the role of water content and ionic strength on particle strainingTorkzaban, Saeed; Bradford, Scott A.; van Genuchten, Martinus Th.; Walker, Sharon L.Journal of Contaminant Hydrology (2008), 96 (1-4), 113-127CODEN: JCOHE6; ISSN:0169-7722. (Elsevier B.V.)Packed column and math. modeling studies were conducted to explore the influence of water satn., pore-water ionic strength, and grain size on the transport of latex microspheres (1.1 μm) in porous media. Expts. were carried out under chem. unfavorable conditions for colloid attachment to both solid-water interfaces (SWI) and air-water interfaces (AWI) using neg. charged and hydrophilic colloids and modifying the soln. chem. with a bicarbonate buffer to pH 10. Interaction energy calcns. and complementary batch expts. were conducted and demonstrated that partitioning of colloids to the SWI and AWI was insignificant across the range of the ionic strengths considered. The breakthrough curve and final deposition profile were measured in each expt. indicating colloid retention was highly dependent on the suspension ionic strength, water content, and sand grain size. In contrast to conventional filtration theory, most colloids were found deposited close to the column inlet, and hyper-exponential deposition profiles were obsd. A math. model, accounting for time- and depth-dependent straining, produced a reasonably good fit for both the breakthrough curves and final deposition profiles. Exptl. and modeling results suggest that straining - the retention of colloids in low velocity regions of porous media such as grain junctions - was the primary mechanism of colloid retention under both satd. and unsatd. conditions. The extent of stagnant regions of flow within the pore structure is enhanced with decreasing water content, leading to a greater amt. of retention. Ionic strength also contributes to straining, because the no. of colloids that are held in the secondary energy min. increases with ionic strength. These weakly assocd. colloids are prone to be translated to stagnation regions formed at grain-grain junctions, the solid-water-air triple point, and dead-end pores and then becoming trapped.
- 45Flury, M.; Aramrak, S. Role of Air-Water Interfaces in Colloid Transport in Porous Media: A Review. Water Resour. Res. 2017, 53 (7), 5247– 5275, DOI: 10.1002/2017WR020597There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46Jégou, D.; Cluzeau, D.; Balesdent, J.; Tréhen, P. Effects of Four Ecological Categories of Earthworms on Carbon Transfer in Soil. Appl. Soil Ecol. 1998, 9 (1), 249– 255, DOI: 10.1016/S0929-1393(97)00057-7There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 47Don, A.; Steinberg, B.; Schöning, I.; Pritsch, K.; Joschko, M.; Gleixner, G.; Schulze, E.-D. Organic Carbon Sequestration in Earthworm Burrows. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2008, 40 (7), 1803– 1812, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.03.00347https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXnt1eks7k%253D&md5=fc79adc797fe54e0ee9b6e5d1985a276Organic carbon sequestration in earthworm burrowsDon, Axel; Steinberg, Bert; Schoening, Ingo; Pritsch, Karin; Joschko, Monika; Gleixner, Gerd; Schulze, Ernst-DetlefSoil Biology & Biochemistry (2008), 40 (7), 1803-1812CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Earthworms strongly affect soil org. carbon cycling. The aim of this study was to det. whether deep burrowing anecic earthworms enhance carbon storage in soils and decrease C turnover. Earthworm burrow linings were sepd. into thin cylindrical sections with different distances from the burrow wall to det. gradients from the burrow wall to the surrounding soil. Org. C, total N, radiocarbon (14C) concn., stable isotope values (δ 13C, δ 15N) and extracellular enzyme activities were measured in these samples. Anecic earthworms increased C stocks by 270 and 310 g m-2 accumulated in the vertical burrows. C-enrichment of the burrow linings was spatially highly variable within a distance of millimeters around the burrow walls. C accumulation in burrows can be fast with C sequestration rates of about 22 g C m-2 yr-1 in the burrow linings, but accumulated C in the burrows may be mineralized fast with turnover times of only 3-5 years. Carbon stocks in earthworm burrows strongly depended on the earthworm activity which maintains continuous C input into the burrows. The enhanced extracellular enzyme activity of fresh casts was not persistent, but was 47% lower in inhabited burrows and 62% lower in abandoned burrows. Enzyme activities followed the C concns. in the burrows and were not further suppressed due to earthworms. Radiocarbon concns. and stable isotopes in the burrow linings showed an exponential gradient with the youngest and less degraded org. matter in the innermost part of the burrow wall. Carbon accumulation by anecic earthworm is restricted to distinct burrows with less influence to the surrounding soil. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, that org. C is stabilized due to earthworms, relaxation time expts. with NMR spectroscopy (NMR) did not reveal any enhanced adsorption of C on iron oxides with C stabilizing effect. Thus, earthworm activity does not substantially increase subsoil C stocks but burrows serve as fast ways for fresh C transport into deep soil horizons.
- 48Bouché, M. B. Strategies Lombriciennes. Ecol. Bull. 1977, (25), 122– 132There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Platt, B. F.; Kolb, D. J.; Kunhardt, C. G.; Milo, S. P.; New, L. G. Burrowing Through the Literature: The Impact of Soil-Disturbing Vertebrates on Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil. Soil Sci. 2016, 181 (3/4), 175, DOI: 10.1097/SS.000000000000015049https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xmt12lsrs%253D&md5=890e0372cee6b3610fac9fbef8c28709Burrowing Through the Literature: The Impact of Soil-Disturbing Vertebrates on Physical and Chemical Properties of SoilPlatt, Brian F.; Kolb, Dakota J.; Kunhardt, Christian G.; Milo, Scott P.; New, Lee G.Soil Science (2016), 181 (3/4), 175-191CODEN: SOSCAK; ISSN:0038-075X. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins)Soil-disturbing vertebrates (SDV) are relatively low in biodiversity and biomass compared with the dominant soil fauna (microorganisms and invertebrates), but they can nevertheless have a great impact on the phys. and chem. properties of soils. Our goal is to take an ichnol. (organism-substrate interactions)-based approach to review the impacts of SDV on soils; these impacts result in three basic categories of phys. structures (traces): subterranean excavations, constructed surficial mounds, and surficial excavations and depressions. We focus on direct rather than indirect effects and frame these in terms of soil addns., losses, translocations, and transformations. We look at publication trends in the SDV literature and graphically summarize examples of max. reported construction heights, excavation depths, and vols. of soil displacement for various SDV. We then review SDV impacts on soil color, texture, horizonation, structure, bulk d., soil moisture, porosity and permeability, org. matter, pH, cation exchange capacity, and the nutrients Ca, Mg, N, K, P, S, and Si. Translocations are common sources of variation in these properties and may be esp. important in creating nutrient-rich patches in otherwise limited landscapes. Common results of SDV activity include destruction of soil structure, decreases in bulk d., and increases in infiltration rates, porosity, and permeability. Addns. of excrement and plant material are important sources of org. matter, N, and K. Direct soil losses may occur through geophagy and trampling and wallowing behaviors. Erosion is an important indirect impact often related to killing of surface vegetation from mounding and foraging behaviors.
- 50Taylor, A. R.; Lenoir, L.; Vegerfors, B.; Persson, T. Ant and Earthworm Bioturbation in Cold-Temperate Ecosystems. Ecosystems 2019, 22, 981– 994, DOI: 10.1007/s10021-018-0317-250https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXis1WitbjE&md5=2fab43b7383cf0ac9d6b213bb71a1613Ant and Earthworm Bioturbation in Cold-Temperate EcosystemsTaylor, A. R.; Lenoir, L.; Vegerfors, B.; Persson, T.Ecosystems (2019), 22 (5), 981-994CODEN: ECOSFJ; ISSN:1432-9840. (Springer)In temperate ecosystems, earthworms and ants are the most important organisms for bioturbation. Little is known about how these groups contribute to bioturbation in different environments and to what extent overall bioturbation depends on their diversity. We developed a formula that allows quantification of annual earthworm bioturbation, thereby taking differences between earthworm ecotypes into account. With this formula, we calcd. earthworm bioturbation at three sites, each with vegetation types typically found in Northern Europe. Earthworm bioturbation was low (1 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1) in Scots pine and Norway spruce forests with acidic soil (pH 3.9-4.4) and high (between 15 and 34 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1) in broadleaf forests, grasslands, alder carr and spruce forests on calcareous soil. Burrowing (endogeic and anecic) earthworms accounted for most of the earthworm bioturbation, and these worms had the highest population densities at moderate-to-high soil pH (pH 5-7.2). Ests. of ant bioturbation at the same sites were based on nest abundance, size and residence time. Mean ant bioturbation varied between 0.2 and 1 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1, but individual plots had up to 2.4 Mg dry soil ha-1 y-1. In soils with pH higher than 5, the relative contribution of ants to total bioturbation was only 1-5%. Ant bioturbation was higher than earthworm bioturbation only in some forest soils with pH 3.9-4.4. Thus, earthworms appear to be the dominant cause of bioturbation in most types of terrestrial ecosystems in the cold-temperate areas of Europe and when information on local earthworm communities and monthly soil temps. is available, bioturbation can be quantified using the presented 'earthworm bioturbation formula'.
- 51Jégou, D.; Cluzeau, D.; Hallaire, V.; Balesdent, J.; Tréhen, P. Burrowing Activity of the Earthworms Lumbricus Terrestris and Aporrectodea Giardi and Consequences on C Transfers in Soil. Eur. J. Soil Biol. 2000, 36 (1), 27– 34, DOI: 10.1016/S1164-5563(00)01046-3There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 52Jarvis, N. J.; Taylor, A.; Larsbo, M.; Etana, A.; Rosén, K. Modelling the Effects of Bioturbation on the Re-Distribution of 137Cs in an Undisturbed Grassland Soil. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2010, 61 (1), 24– 34, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2009.01209.x52https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhvFajs78%253D&md5=a55b6ff68d62163a43173738aa223835Modelling the effects of bioturbation on the re-distribution of 137Cs in an undisturbed grassland soilJarvis, N. J.; Taylor, A.; Larsbo, M.; Etana, A.; Rosen, K.European Journal of Soil Science (2010), 61 (1), 24-34CODEN: ESOSES; ISSN:1351-0754. (Wiley-Blackwell)Under favorable conditions, soil ingestion by earthworm populations can be equiv. to approx. 5-10% of the topsoil mass per yr. This suggests that for contaminants that are strongly bound to soil, earthworm 'bioturbation' may be a more important transport mechanism than water-borne advection dispersion. It is therefore quite surprising that few modeling studies to date have explicitly considered the effects of biol. processes on contaminant transport in soil. In this study, we present a general model that incorporates the effects of both 'local' and 'non-local' biol. mixing into the framework of the std. phys. (advective-dispersive) transport model. The model is tested against measurements of the redistribution of caesium-137 (137Cs) derived from the Chernobyl accident, in a grassland soil during 21 years after fallout. Three model parameters related to biol. transport were calibrated within ranges defined by measured data and literature information on earthworm biomasses and feeding rates. Other parameters such as decay half-life and sorption const. were set to known or measured values. A phys. advective-dispersive transport model based on measured sorption strongly underestimated the downward displacement of 137Cs. A dye-tracing expt. suggested the occurrence of phys. non-equil. transport in soil macropores, but this was inadequate to explain the extent of the deep penetration of 137Cs obsd. at the site. A simple bio-diffusion model representing 'local' mixing worked reasonably well, but failed to reproduce the deep penetration of Cs as well as a diln. obsd. close to the soil surface. A comprehensive model including phys. advective-dispersive transport, and both 'local' and 'non-local' mixing caused by the activities of both endogeic and anecic earthworms, gave an excellent match to the measured depth profiles of 137Cs, with predictions mostly lying within confidence intervals for the means of measured data and model efficiencies exceeding 0.9 on all sampling occasions but the first.
- 53Rillig, M. C.; Ziersch, L.; Hempel, S. Microplastic Transport in Soil by Earthworms. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7 (1), 1362, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-01594-753https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1crjsVanug%253D%253D&md5=6cbf77df501d391053be2a1d82609304Microplastic transport in soil by earthwormsRillig Matthias C; Ziersch Lisa; Hempel Stefan; Rillig Matthias C; Hempel StefanScientific reports (2017), 7 (1), 1362 ISSN:.Despite great general benefits derived from plastic use, accumulation of plastic material in ecosystems, and especially microplastic, is becoming an increasing environmental concern. Microplastic has been extensively studied in aquatic environments, with very few studies focusing on soils. We here tested the idea that microplastic particles (polyethylene beads) could be transported from the soil surface down the soil profile via earthworms. We used Lumbricus terrestris L., an anecic earthworm species, in a factorial greenhouse experiment with four different microplastic sizes. Presence of earthworms greatly increased the presence of microplastic particles at depth (we examined 3 soil layers, each 3.5 cm deep), with smaller PE microbeads having been transported downward to a greater extent. Our study clearly shows that earthworms can be significant transport agents of microplastics in soils, incorporating this material into soil, likely via casts, burrows (affecting soil hydraulics), egestion and adherence to the earthworm exterior. This movement has potential consequences for exposure of other soil biota to microplastics, for the residence times of microplastic at greater depth, and for the possible eventual arrival of microplastics in the groundwater.
- 54Baccaro, M.; Harrison, S.; van den Berg, H.; Sloot, L.; Hermans, D.; Cornelis, G.; van Gestel, C. A.M.; van den Brink, N. W. Bioturbation of Ag2S-NPs in Soil Columns by Earthworms. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 252, 155– 162, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.10654https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtVGhurbK&md5=fdc41df602acefec5e03ce9867d04df2Bioturbation of Ag2S-NPs in soil columns by earthwormsBaccaro, Marta; Harrison, Samuel; van den Berg, Hans; Sloot, Laura; Hermans, Davy; Cornelis, Geert; van Gestel, Cornelis A. M.; van den Brink, Nico W.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 252 (Part_A), 155-162CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Sewage sludge contains Ag2S-NPs causing NP exposure of soil fauna when sludge is applied as soil amendment. Earthworm bioturbation is an important process affecting many soil functions. Bioturbation may be affected by the presence of Ag2S-NPs, but the earthworm activity itself may also influence the displacement of these NPs that otherwise show little transport in the soil. The aim of this study was to det. effects of Ag2S-NPs on earthworm bioturbation and effect of this bioturbation on the vertical distribution of Ag2S-NPs. Columns (12 cm) of a sandy loamy soil with and without Lumbricus rubellus were prepd. with and without 10 mg Ag kg-1, applied as Ag2S-NPs in the top 2 cm of the soil, while artificial rainwater was applied at ∼1.2 mm day-1. The soil columns were sampled at three depths weekly for 28 days and leachate collected from the bottom. Total Ag measurements showed more displacement of Ag to deeper soil layers in the columns with earthworms. The application of rain only did not significantly affect Ag transport in the soil. No Ag was detected in column leachates. X-ray tomog. showed that changes in macro porosity and pore size distribution as a result of bioturbation were not different between columns with and without Ag2S-NPs. Earthworm activity was therefore not affected by Ag2S-NPs at the used exposure concn. Ag concns. along the columns and the earthworm d. allowed the calcn. of the bioturbation rate. The effect on the Ag transport in the soil shows that earthworm burrowing activity is a relevant process that must be taken into account when studying the fate of nanoparticles in soils.
- 55Capowiez, Y.; Sammartino, S.; Michel, E. Using X-Ray Tomography to Quantify Earthworm Bioturbation Non-Destructively in Repacked Soil Cores. Geoderma 2011, 162 (1), 124– 131, DOI: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.01.011There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 56Astete, C. E.; Constant, W. D.; Thibodeaux, L. J.; Seals, R. K.; Selim, H. M. Bioturbation-Driven Particle Transport in Surface Soil: The Biodiffusion Coefficient Mobility Parameter. Soil Sci. 2015, 180 (1), 2– 9, DOI: 10.1097/SS.000000000000010956https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXntFSnsLs%253D&md5=677b76570e5b9422e81d8ea2073b8250Bioturbation-Driven Particle Transport in Surface Soil: The Biodiffusion Coefficient Mobility ParameterAstete, Carlos E.; Constant, W. David; Thibodeaux, Louis J.; Seals, Roger K.; Selim, H. MagdiSoil Science (2015), 180 (1), 2-9CODEN: SOSCAK; ISSN:0038-075X. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins)Macrofauna-induced bioturbation of soil is dominated by earthworms, among other invertebrates, in most grassland and forest soil. First obsd. by Darwin, bioturbation drives particle mixing in the upper surface layers, leading to beneficial results to agricultural soils, including enhanced porosity, water permeability, and aeration and improved org. matter and nutrient distributions. Applied pesticides and other chems. residing on surface soils are transported downward into the soil column by a random mixing of particles. This phys. particle diffusion, which conceptually mimics the random mixing of mol. species in fluids, is treated as a Fickian chem. flux mechanism. Using this mechanism, for the mobility rate, while extending the soil-water advection-dispersion model to particles, yields a theor. approach for obtaining the biodiffusion coeff. (Db). The Db is a numerical soil parameter reflecting biol.-induced particle movement and differs significantly from the conventional phys. and chem. diffusion coeffs. It is a kinetic parameter with units of square centimeters per yr and when used with the bulk d. gradient quantifies the soil particle mobility rate within the bioturbated surface layer. Field measurements on soil turnover rates and mixing depth from the literature, including Darwin's work, were used to produce Db data sets for earthworms, ants, termites, and so on. The highly variable coeffs. necessitate lognormal statistics to summarize the findings. However, the av. Db values for the three invertebrates were 2.12, 0.39, and 0.75 cm year, resp., and surprisingly similar. The need for more field and lab. data, process-based and species-specific theor. models, and chem.-based soil Db are discussed.
- 57Meysman, F. J. R.; Boudreau, B. P.; Middelburg, J. J. Relations between Local, Nonlocal, Discrete and Continuous Models of Bioturbation. J. Mar. Res. 2003, 61, 391– 410, DOI: 10.1357/002224003322201241There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 58Huerta Lwanga, E.; Gertsen, H.; Gooren, H.; Peters, P.; Salanki, T.; van der Ploeg, M.; Besseling, E.; Koelmans, A. A.; Geissen, V. Incorporation of Microplastics from Litter into Burrows of Lumbricus Terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 523– 531, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.09.09658https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xhs1CltLvJ&md5=d64c76f4f696a171cf487dbe61906c58Incorporation of microplastics from litter into burrows of Lumbricus terrestrisHuerta Lwanga, Esperanza; Gertsen, Hennie; Gooren, Harm; Peters, Piet; Salanki, Tamas; van der Ploeg, Martine; Besseling, Ellen; Koelmans, Albert A.; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 523-531CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Pollution caused by plastic debris is an urgent environmental problem. Here, we assessed the effects of microplastics in the soil surface litter on the formation and characterization of burrows built by the anecic earthworm Lumbricus terrestris in soil and quantified the amt. of microplastics that was transported and deposited in L. terrestris burrows. Worms were exposed to soil surface litter treatments contg. microplastics (Low D. Polyethylene) for 2 wk at concns. of 0%, 7%, 28%, 45% and 60%. The latter representing environmentally realistic concns. found in hot spot soil locations. There were significantly more burrows found when soil was exposed to the surface treatment composed of 7% microplastics than in all other treatments. The highest amt. of org. matter in the walls of the burrows was obsd. after using the treatments contg. 28 and 45% microplastics. The highest microplastic bioturbation efficiency ratio (total microplastics (mg) in burrow walls/initial total surface litter microplastics (mg)) was found using the concn. of 7% microplastics, where L. terrestris introduced 73.5% of the surface microplastics into the burrow walls. The highest burrow wall microplastic content per unit wt. of soil (11.8 ± 4.8 g kg-1) was found using a concn. of 60% microplastics. L. terrestris was responsible for size-selective downward transport when exposed to concns. of 7, 28 and 45% microplastics in the surface litter, as the fraction ≤50 μm microplastics in burrow walls increased by 65% compared to this fraction in the original surface litter plastic. We conclude that the high biogenic incorporation rate of the small-fraction microplastics from surface litter into burrow walls causes a risk of leaching through preferential flow into groundwater bodies. Furthermore, this leaching may have implications for the subsequent availability of microplastics to terrestrial organisms or for the transport of plastic-assocd. org. contaminants in soil.
- 59Huerta Lwanga, E.; Mendoza Vega, J.; Ku Quej, V.; Chi, J. d. l. A.; Sanchez del Cid, L.; Chi, C.; Escalona Segura, G.; Gertsen, H.; Salanki, T.; van der Ploeg, M.; Koelmans, A. A.; Geissen, V. Field Evidence for Transfer of Plastic Debris along a Terrestrial Food Chain. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7 (1), 14071, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14588-259https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1M7kvFOitg%253D%253D&md5=a2f98aa8402763d5c3481b87a65229f8Field evidence for transfer of plastic debris along a terrestrial food chainHuerta Lwanga Esperanza; Mendoza Vega Jorge; Ku Quej Victor; Chi Jesus de Los Angeles; Sanchez Del Cid Lucero; Huerta Lwanga Esperanza; Gertsen Henny; van der Ploeg Martine; Geissen Violette; Chi Cesar; Escalona Segura Griselda; Salanki Tamas; Koelmans Albert A; Koelmans Albert AScientific reports (2017), 7 (1), 14071 ISSN:.Although plastic pollution happens globally, the micro- (<5 mm) and macroplastic (5-150 mm) transfer of plastic to terrestrial species relevant to human consumption has not been examined. We provide first-time evidence for micro- and macroplastic transfer from soil to chickens in traditional Mayan home gardens in Southeast Mexico where waste mismanagement is common. We assessed micro- and macroplastic in soil, earthworm casts, chicken feces, crops and gizzards (used for human consumption). Microplastic concentrations increased from soil (0.87 ± 1.9 particles g(-1)), to earthworm casts (14.8 ± 28.8 particles g(-1)), to chicken feces (129.8 ± 82.3 particles g(-1)). Chicken gizzards contained 10.2 ± 13.8 microplastic particles, while no microplastic was found in crops. An average of 45.82 ± 42.6 macroplastic particles were found per gizzard and 11 ± 15.3 macroplastic particles per crop, with 1-10 mm particles being significantly more abundant per gizzard (31.8 ± 27.27 particles) compared to the crop (1 ± 2.2 particles). The data show that micro- and macroplastic are capable of entering terrestrial food webs.
- 60Sanchez-Hernandez, J. C.; Capowiez, Y.; Ro, K. S. Potential Use of Earthworms to Enhance Decaying of Biodegradable Plastics. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2020, 8 (11), 4292– 4316, DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b0545060https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXisF2hsbg%253D&md5=38929ca7a1e49ba120f4ea0e698fc542Potential Use of Earthworms to Enhance Decaying of Biodegradable PlasticsSanchez-Hernandez, Juan C.; Capowiez, Yvan; Ro, Kyoung S.ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2020), 8 (11), 4292-4316CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)A review. Biosolid application, wastewater irrigation, and plastic mulching technologies are major sources of plastic pollution in agroecosystems. Microplastics may interact with soil physicochem. properties and organisms and neg. affect plant growth. To alleviate environmental plastic pollution, synthetic and biobased biodegradable polymers are replacing nonbiodegradable polymers, but their biodegrdn. rate in the field is frequently lower than that estd. from standardized biodegrdn. testing. Plastic polymer biodegrdn. is a multistep process that involves plastic deterioration, microbial colonization, prodn. of polymer-degrading exoenzymes, and mineralization. However, these physicochem. and biol. processes are not always efficient because of unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g., temp., soil moisture). We propose to use earthworms to increase the biodegradable polymer biodegrdn. rate by creating optimal habitats for microbial proliferation. Earthworm-induced processes that lead to soil alteration (bioturbation) and solid org. wastes decompn. (vermicomposting) are described to understand how earthworms may favor biodegradable plastic mineralization. Therefore, we suggest two practical sustainable bioengineering strategies: (1) enhancing bioturbation by inoculating agricultural soils with soil-dwelling earthworms, which is viable for horticulture where using biodegradable mulching films increases plastic debris in the soil and (2) vermicomposting with blended biodegradable plastic debris and solid org. wastes, which is complementary to industrial or home composting of single-use biodegradable plastics. Earthworm bioturbation and vermicomposting are sustainable strategies for end-of-life management of biodegradable plastics.
- 61Thomas, D.; Schütze, B.; Heinze, W. M.; Steinmetz, Z. Sample Preparation Techniques for the Analysis of Microplastics in Soil─A Review. Sustainability 2020, 12 (21), 9074, DOI: 10.3390/su1221907461https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXis1emtrrF&md5=c7d5505d4558181bd0e08b3fa01aac14Sample preparation techniques for the analysis of microplastics in soil-a reviewThomas, Daniela; Schuetze, Berit; Heinze, Wiebke Mareile; Steinmetz, ZachariasSustainability (2020), 12 (21), 9074CODEN: SUSTDE; ISSN:2071-1050. (MDPI AG)Although most plastic pollution originates on land, current research largely remains focused on aquatic ecosystems. Studies pioneering terrestrial microplastic research have adapted anal. methods from aquatic research without acknowledging the complex nature of soil. Meanwhile, novel methods have been developed and further refined. However, methodical inconsistencies still challenge a comprehensive understanding of microplastic occurrence and fate in and on soil. This review aims to disentangle the variety of state-of-the-art sample prepn. techniques for heterogeneous solid matrixes to identify and discuss best-practice methods for soil-focused microplastic analyses. We show that soil sampling, homogenization, and aggregate dispersion are often neglected or incompletely documented. Microplastic preconcn. is typically performed by sepg. inorg. soil constituents with high-d. salt solns. Not yet standardized but currently most used sepn. setups involve overflowing beakers to retrieve supernatant plastics, although closed-design sepn. funnels probably reduce the risk of contamination. Fenton reagent may be particularly useful to digest soil org. matter if suspected to interfere with subsequent microplastic quantification. A promising new approach is extn. of target polymers with org. solvents. However, insufficiently characterized soils still impede an informed decision on optimal sample prepn. Further research and method development thus requires thorough validation and quality control with well-characterized matrixes to enable robust routine analyses for terrestrial microplastics.
- 62Li, J.; Song, Y.; Cai, Y. Focus Topics on Microplastics in Soil: Analytical Methods, Occurrence, Transport, and Ecological Risks. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 257, 113570, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.11357062https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1KrtLfJ&md5=02e5b84c8d38ea97909ed7410431f5f0Focus topics on microplastics in soil: Analytical methods, occurrence, transport, and ecological risksLi, Jia; Song, Yang; Cai, YongbingEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2020), 257 (), 113570CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review. Microplastics with extremely high abundances are universally detected in marine and terrestrial systems. Microplastic pollution in the aquatic environment, esp. in ocean, has become a hot topic and raised global attention. However, microplastics in soils has been largely overlooked. In this paper, the anal. methods, occurrence, transport, and potential ecol. risks of microplastics in soil environments have been reviewed. Although several anal. methods have been established, a universal, efficient, faster, and low-cost anal. method is still not available. Current data on abundance and distribution of microplastics in soils are still limited, and results obtained from different studies differ significantly. Once entering into surface soil, microplastics can migrate to deep soil through different processes, e.g. leaching, bioturbation, and farming activities. Presence of microplastics with high abundance in soils can alter fundamental properties of soils. But current conclusions on microplastics on soil organisms are still conflicting. Overall, research on microplastics pollution in soils is still in its infancy and there are gaps in the knowledge of microplastics pollution in soil environments. Many questions such as pollution level, ecol. risks, transport behaviors and the control mechanisms are still unclear, which needs further systematical study.
- 63Wang, W.; Ge, J.; Yu, X.; Li, H. Environmental Fate and Impacts of Microplastics in Soil Ecosystems: Progress and Perspective. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 708, 134841, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.13484163https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXit1Ohsb3N&md5=a50914a4d2b1d966c69e136aa8bf92a7Environmental fate and impacts of microplastics in soil ecosystems: Progress and perspectiveWang, Wenfeng; Ge, Jing; Yu, Xiangyang; Li, HuiScience of the Total Environment (2020), 708 (), 134841CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. The wide and intensive application of plastics and their derived products has resulted in global environmental contamination of plastic waste. Large-sized plastic litter can be fragmented into microplastics (<5 mm), which have attracted increasing concerns from the general public and scientific communities worldwide. Until recently, the majority of microplastics research reported in literatures has been focusing on the aquatic settings, esp. the marine environment, while information about microplastics contamination in terrestrial soil systems is highly insufficient. In this paper, we reviewed the latest data regarding the occurrence of microplastics in terrestrial soils and discussed their potential pathways into the soil environment. We also summarized the currently used methodologies for extn. and characterization of microplastics in soil matrixes and evaluated their advantages and limitations. Addnl., we assessed the ecotoxicol. consequences of microplastics contamination on soil ecosystems, including the effects on soil physiochem. properties, terrestrial plants, soil fauna, and soil microbes. Finally, based on the most current progress summarized in this review, we suggested several directions for future research on microplastics in soil ecosystems.
- 64Löder, M. G. J.; Kuczera, M.; Mintenig, S.; Lorenz, C.; Gerdts, G. Focal Plane Array Detector-Based Micro-Fourier-Transform Infrared Imaging for the Analysis of Microplastics in Environmental Samples. Environ. Chem. 2015, 12 (5), 563– 581, DOI: 10.1071/EN14205There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 65He, D.; Luo, Y.; Lu, S.; Liu, M.; Song, Y.; Lei, L. Microplastics in Soils: Analytical Methods, Pollution Characteristics and Ecological Risks. TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. 2018, 109, 163– 172, DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.00665https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhvFygurnN&md5=b44eeffd850362343a4c6f72414e5cc2Microplastics in soils: Analytical methods, pollution characteristics and ecological risksHe, Defu; Luo, Yongming; Lu, Shibo; Liu, Mengting; Song, Yang; Lei, LiliTrAC, Trends in Analytical Chemistry (2018), 109 (), 163-172CODEN: TTAEDJ; ISSN:0165-9936. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Microplastics are emerging persistent contaminants of increasing concern. Although microplastics have been extensively detected in aquatic environments, their occurrence in soil ecosystems remains largely unexplored. This review focused on recent progress in anal. methods, pollution characteristics and ecol. effects of microplastics in soils. In spite of the presence of microplastics in soils, no standardized methods are available for the quantification. Uniform protocols including microplastic extn. and identification are urgently needed to develop. In soil environments, main sources of microplastics include mulching film, sludge, wastewater irrigation and atm. deposition. The fate of microplastics is closely related to soil physio-chem. and biota. Existing evidence shows that microplastics can influence soil biota at different trophic levels, and even threaten human health through food chains. Therefore, further research is needed to fully reveal the fate and ecol. risks of microplastics in soils; and necessary action is required to control microplastic pollution in terrestrial ecosystems.
- 66Dierkes, G.; Lauschke, T.; Becher, S.; Schumacher, H.; Földi, C.; Ternes, T. Quantification of Microplastics in Environmental Samples via Pressurized Liquid Extraction and Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2019, 411 (26), 6959– 6968, DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-02066-966https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhslWktLzL&md5=d227254291f7c3683c700cdb4a9fa445Quantification of microplastics in environmental samples via pressurized liquid extraction and pyrolysis-gas chromatographyDierkes, Georg; Lauschke, Tim; Becher, Susanne; Schumacher, Heike; Foeldi, Corinna; Ternes, ThomasAnalytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2019), 411 (26), 6959-6968CODEN: ABCNBP; ISSN:1618-2642. (Springer)Quantifying microplastics (MP) in environmental samples is a challenging task. To enable low quantification limits, an anal. method was developed which combines pressurized liq. extn. (PLE) and pyrolysis gas chromatog./mass spectrometry. Automated extn. includes a pre-extn. step with methanol followed by a subsequent PLE with THF. For the most frequently used synthetic polymers (polyethylene [PE], polypropylene [P] polystyrene [S]), limits of quantification achieved were down to 0.007 mg/g. Recoveries >80% were attained in solid matrixes, e.g., soil and sediment. This method was used to quantify MP in environmental matrixes (sediment, suspended matter, soil, wastewater sludge). In these matrixes, PE and PP were detected at concns. of 0.03-3.3 mg/g. In sludge, all three polymers were present at concns. of 0.08 ± 0.02 mg/g (PP) and 3.3 ± 0.3 mg/g (PE). For solid matrixes in particular, anal. of triplicates showed elevated statistical uncertainties due to the inhomogeneous distribution of MP particles. Thus, care must be taken when milling and homogenizing samples due to agglomerate formation.
- 67Mitrano, D. M.; Beltzung, A.; Frehland, S.; Schmiedgruber, M.; Cingolani, A.; Schmidt, F. Synthesis of Metal-Doped Nanoplastics and Their Utility to Investigate Fate and Behaviour in Complex Environmental Systems. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2019, 14 (4), 362, DOI: 10.1038/s41565-018-0360-367https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXmtF2nsLk%253D&md5=00ec219e04c358c61d03bf69f3247ce2Synthesis of metal-doped nanoplastics and their utility to investigate fate and behaviour in complex environmental systemsMitrano, Denise M.; Beltzung, Anna; Frehland, Stefan; Schmiedgruber, Michael; Cingolani, Alberto; Schmidt, FelixNature Nanotechnology (2019), 14 (4), 362-368CODEN: NNAABX; ISSN:1748-3387. (Nature Research)Research on the distribution and effects of particulate plastic has intensified in recent years and yet, due to anal. challenges, our understanding of nanoplastic occurrence and behavior has remained comparatively elusive. However, process studies could greatly aid in defining key parameters for nanoplastic interactions within and transfers between tech. and environmental compartments. Here we provide a method to synthesize nanoplastic particles doped with a chem. entrapped metal used as a tracer, which provides a robust way to detect nanoplastics more easily, accurately and quant. in complex media. We show the utility of this approach in batch studies that simulate the activated sludge process of a municipal waste water treatment plant and so better understand the fate of nanoplastics in urban environments. We found that the majority of particles were assocd. with the sludge (>98%), with an av. recovery of over 93% of the spiked material achieved. We believe that this approach can be developed further to study the fate, transport, mechanistic behavior and biol. uptake of nanoplastics in a variety of systems on different scales.
- 68Redondo-Hasselerharm, P. E.; Vink, G.; Mitrano, D. M.; Koelmans, A. A. Metal-Doping of Nanoplastics Enables Accurate Assessment of Uptake and Effects on Gammarus Pulex. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2021, 8 (6), 1761– 1770, DOI: 10.1039/D1EN00068C68https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtFanu7%252FN&md5=7086dba7f14d14f92566e6fe6dcba467Metal-doping of nanoplastics enables accurate assessment of uptake and effects on Gammarus pulexRedondo-Hasselerharm, P. E.; Vink, G.; Mitrano, D. M.; Koelmans, A. A.Environmental Science: Nano (2021), 8 (6), 1761-1770CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Because of the difficulty of measuring nanoplastics (NP), the use of NPs doped with trace metals has been proposed as a promising approach to detect NP in environmental media and biota. In the present study, the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex were exposed to palladium (Pd)-doped NP via natural sediment at six spiking concns. (0, 0.3, 1, 3, 10 and 30 g plastic per kg of sediment dry wt.) with the aim of assessing their uptake and chronic effects using 28 days standardized single species toxicity tests. NP concns. were quantified based on Pd concns. measured by ICP-MS on digests of the exposed organisms and faecal pellets excreted during a post-exposure 24 h depuration period. Addnl., NP concns. were measured in sediments and water to demonstrate accuracy of NP dosing and to quantify the resuspension of NP from the sediment caused by the organisms. A significant pos. linear relationship between the uptake of NP by G. pulex and the concn. of NP in the sediments was obsd., yet no statistically significant effects were found on the survival or growth of G. pulex. A biodynamic model fitted well to the data and suggested bioaccumulation would occur in two kinetic compartments, the major one being reversible with rapid depuration to clean medium. Model fitting yielded a mass based trophic transfer factor (TTF), conceptually similar to the traditional biota sediment accumulation factor, for NP in the gut of 0.031. This value is close to a TTF value of 0.025 that was obtained for much larger microplastic particles in a similar expt. performed previously. Mechanistically, this suggests that ingestion of plastic is limited by the total vol. of ingested particles. We demonstrated that using metal-doped plastics provides opportunities for precise quantification of NP accumulation and exposure in fate and effect studies, which can be a clear benefit for NP risk assessment.
- 69Schlemmer, D.; Sales, M. J. A.; Resck, I. S. Degradation of Different Polystyrene/Thermoplastic Starch Blends Buried in Soil. Carbohydr. Polym. 2009, 75 (1), 58– 62, DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.06.01069https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhtFCiu7nE&md5=98661df86ac42433c1b93df8ac8efbc8Degradation of different polystyrene/thermoplastic starch blends buried in soilSchlemmer, Daniela; Sales, Maria J. A.; Resck, Ines S.Carbohydrate Polymers (2009), 75 (1), 58-62CODEN: CAPOD8; ISSN:0144-8617. (Elsevier Ltd.)Blends of PS and TPS were prepd. using 2 different plasticizers: glycerol or buriti oil by solvent casting technique. PS/TPS blends were submitted to degrdn. by soil burial tests in perforated boxes for 6 mo and later analyzed by TG and CPMAS 13C NMR. After degrdn., blends with glycerol presented less stages of thermal degrdn. and NMR signals of minor intensity compared to the original blends. The presence of TPS at contents of ≥50% improved the degrdn. of the blends. After 6 mo, PS/TPS blends with buriti oil presented only one thermal degrdn. stage with a significant increase in mass loss. All absorptions related to starch disappeared in NMR spectra after soil buried test, probably due to the consumption of starch by microorganisms. These results revealed that PS's degradability can be improved when TPS plasticized with buriti oil is added to it.
- 70Kaplan, D.; Hartenstein, R.; Sutter, J. Biodegradation of Polystyrene, Poly(Methyl Methacrylate), and Phenol Formaldehyde. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1979, 38, 551– 553, DOI: 10.1128/aem.38.3.551-553.197970https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL3cXhtF2r&md5=aeea00a5e7e48d01b1461abfea7c7e86Biodegradation of polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), and phenol formaldehydeKaplan, David L.; Hartenstein, Roy; Sutter, JimApplied and Environmental Microbiology (1979), 38 (3), 551-3CODEN: AEMIDF; ISSN:0099-2240.The biodegrdn. of 3 synthetic 14C-labeled polymers, poly(Me methacrylate) [9011-14-7], phenol formaldehyde polymer [9003-35-4], and polystyrene [9003-53-6], was studied with 17 species of fungi in axenic cultures, 5 groups of soil invertebrates, and a variety of mixed microbial communities including sludges, soils, manures, garbages, and decaying plastics. Extremely low decompn. rates were found. The addn. of cellulose and minerals failed to increase decompn. rates.
- 71Fründ, H.-C.; Butt, K.; Capowiez, Y.; Eisenhauer, N.; Emmerling, C.; Ernst, G.; Potthoff, M.; Schädler, M.; Schrader, S. Using Earthworms as Model Organisms in the Laboratory: Recommendations for Experimental Implementations. Pedobiologia 2010, 53 (2), 119– 125, DOI: 10.1016/j.pedobi.2009.07.002There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 72Andriuzzi, W. S.; Bolger, T.; Schmidt, O. The Drilosphere Concept: Fine-Scale Incorporation of Surface Residue-Derived N and C around Natural Lumbricus Terrestris Burrows. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2013, 64, 136– 138, DOI: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.04.01672https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXptFOksb0%253D&md5=8d40be2d68b6bb212f9865a49fcf7706The drilosphere concept: Fine-scale incorporation of surface residue-derived N and C around natural Lumbricus terrestris burrowsAndriuzzi, Walter S.; Bolger, Thomas; Schmidt, OlafSoil Biology & Biochemistry (2013), 64 (), 136-138CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier B.V.)Anecic (deep-burrowing) earthworms are important for soil biogeochem. functioning, but the fine-scale spatial range at which they incorporate C and N around their burrows (the drilosphere sensu stricto) needs to be investigated under realistic conditions. We conducted a field expt. to delimit spatially the extent to which soil around natural Lumbricus terrestris burrows is influenced biochem. We placed plant litter dual-labeled with 13C and 15N stable isotope tracers on L. terrestris burrow openings and we measured residue-derived 13C and 15N in thin concentric layers (0-2, 2-4, 4-8 mm) around burrows with or without a resident earthworm. After 45 days, earthworms were significantly enriched in 13C and 15N as a result of feeding on the plant litter. At 0-5 cm soil depth, soil 15N concns. were significantly higher around occupied than unoccupied burrows, and they were significantly higher in all burrow layers (including 4-8 mm) than in bulk soil (50-75 mm from burrow). This suggests that biochem. drilosphere effects of anecic earthworms, at least in the uppermost portion of the burrow, extend farther than the 2 mm layer assumed traditionally.
- 73Jarvis, N. J. A Review of Non-Equilibrium Water Flow and Solute Transport in Soil Macropores: Principles, Controlling Factors and Consequences for Water Quality. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 2007, 58 (3), 523– 546, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2389.2007.00915.xThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 74Balseiro-Romero, M.; Mazurier, A.; Monoshyn, D.; Baveye, P. C.; Clause, J. Using X-Ray Microtomography to Characterize the Burrowing Behaviour of Earthworms in Heterogeneously Polluted Soils. Pedobiologia 2020, 83, 150671, DOI: 10.1016/j.pedobi.2020.150671There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 75Schindelin, J.; Arganda-Carreras, I.; Frise, E.; Kaynig, V.; Longair, M.; Pietzsch, T.; Preibisch, S.; Rueden, C.; Saalfeld, S.; Schmid, B.; Tinevez, J.-Y.; White, D. J.; Hartenstein, V.; Eliceiri, K.; Tomancak, P.; Cardona, A. Fiji: An Open-Source Platform for Biological-Image Analysis. Nat. Methods 2012, 9 (7), 676– 682, DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.201975https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVKnurbJ&md5=ad150521a33367d37a800bee853dd9dbFiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysisSchindelin, Johannes; Arganda-Carreras, Ignacio; Frise, Erwin; Kaynig, Verena; Longair, Mark; Pietzsch, Tobias; Preibisch, Stephan; Rueden, Curtis; Saalfeld, Stephan; Schmid, Benjamin; Tinevez, Jean-Yves; White, Daniel James; Hartenstein, Volker; Eliceiri, Kevin; Tomancak, Pavel; Cardona, AlbertNature Methods (2012), 9 (7_part1), 676-682CODEN: NMAEA3; ISSN:1548-7091. (Nature Publishing Group)Fiji is a distribution of the popular open-source software ImageJ focused on biol.-image anal. Fiji uses modern software engineering practices to combine powerful software libraries with a broad range of scripting languages to enable rapid prototyping of image-processing algorithms. Fiji facilitates the transformation of new algorithms into ImageJ plugins that can be shared with end users through an integrated update system. We propose Fiji as a platform for productive collaboration between computer science and biol. research communities.
- 76Schneider, C. A.; Rasband, W. S.; Eliceiri, K. W. NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 Years of Image Analysis. Nat. Methods 2012, 9 (7), 671– 675, DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.208976https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVKntb7P&md5=85ab928cd79f1e2f2351c834c0c600f0NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysisSchneider, Caroline A.; Rasband, Wayne S.; Eliceiri, Kevin W.Nature Methods (2012), 9 (7_part1), 671-675CODEN: NMAEA3; ISSN:1548-7091. (Nature Publishing Group)For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the anal. of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solns. of these two programs, and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.
- 77Koestel, J. SoilJ: An ImageJ Plugin for the Semiautomatic Processing of Three-Dimensional X-Ray Images of Soils. Vadose Zone J. 2018, 17 (1), 170062, DOI: 10.2136/vzj2017.03.0062There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 78Koestel, J.; Dathe, A.; Skaggs, T. H.; Klakegg, O.; Ahmad, M. A.; Babko, M.; Giménez, D.; Farkas, C.; Nemes, A.; Jarvis, N. Estimating the Permeability of Naturally Structured Soil From Percolation Theory and Pore Space Characteristics Imaged by X-Ray. Water Resour. Res. 2018, 54 (11), 9255– 9263, DOI: 10.1029/2018WR023609There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 79Legland, D.; Arganda-Carreras, I.; Andrey, P. MorphoLibJ: Integrated Library and Plugins for Mathematical Morphology with ImageJ. Bioinformatics 2016, 32 (22), 3532– 3534, DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btw41379https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtlyktL%252FK&md5=00954035a2b1379f78adea7b78d79316MorphoLibJ: integrated library and plugins for mathematical morphology with ImageJLegland, David; Arganda-Carreras, Ignacio; Andrey, PhilippeBioinformatics (2016), 32 (22), 3532-3534CODEN: BOINFP; ISSN:1367-4803. (Oxford University Press)Motivation: Math. morphol. (MM) provides many powerful operators for processing 2D and 3D images. However, most MM plugins currently implemented for the popular ImageJ/Fiji platform are limited to the processing of 2D images. Results: The MorphoLibJ library proposes a large collection of generic tools based on MM to process binary and gray-level 2D and 3D images, integrated into user-friendly plugins. We illustrate how MorphoLibJ can facilitate the exploitation of 3D images of plant tissues.
- 80Limaye, A. Drishti: A Volume Exploration and Presentation Tool. Proc. SPIE 2012, 85060X, DOI: 10.1117/12.935640There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 81ISO 11466:1995. Soil Quality – Extraction of Trace Elements Soluble in Aqua Regia; ISO: Geneva, 1995.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 82Method 3051A (SW-846): Microwave Assisted Acid Digestion of Sediments, Sludges, and Oils; Revision 1; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 83Rodriguez, M. D. The Bioturbation Transport of Chemicals in Surface Soils; Master’s Thesis, Louisiana State University, 2006.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 84Pitkänen, J.; Nuutinen, V. Distribution and Abundance of Burrows Formed by Lumbricus Terrestris L. and Aporrectodea Caliginosa Sav. in the Soil Profile. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1997, 29 (3), 463– 467, DOI: 10.1016/S0038-0717(96)00040-584https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK2sXktFCnsL8%253D&md5=5e6b8708bf38fe45e6c242321b379ebbDistribution and abundance of burrows formed by Lumbricus terrestris L. and Aporrectodea caliginosa Sav. in the soil profilePitkanen, Jyrki; Nuutinen, VisaSoil Biology & Biochemistry (1997), 29 (3/4), 463-467CODEN: SBIOAH; ISSN:0038-0717. (Elsevier)The distribution of burrows made by L. terrestris. and A. caliginosa was studied on an unplowed field. The positions of earthworm burrows were mapped in 9 horizontal planes to a depth of 80 cm in a pit of 70 by 40 cm. Burrow diam. and presence of plant roots growing in burrows were also recorded. Burrows on 6 of the 9 planes were considered as two-dimensional point patterns and analyzed as spatial point processes. A three-dimensional image was constructed for burrows formed by L. terrestris. The total no. of burrows ranged between 180 and 1260 m-2 at depths of 80 and 30 cm, resp. The majority of burrows were formed by A. caliginosa. The smallest size class (2-3 mm) of burrows was dominant at depths between 8 and 40 cm. Deeper in the soil profile, the proportion of larger burrows increased markedly. Burrows formed by L. terrestris appeared to be non-branching, and extended vertically beyond 80 cm. In all soil layers studied, burrow distribution was found to be completely random. The proportion of burrows contg. plant roots was between 18 and 60%, at depths of 80 and 15 cm, resp.
- 85Larsbo, M.; Koestel, J.; Jarvis, N. Relations between Macropore Network Characteristics and the Degree of Preferential Solute Transport. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2014, 18 (12), 5255– 5269, DOI: 10.5194/hess-18-5255-2014There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 86Selonen, S.; Dolar, A.; Jemec Kokalj, A.; Skalar, T.; Parramon Dolcet, L.; Hurley, R.; van Gestel, C. A. M. Exploring the Impacts of Plastics in Soil - The Effects of Polyester Textile Fibers on Soil Invertebrates. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 700, 134451, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.13445186https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXitFShtbfO&md5=1ae7dca9920f28960407fadd3c7a45dfExploring the impacts of plastics in soil - The effects of polyester textile fibers on soil invertebratesSelonen, Salla; Dolar, Andraz; Jemec Kokalj, Anita; Skalar, Tina; Parramon Dolcet, Lidia; Hurley, Rachel; van Gestel, Cornelis A. M.Science of the Total Environment (2020), 700 (), 134451CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Polyester fiber is one of the most abundant types of microplastics in the environment. A major proportion of the fibers entering wastewater treatment plants end up in sewage sludge, which is used as a soil fertilizer in many countries. As their impacts in the terrestrial environment are still poorly understood, we studied the effects of polyester fibers on enchytraeids (Enchytraeus crypticus), springtails (Folsomia candida), isopods (Porcellio scaber) and oribatid mites (Oppia nitens), all playing an important role in soil decomposer food webs. We exposed these invertebrates in the lab. to short (12 μm-2.87 mm) and long (4-24 mm) polyester fibers, spiked in soil or in food at five concns. ranging from 0.02% to 1.5% (wt./wt.) and using five replicates. Overall the effects of polyester fibers on the soil invertebrates were slight. Energy reserves of the isopods were slightly affected by both fiber types, and enchytraeid reprodn. decreased up to 30% with increasing fiber concn., but only for long fibers in soil. The low ingestion of long fibers by the enchytraeids suggests that this neg. impact arose from a phys. harm outside the organism, or from indirect effects resulting from changes in environmental conditions. The short fibers were clearly ingested by enchytraeids and isopods, with the rate of ingestion pos. related to fiber concn. in the soil. This study shows that polyester fibers are not very harmful to soil invertebrates upon short-term exposure. However, longer lasting, multigeneration studies with functional endpoints are needed to reveal the possible long-term effects on soil invertebrates and their role in the decompn. process. This study also shows that polyester fibers can enter terrestrial food web via ingestion of fibers by soil invertebrates.
- 87Kwak, J. I.; An, Y.-J. Microplastic Digestion Generates Fragmented Nanoplastics in Soils and Damages Earthworm Spermatogenesis and Coelomocyte Viability. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 402, 124034, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.12403487https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitVClt77L&md5=7e6404ab2c2389d3e7dc6d3368e273efMicroplastic digestion generates fragmented nanoplastics in soils and damages earthworm spermatogenesis and coelomocyte viabilityKwak, Jin Il; An, Youn-JooJournal of Hazardous Materials (2021), 402 (), 124034CODEN: JHMAD9; ISSN:0304-3894. (Elsevier B.V.)Despite concerns about the ecotoxicol. effects of microplastics in soils, there is a limited understanding of the reproductive toxicity of microplastics to soil organisms and the prodn. of nanoplastics through biol. fragmentation. We used the earthworm Eisenia andrei to investigate the generation of nanoplastics from polyethylene microplastics in soil ecosystems and to det. the neg. effects of microplastic exposure on soil invertebrates. Earthworms were exposed to two different sizes of microplastic for 21 days, and various physiol. features, including those pertaining to reprodn., were subsequently analyzed. Exposure to microplastics affected coelomocyte viability and caused damage to male reproductive organs, while having negligible effects on female reproductive organs. Earthworm-induced fragmentation of microplastics to nanoplastics was confirmed using SEM and energy dispersive X-ray anal. These nanoplastics were introduced into soils through cast excretion. We provide the evidence of nanoplastic generation from ingested microplastics and damage caused to earthworm spermatogenesis through microplastic exposure.
- 88Lahive, E.; Cross, R.; Saarloos, A. I.; Horton, A. A.; Svendsen, C.; Hufenus, R.; Mitrano, D. M. Earthworms Ingest Microplastic Fibres and Nanoplastics with Effects on Egestion Rate and Long-Term Retention. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 151022, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.15102288https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB2cjhsFGjsQ%253D%253D&md5=8fc6e655c91432405c07bef2e6500fbaEarthworms ingest microplastic fibres and nanoplastics with effects on egestion rate and long-term retentionLahive Elma; Cross Richard; Svendsen Claus; Saarloos Aafke I; Horton Alice A; Hufenus Rudolf; Mitrano Denise MThe Science of the total environment (2021), (), 151022 ISSN:.Microplastic fibres (MPFs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have the potential to be hazardous to soil organisms. Understanding uptake into organisms is key in assessing these effects, but this is often limited by the analytical challenges to quantify smaller-sized plastics in complex matrices. This study used MPFs and NPs containing inorganic tracers (In, Pd) to quantify uptake in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. Following seven days exposure, tracer concentrations were measured in earthworms and faeces. Earthworms exposed to 500 μg MPFs/g soil retained an estimated 32 MPFs in their tissues, while at 5000 μg MPFs/g earthworms retained between 2 and 593 MPFs. High variation in body burdens of MPFs was linked to soil retention in earthworms and reduced faeces production, suggesting egestion was being affected by MPFs. NPs uptake and elimination was also assessed over a more extended time-period of 42 days. After 1 day, NPs were no longer detectable in faeces during the elimination phase. However, some retention of NPs in the earthworms was estimated, not linked to retained soil, indicating not all NPs were eliminated. MPFs and NPs uptake can be quantified in earthworms and both particle types can be retained beyond the depuration period, suggesting the potential for longer-term accumulation.
- 89Arnold, R. E.; Hodson, M. E. Effect of Time and Mode of Depuration on Tissue Copper Concentrations of the Earthworms Eisenia Andrei, Lumbricus Rubellus and Lumbricus Terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 148 (1), 21– 30, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2006.11.00389https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXlt1Chsbc%253D&md5=c01225f118abeeb8cb8dda4bbdd92141Effect of time and mode of depuration on tissue copper concentrations of the earthworms Eisenia andrei, Lumbricus rubellus and Lumbricus terrestrisArnold, R. E.; Hodson, M. E.Environmental Pollution (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2007), 148 (1), 21-30CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier B.V.)Eisenia andrei, Lumbricus rubellus and Lumbricus terrestris were exposed to 250, 250 and 350 mg kg-1 Cu resp. in Cu(NO3)2(aq) amended soil for 28 days. Earthworms were then depurated for 24 to 72 h, digested and analyzed for Cu and Ti or, subsequent to depuration were dissected to remove any remaining soil particles from the alimentary canal and then digested and analyzed. This latter treatment proved impossible for E. andrei due to its small size. Regardless of depuration time, soil particles were retained in the alimentary canal of L. rubellus and L. terrestris. Tissue concn. detns. indicate that E. andrei should be depurated for 24 h, L. rubellus for 48 h and L. terrestris should be dissected. Ti was bioaccumulated and therefore could not be used as an inert tracer to det. mass of retained soil. Calcns. indicate that after 28 days earthworms were still absorbing Cu from soil.
- 90Prendergast-Miller, M. T.; Katsiamides, A.; Abbass, M.; Sturzenbaum, S. R.; Thorpe, K. L.; Hodson, M. E. Polyester-Derived Microfibre Impacts on the Soil-Dwelling Earthworm Lumbricus Terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 251, 453– 459, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.03790https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXps1Gltr8%253D&md5=4a48bd29740173ebfc06b3e3ddb559a1Polyester-derived microfibre impacts on the soil-dwelling earthworm Lumbricus terrestrisPrendergast-Miller, Miranda T.; Katsiamides, Andreas; Abbass, Mustafa; Sturzenbaum, Stephen R.; Thorpe, Karen L.; Hodson, Mark E.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 251 (), 453-459CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)The aim of this study was to assess the effect of MFs on a keystone soil organism. We exposed the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris to soil with polyester MFs incorporated at rates of 0, 0.1 and 1.0%wt./wt. MF for a period of 35 days (in the dark at 15°C; n = 4 for each treatment). Dried plant litter was applied at the soil surface as a food source for the earthworms. We assessed earthworm vitality through mortality, wt. change, depurate prodn. and MF avoidance testing. In addn., we measured stress biomarker responses via the expression of metallothionein-2 (mt-2), heat shock protein (hsp70) and superoxide dismutase (sod-1). Our results showed that exposure and ingestion of MFs (as evidenced by subsequent retrieval of MFs within earthworm depurates) were not lethal to earthworms, nor did earthworms actively avoid MFs. However, earthworms in the MF1.0% treatment showed a 1.5-fold lower cast prodn., a 24.3-fold increase in expression of mt-2 (p < 0.001) and a 9.9-fold decline in hsp70 expression (p < 0.001). Further anal. of soil and MF samples indicated that metal content was not a contributor to the biomarker results. Given that burrowing and feeding behavior, as well as mol. genetic biomarkers, were modulated in earthworms exposed to MFs, our study highlights potential implications for soil ecosystem processes due to MF contamination.
- 91Zhang, L.; Sintim, H. Y.; Bary, A. I.; Hayes, D. G.; Wadsworth, L. C.; Anunciado, M. B.; Flury, M. Interaction of Lumbricus Terrestris with Macroscopic Polyethylene and Biodegradable Plastic Mulch. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 635, 1600– 1608, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.05491https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXnvVSku7s%253D&md5=9651985de4af941f873222758595259bInteraction of Lumbricus terrestris with macroscopic polyethylene and biodegradable plastic mulchZhang, Liang; Sintim, Henry Y.; Bary, Andy I.; Hayes, Douglas G.; Wadsworth, Larry C.; Anunciado, Marife B.; Flury, MarkusScience of the Total Environment (2018), 635 (), 1600-1608CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Polyethylene mulch films used in agriculture are a major source of plastic pollution in soils. Biodegradable plastics have been introduced as alternative to commonly-used polyethylene. Here we studied the interaction of earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) with polyethylene and biodegradable plastic mulches. The objective was to assess whether earthworms would select between different types of mulches when foraging for food, and whether they drag macroscopic plastic mulch into the soil. Lab. expts. were carried out with earthworms in Petri dishes and mesocosms. The treatments were std. polyethylene mulch, four biodegradable plastic mulches (PLA/PHA [polylactic acid/polyhydroxy alkanoate], Organix, BioAgri, Naturecycle), a biodegradable paper mulch (WeedGuardPlus), and poplar litter, which served as control. Four and three replicates for the Petri dish and mesocosm expts. were used, resp. Macroscopic plastic and paper mulch pieces (1.5 cm × 1.5 cm and 2 cm × 2 cm) were collected from an agricultural field after a growing season, after being buried in the soil for 6 and 12 mo, and after being composted for 2 wk. We found that earthworms did not ingest polyethylene. Field-weathered biodegradable plastic mulches were not ingested either, however, after soil burial and composting, some biodegradable plastics were eaten and could not be recovered from soil any longer. Earthworms, when foraging for food, dragged plastic mulch, including polyethylene and biodegradable plastic, and poplar leaves into their burrows. The burial of macroscopic plastic mulch underground led to a redistribution of plastics in the soil profile, and likely enhances the degrdn. of biodegradable mulches in soil, but also can lead to leaching of plastic fragments by macropore flow.
- 92Tiunov, A. V.; Bonkowski, M.; Bonkowski, M.; Tiunov, J. A.; Scheu, S. Microflora, Protozoa and Nematoda in Lumbricus Terrestris Burrow Walls: A Laboratory Experiment. Pedobiologia 2001, 45 (1), 46– 60, DOI: 10.1078/0031-4056-00067There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 93Jégou, D.; Schrader, S.; Diestel, H.; Cluzeau, D. Morphological, Physical and Biochemical Characteristics of Burrow Walls Formed by Earthworms. Appl. Soil Ecol. 2001, 17 (2), 165– 174, DOI: 10.1016/S0929-1393(00)00136-0There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 94Taylor, A. R.; Taylor, A. F. S. Assessing Daily Egestion Rates in Earthworms: Using Fungal Spores as a Natural Soil Marker to Estimate Gut Transit Time. Biol. Fertil. Soils 2014, 50 (1), 179– 183, DOI: 10.1007/s00374-013-0823-5There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 95Spurgeon, D. J.; Keith, A. M.; Schmidt, O.; Lammertsma, D. R.; Faber, J. H. Land-Use and Land-Management Change: Relationships with Earthworm and Fungi Communities and Soil Structural Properties. BMC Ecol. 2013, 13, 46– 46, DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-13-4695https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2c3hvFShsQ%253D%253D&md5=13e6df3fbd7e2f413db92a969f324101Land-use and land-management change: relationships with earthworm and fungi communities and soil structural propertiesSpurgeon David J; Keith Aidan M; Schmidt Olaf; Lammertsma Dennis R; Faber Jack HBMC ecology (2013), 13 (), 46 ISSN:.BACKGROUND: Change in land use and management can impact massively on soil ecosystems. Ecosystem engineers and other functional biodiversity in soils can be influenced directly by such change and this in turn can affect key soil functions. Here, we employ meta-analysis to provide a quantitative assessment of the effects of changes in land use and land management across a range of successional/extensification transitions (conventional arable → no or reduced tillage → grassland → wooded land) on community metrics for two functionally important soil taxa, earthworms and fungi. An analysis of the relationships between community change and soil structural properties was also included. RESULTS: Meta-analysis highlighted a consistent trend of increased earthworm and fungal community abundances and complexity following transitions to lower intensity and later successional land uses. The greatest changes were seen for early stage transitions, such as introduction of reduced tillage regimes and conversion to grassland from arable land. Not all changes, however, result in positive effects on the assessed community metrics. For example, whether woodland conversion positively or negatively affects community size and complexity depends on woodland type and, potentially, the changes in soil properties, such as pH, that may occur during conversion. Alterations in soil communities tended to facilitate subsequent changes in soil structure and hydrology. For example, increasing earthworm abundances and functional group composition were shown to be positively correlated with water infiltration rate (dependent on tillage regime and habitat characteristics); while positive changes in fungal biomass measures were positively associated with soil microaggregate stability. CONCLUSIONS: These findings raise the potential to manage landscapes to increase ecosystem service provision from soil biota in relation to regulation of soil structure and water flow.
- 96Bergendahl, J.; Grasso, D. Colloid Generation during Batch Leaching Tests: Mechanics of Disaggregation. Colloids Surf., A 1998, 135 (1), 193– 205, DOI: 10.1016/S0927-7757(97)00248-396https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1cXhvF2iu74%253D&md5=29ba729844dc852bbdf82fd85ed5e797Colloid generation during batch leaching tests: mechanics of disaggregationBergendahl, John; Grasso, DomenicoColloids and Surfaces, A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects (1998), 135 (1-3), 193-205CODEN: CPEAEH; ISSN:0927-7757. (Elsevier Science B.V.)Batch leaching tests are commonly used to assess the leaching potential of various org. and inorg. contaminants from soil. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP), a batch leaching test developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, employs an aggressive mixing technique that may allow colloidal fractions to appear in the filtrate. This study quantified the generation of colloid fractions during TCLP testing of a coal-tar contaminated soil, and explored the mechanics of disaggregation. Particle count data indicated that the concn. of 0.72 and 0.83 μm diam. colloids in the filtrate increased with agitation time. The shear rate in the agitation vessel was detd., as well as the hydrodynamic forces acting on the 0.72 and 0.83 μm colloids attached to the soil grains. Through use of force and moment balances, and the Johnson-Kendall-Roberts and Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov adhesion models, it was detd. that the operative detachment mechanism is most likely rolling or sliding, depending on the contact radius and the coeff. of static friction. Colloid generation during the TCLP test results in an increase in total colloidal surface area in the filtrate, and may concomitantly result in an overprediction of the aq. phase concn. of hydrophobic contaminants.
- 97Yu, M.; van der Ploeg, M.; Lwanga, E. H.; Yang, X.; Zhang, S.; Ma, X.; Ritsema, C. J.; Geissen, V. Leaching of Microplastics by Preferential Flow in Earthworm (Lumbricus Terrestris) Burrows. Environ. Chem. 2019, 16 (1), 31– 40, DOI: 10.1071/EN1816197https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXis1amt78%253D&md5=701a164bfbeffcbd97854ad319dc68c5Leaching of microplastics by preferential flow in earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) burrowsYu, Miao; van der Ploeg, Martine; Lwanga, Esperanza Huerta; Yang, Xiaomei; Zhang, Shaoliang; Ma, Xiaoyi; Ritsema, Coen J.; Geissen, VioletteEnvironmental Chemistry (2019), 16 (1), 31-40CODEN: ECNHAA; ISSN:1449-8979. (CSIRO Publishing)Environmental contextMicroplastics found in soil pose several potential environmental risks. This study shows that microplastics on the soil surface can be ingested by earthworms and transported to the lower soil layers. In this way, microplastics may enter the food chain and find their way into groundwater systems, esp. in cases where the water table is shallow. In the current study, we examine how the activities of earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) affect microplastic (MP) distribution and concn. in soil, with a focus on low d. polyethylene (LDPE). We also want to det. if MPs can be flushed out with water. We used a lab. sandy soil column (polyvinyl chloride tube) exptl. set-up and tested five different treatments: (1) treatment with just soil (control) to check if the satd. cond. (Ksat) could be impacted by MP, (2) treatment with MP, (3) treatment with MP and litter, (4) treatment with earthworms and litter as a second control for treatment 5 and (5) treatment with MPs, earthworms and litter. Each treatment consisted of eight replicates. For the treatments with MP, the concn. of MP added at the start of the expt. was 7% by wt. (3.97g, polyethylene, 50% 1mm-250μm, 30% 250μm-150μm and 20% <150μm) based on 52.78g of dry litter from Populus nigra. In the treatments using earthworms, two adult earthworms, with an initial av. wt. of (7.14±0.26) g, were placed in each column. Results showed that LDPE particles could be introduced into the soil by the earthworms. MP particles were detected in each soil sample and within different soil layers for the earthworm treatments. Earthworms showed a tendency to transport the smaller MP particles and that the amt. of MPs in size class <250μm increased in soil samples with increasing soil depth in comparison to the other size classes. After leaching, MPs were only detected in the leachate from the treatments with the earthworms, and the MP had similar size distributions as the soil samples in the 40-50 cm layer of the treatment with MP, earthworms and litter. The results of this study clearly show that biogenic activities can mobilize MP transport from the surface into the soil and even be leached into drainage. It is highly likely that biogenic activities constitute a potential pathway for MPs to be transported into soil and groundwater.
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The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c05614.
Nanoplastic characterization and soil properties, microcosm setup and sampling, X-ray CT measurement and workflow, digestion protocol, bioturbation model description and results, earthworm weight and uptake of nanoplastics, sampling procotol for drilosphere sampling, detected nanoplastic concentrations in soil samples (Exp 1) and drilosphere and soil matrix samples (Exp 2) (PDF)
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