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Biomaterials Science Can Offer a Valuable Second Opinion on Nature’s Plastic MaladyClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!
- Bryan D. James*Bryan D. James*Email: [email protected]Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United StatesMore by Bryan D. James
- Mark E. HahnMark E. HahnDepartment of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United StatesMore by Mark E. Hahn
- Christopher M. ReddyChristopher M. ReddyDepartment of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United StatesMore by Christopher M. Reddy
This publication is licensed for personal use by The American Chemical Society.
Copyright © 2022 American Chemical Society
Microplastics are an emerging pollutant with many fundamental questions still left unresolved. Are they toxic? How do they change over time? How long do they persist? Environmental scientists are asking many of these questions about the fate and effects of plastics in the natural environment, while biomaterials scientists have been asking the same questions for years in another environment: the human body. The field of biomaterials encompasses all materials used in biomedical devices and therapies. (Biomaterials are not to be confused with bio-materials or biological materials, which are largely considered a class of materials with some natural origin.) Prior to the 1960s, the field of biomaterials relied on commercial plastics. Classic examples include the precursors of modern-day contact lenses and vascular grafts. (1)
Originally, there was an overly simplistic view of the interaction between biological systems and materials. Early contact lenses were made of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA; a.k.a. Plexiglas) because the material met the requirements for mass production, optical clarity, machinability, etc. However, hard contact lenses also irritated patient’s eyes because they lacked hydration and oxygen permeability. (2) In a comparable manner, expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE; a.k.a. Goretex) or woven polyethylene terephthalate (PET; a.k.a. Dacron) were used to make vascular grafts. Despite their nonstick characteristics in other domains, in the body they promote clotting because they did not have good hemocompatibility on their own. Today, enhancements such as modifying the surface with anticoagulant/antithrombotic agents have been used, but issues related to unwanted clotting persist for small diameter grafts. (3) Slowly, it has been recognized that there is more to consider than just the chemical and physical properties of a material. In these two examples, it became clear that the biological properties─the host response and cell-material interactions─are also important. Engineered plastics were used in new environments for which they were not designed and in which they had never been tested. Biomaterial scientists and engineers soon learned an important lesson: biology matters.
The same can be said about plastic pollution. The processes impacting the persistence and toxicity of plastics depend on where they reside. One example of this concerns the biodegradability of polylactic acid (PLA). In industrial composting conditions, PLA has a relatively short lifetime (months), but in the soil or the ocean it can persist significantly longer (years). (4) This gives us the environmental scientist’s corollary to the above rule: the environment matters.
In the field of biomaterials, the issues described above catalyzed the concept of biocompatibility. In its most basic terms, biocompatibility is “the ability of a material to perform with an appropriate host response in a specific application”. (5) It couples material to application. PMMA as a contact lens material did not give an “appropriate host response” because it caused irritated, dry eyes. New materials were investigated and developed; now, contact lenses are soft and made from hydrogel silicones or from poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA). (2) These biomaterials support hydration and oxygen diffusion to the underlying eye tissue, which greatly improve patient comfort. Next-generation vascular grafts look to use more hemocompatible materials such as biodegradable poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citrate) elastomers (POC). (3,6) Both of these changes relied on new biomaterials.
Biomaterials science as a field progressed once it became accepted wisdom that materials should be designed from the ground up with the body and human health in mind. To do this required greater mechanistic studies of human physiology and its interaction with materials. (1) Environmental scientists are starting to do the same type of basic research to uncover the interactions between plastics and nature. A prime example has been revisiting the environmental lifetimes of plastic. (7) Once thought to be thousands of years, it is now understood to be more likely hundreds of years, exemplified by fundamental research on the photodegradation of polystyrene. (8) Biomaterials science can offer environmental science a “second opinion” on plastic pollution because the plastics of interest for both fields greatly overlap (Figure 1) and so offer the potential for insight from both fields to be applied to questions regarding the use of a particular plastic in either context. Already it has been suggested that organ-on-a-chip models can be used for evaluating environmental nanoparticle toxicity and that the body’s response to polymeric wear particles from prostheses can inform our understanding of the body’s response to microplastics. (9−11) Still, there is more room for exchange.
Figure 1
Figure 1. A comparison of common polymers used and investigated in the biomedical and environmental sciences. Notably, the plastics most abundantly found in nature (PE, PP, PS, PET, PVC) are shared between the two fields. (1,17) Additionally, many of the properties and processes of interest are the same and simply differ only on the basis of favorability, for example, in the biomedical field the release of small molecules can be favorable for drug delivery, whereas in the environmental field the release of small molecules can be unfavorable in the form of leachates. Created with BioRender.com.
The most common industrial plastics have been or are of interest to both fields and the environmental conditions that plastics are subjected to in the body and in nature are very similar. Both environments are aqueous, consist of a collection of biomacromolecules, salts, and small molecules, and are biologically active. The major exception is that the environment often includes photochemical processes, where the body does not. However, the reactive oxygen species generated by sunlight in nature are similarly present in the body and are used by cells to attack pathogens and foreign materials. (1,8)
Another crossover is in the release and absorption of small molecules. The processes governing this are the same in the body and the environment and simply differ by a matter of perspective: One plastic’s leachate is another plastic’s released drug. (12) The collection of biomacromolecules that adsorb to plastics has been dubbed its eco-corona; (13) the same phenomenon also occurs on the surfaces of biomaterials in the form of a “bio-corona,” notably by serum proteins. (14)
Of interest to environmental health scientists is the potential for microplastics to act as vectors of disease-causing microbes. (15) In principle, the interactions investigated by biomaterial scientists in terms of microbiome–material interactions and biofilm–material interactions should aid in this effort. (1,15,16)
Much like in biomaterials science, environmental science would benefit from defining a term parallel to biocompatibility to describe the interaction of materials in the environment. In that sense, the ecocompatibility of a material can be thought of as the ability of a material to not disrupt the healthy functioning of the natural environment in which it exists. Pairing material and environmental context can provide a framework that is aligned with the concepts of green chemistry for both understanding and designing a material with the natural environment in mind and to recognize that the same plastic may behave differently in different environments. The framework can come full circle when considering the toxicity of environmentally derived microplastics in the body as their presence transitions from being an issue of ecocompatibility to one of biocompatibility. It should be noted that the plastics being investigated as biodegradable or eco-friendly have been used in the body for the past few decades. (1) This exchange can be a bridge for biomaterials scientists, environmental scientists, and polymer scientists to start interacting more with one another.
It stands to reason that the interests and concerns of environmental science for plastic pollution align with those held by biomaterials science. Thus, there is much to share between the two fields to tackle the challenges of plastic pollution in the environment and its impact on wildlife and human health. It would be wise for researchers investigating plastics in the environment to communicate with their peers investigating plastics in the body and vice versa. In medicine, one doctor’s opinion is good, but two are better.
Author Information
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- Bryan D. James - Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United States;
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6104-8310;
- Mark E. Hahn - Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United States;https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4358-2082
- Christopher M. Reddy - Department of Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, United States;https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7814-2071
The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript.
Preparation of this commentary was supported by the Postdoctoral Scholar Program at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, with funding provided by the Weston Howland Jr. Postdoctoral Scholarship (B.D.J.); the Gerstner Family Foundation (M.E.H. and C.M.R.); the March Marine Initiative, a program of March Limited, Bermuda (M.E.H.); and Woods Hole Sea Grant (M.E.H.).
Acknowledgments
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We thank Ken Kostel (WHOI) for valued discussion of the manuscript.
| ePTFE | expanded polytetrafluorethylene |
| pHEMA | poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) |
| PA | polyamide |
| PEG | polyethylene glycol |
| PCL | polycaprolactone |
| PDMS | polydimethylsiloxane |
| POC | poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citrate) |
| PE | polyethylene |
| PP | polypropylene |
| PHA | polyhydroxyalkanoates |
| PTFE | polytetrafluoroethylene |
| PVC | polyvinyl chloride |
| PLA | polylactic acid |
| PET | polyethylene terephthalate |
| PS | polystyrene |
| PMMA | poly(methyl methacrylate) |
| ABS | acrylonitrile butadiene styrene |
| PC | polycarbonate |
References
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This article references 17 other publications.
- 1Biomaterials Science, 4th ed.; Wagner, W. R., Sakiyama-Elbert, S. E., Zhang, G., Yaszemski, M. J., Eds.; Elsevier, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/C2017-0-02323-6 .Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 2McMahon, T. T.; Zadnik, K. Twenty-Five Years of Contact Lenses. Cornea 2000, 19 (5), 730– 740, DOI: 10.1097/00003226-200009000-00018Google Scholar2https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD3cvlt12ntg%253D%253D&md5=50e24bfd7cab08211066b128527247cbTwenty-five years of contact lenses: the impact on the cornea and ophthalmic practiceMcMahon T T; Zadnik KCornea (2000), 19 (5), 730-40 ISSN:0277-3740.PURPOSE: The history of contact lenses has occurred in the latter half of the 20th century. In particular, events in the 1970s through the 1980s related to the invention of soft, hydrogel contact lenses have revolutionized the contact lens industry and the eye care attached to it. This article recounts that history from the perspective of market forces, inventions, and discoveries about the physiologic functioning of the cornea. METHODS: The relevant literature is critically reviewed. RESULTS: Discoveries about the oxygen needs of the cornea and consumer pressure for clear, comfortable, around-the-clock vision have resulted in a history of rigid gas permeable and soft lenses that leads to today's contact lens picture. The short-term and long-term effects of chronic hypoxia and the levels of lens oxygen transmissibility necessary to avoid them have been well-described. The advent of the soft lens, followed by the "human experiment" with initial extended-wear modalities, led to the advent of the disposable soft contact lens. CONCLUSIONS: In the past 25 years, the development and wide acceptance of soft contact lenses have revolutionized the management of refractive error and corneal diseases.
- 3Hoshi, R. A.; van Lith, R.; Jen, M. C.; Allen, J. B.; Lapidos, K. A.; Ameer, G. The Blood and Vascular Cell Compatibility of Heparin-Modified EPTFE Vascular Grafts. Biomaterials 2013, 34 (1), 30– 41, DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.09.046Google Scholar3https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhsFSntr7F&md5=3c7c7d03f92d81439294b718f390bbecThe blood and vascular cell compatibility of heparin-modified ePTFE vascular graftsHoshi, Ryan A.; Van Lith, Robert; Jen, Michele C.; Allen, Josephine B.; Lapidos, Karen A.; Ameer, GuillermoBiomaterials (2013), 34 (1), 30-41CODEN: BIMADU; ISSN:0142-9612. (Elsevier Ltd.)Prosthetic vascular grafts do not mimic the antithrombogenic properties of native blood vessels and therefore have higher rates of complications that involve thrombosis and restenosis. We developed an approach for grafting bioactive heparin, a potent anticoagulant glycosaminoglycan, to the lumen of ePTFE vascular grafts to improve their interactions with blood and vascular cells. Heparin was bound to aminated poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citrate) (POC) via its carboxyl functional groups onto POC-modified ePTFE grafts. The bioactivity and stability of the POC-immobilized heparin (POC-Heparin) were characterized via platelet adhesion and clotting assays. The effects of POC-Heparin on the adhesion, viability and phenotype of primary endothelial cells (EC), blood outgrowth endothelial cells (BOECs) obtained from endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) isolated from human peripheral blood, and smooth muscle cells were also investigated. POC-Heparin grafts maintained bioactivity under physiol. relevant conditions in vitro for at least one month. Specifically, POC-Heparin-coated ePTFE grafts significantly reduced platelet adhesion and inhibited whole blood clotting kinetics. POC-Heparin supported EC and BOEC adhesion, viability, proliferation, NO prodn., and expression of endothelial cell-specific markers von Willebrand factor (vWF) and vascular endothelial-cadherin (VE-cadherin). Smooth muscle cells cultured on POC-Heparin showed increased expression of α-actin and decreased cell proliferation. This approach can be easily adapted to modify other blood contacting devices such as stents where antithrombogenicity and improved endothelialization are desirable properties.
- 4Karamanlioglu, M.; Robson, G. D. The Influence of Biotic and Abiotic Factors on the Rate of Degradation of Poly(Lactic) Acid (PLA) Coupons Buried in Compost and Soil. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98 (10), 2063– 2071, DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.07.004Google Scholar4https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtFOhsbvK&md5=048f1564d02318532812014f4986282aThe influence of biotic and abiotic factors on the rate of degradation of poly(lactic) acid (PLA) coupons buried in compost and soilKaramanlioglu, Mehlika; Robson, Geoffrey D.Polymer Degradation and Stability (2013), 98 (10), 2063-2071CODEN: PDSTDW; ISSN:0141-3910. (Elsevier Ltd.)Poly(lactic) acid (PLA) is a compostable biopolymer and has been commercialized for the for the manuf. of short-shelf life products. As a result, increasing amts. of PLA are entering waste management systems and the environment; however, the degrdn. mechanism is unclear. While hydrolysis of the polymer occurs abiotically at elevated temp. in the presence of water, potential catalytic role for microbes in this process is yet to be established. We examd. the degrdn. of PLA coupons from com. packaging at 25°, 37°, 45°, 50° and 55° in soil and compost and compared with the degrdn. rates in sterile aq. conditions by measuring loss of tensile strength and mol. wt. (Mw). In order to assess the possible effect of abiotic sol. factors in compost and soil on degrdn. of PLA, degrdn. rates in microorganism-rich compost and soil were compared with sterile compost and soil ext. at 50°. Temp. was the key parameter in PLA degrdn. and degrdn. rates in microorganism-rich compost and soil were faster than in sterile water at 45° and 50° detd. by tensile strength and Mw loss. All tensile strength was lost faster after 30 and 36 days in microorganism-rich compost and soil, resp., than in sterile compost and soil ext., 57 and 54 days, resp. at 50°. Significantly more Mw, 68 and 64%, was lost in compost and soil, resp. than in compost ext., Mw, 53%; and in soil ext., 57%. Therefore, degrdn. rates were faster in microorganism-rich compost and soil than in sterile compost and soil ext., which contained the abiotic sol. factors of compost and soil at 50°. These comparative studies support a direct role for microorganisms in PLA degrdn. at elevated temps. in humid environments. No change in tensile strength or Mw was obsd. either 25° or 37° after 1 yr suggesting that accumulation of PLA in the environment may cause future pollution issues.
- 5Crawford, L.; Wyatt, M.; Bryers, J.; Ratner, B. Biocompatibility Evolves: Phenomenology to Toxicology to Regeneration. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2021, 10 (11), 2002153, DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202002153Google Scholar5https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXotFeisLg%253D&md5=540965d252f5686244a80c7986e8777dBiocompatibility Evolves: Phenomenology to Toxicology to RegenerationCrawford, Lars; Wyatt, Meghan; Bryers, James; Ratner, BuddyAdvanced Healthcare Materials (2021), 10 (11), 2002153CODEN: AHMDBJ; ISSN:2192-2640. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)A review. The word "biocompatibility," is inconsistent with the observations of healing for so-called biocompatible biomaterials. The vast majority of the millions of medical implants in humans today, presumably "biocompatible," are walled off by a dense, avascular, crosslinked collagen capsule, hardly suggestive of life or compatibility. In contrast, one is now seeing examples of implant biomaterials that lead to a vascularized reconstruction of localized tissue, a biol. reaction different from traditional biocompatible materials that generate a foreign body capsule. Both the encapsulated biomaterials and the reconstructive biomaterials qualify as "biocompatible" by present day measurements of biocompatibility. Yet, this new generation of materials would seem to heal "compatibly" with the living organism, where older biomaterials are isolated from the living organism by the dense capsule. This review/perspective article will explore this biocompatibility etymol. conundrum by reviewing the history of the concepts around biocompatibility, today's std. methods for assessing biocompatibility, a contemporary view of the foreign body reaction and finally, a compendium of new biomaterials that heal without the foreign body capsule. A new definition of biocompatibility is offered here to address advances in biomaterials design leading to biomaterials that heal into the body in a facile manner.
- 6Motlagh, D.; Allen, J.; Hoshi, R.; Yang, J.; Lui, K.; Ameer, G. Hemocompatibility Evaluation of Poly(Diol Citrate)in Vitro for Vascular Tissue Engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 2007, 82A (4), 907– 916, DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.31211Google Scholar6https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXpslCht7Y%253D&md5=e51201cc196960f39caf6cc840513771Hemocompatibility evaluation of poly(diol citrate) in vitro for vascular tissue engineeringMotlagh, Delara; Allen, Josephine; Hoshi, Ryan; Yang, Jian; Lui, Karen; Ameer, GuillermoJournal of Biomedical Materials Research, Part A (2007), 82A (4), 907-916CODEN: JBMRCH; ISSN:1549-3296. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)One of the ongoing challenges in tissue engineering is the synthesis of a hemocompatible vascular graft. Specifically, the material used in the construct should have antithrombogenic properties and support the growth of vascular cells. The authors' lab. has designed a novel biodegradable, elastomeric copolymer, poly(1,8-octanediol citrate) (POC), with mech. and degrdn. properties suitable for vascular tissue engineering. The hemocompatibility of POC in vitro and its ability to support the attachment and differentiation of human aortic endothelial cell (HAEC) was assessed. The thrombogenicity and inflammatory potential of POC were assessed relative to poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) and expanded poly(tetrafluoroethylene), as they were used in FDA-approved devices for blood contact. Specifically, platelet aggregation and activation, protein adsorption, plasma clotting, and hemolysis were investigated. To assess the inflammatory potential of POC, the release of IL-1β and TNF-α from THP-1 cells was measured. The cell compatibility of POC was assessed by confirming HAEC differentiation and attachment under flow conditions. POC exhibited decreased platelet adhesion and clotting relative to control materials. Hemolysis was negligible and protein adsorption was comparable to ref. materials. IL-1β and TNF-α release from THP-1 cells was comparable among all materials tested, suggesting minimal inflammatory potential. POC supported HAEC differentiation and attachment without any premodification of the surface. The results described herein are encouraging and suggest that POC is hemocompatible and an adequate candidate biomaterial for in vivo vascular tissue engineering.
- 7Ward, C. P.; Reddy, C. M. Opinion: We Need Better Data about the Environmental Persistence of Plastic Goods. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2020, 117 (26), 14618– 14621, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2008009117Google Scholar7https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXisVWktL%252FN&md5=b4d26858487ff3e3c19c057e11fb0779We need better data about the environmental persistence of plastic goodsWard, Collin P.; Reddy, Christopher M.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2020), 117 (26), 14618-14621CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 8Ward, C. P.; Armstrong, C. J.; Walsh, A. N.; Jackson, J. H.; Reddy, C. M. Sunlight Converts Polystyrene to Carbon Dioxide and Dissolved Organic Carbon. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019, 6 (11), 669– 674, DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00532Google Scholar8https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhvFars73J&md5=e8a4670e873c0182f620946f17bcc663Sunlight Converts Polystyrene to Carbon Dioxide and Dissolved Organic CarbonWard, Collin P.; Armstrong, Cassia J.; Walsh, Anna N.; Jackson, Julia H.; Reddy, Christopher M.Environmental Science & Technology Letters (2019), 6 (11), 669-674CODEN: ESTLCU; ISSN:2328-8930. (American Chemical Society)Numerous international governmental agencies that steer policy assume that polystyrene persists in the environment for millennia. Here, we show that polystyrene is completely photochem. oxidized to carbon dioxide and partially photochem. oxidized to dissolved org. carbon. Lifetimes of complete and partial photochem. oxidn. are estd. to occur on centennial and decadal time scales, resp. These lifetimes are orders of magnitude faster than biol. respiration of polystyrene and thus challenge the prevailing assumption that polystyrene persists in the environment for millennia. Additives disproportionately altered the relative susceptibility to complete and partial photochem. oxidn. of polystyrene and accelerated breakdown by shifting light absorbance and reactivity to longer wavelengths. Polystyrene photochem. oxidn. increased approx. 25% with a 10° increase in temp., indicating that temp. is unlikely to be a primary driver of photochem. oxidn. rates. Collectively, sunlight exposure appears to be a governing control of the environmental persistence of polystyrene, and thus, photochem. loss terms need to be included in mass balance studies on the environmental fate of polystyrene. The exptl. framework presented herein should be applied to a diverse array of polymers and formulations to establish how general these results are for other plastics in the environment.
- 9Lu, R. X. Z.; Radisic, M. Organ-on-a-Chip Platforms for Evaluation of Environmental Nanoparticle Toxicity. Bioactive Materials 2021, 6 (9), 2801– 2819, DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.01.021Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtFKjsbvF&md5=8e5e8c07a4f3d131a90f5ef230e1ccc1Organ-on-a-chip platforms for evaluation of environmental nanoparticle toxicityLu, Rick Xing Ze; Radisic, MilicaBioactive Materials (2021), 6 (9), 2801-2819CODEN: BMIAD4; ISSN:2452-199X. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Despite showing a great promise in the field of nanomedicine, nanoparticles have gained a significant attention from regulatory agencies regarding their possible adverse health effects upon environmental exposure. Whether those nanoparticles are generated through intentional or unintentional means, the const. exposure to nanomaterials can inevitably lead to unintended consequences based on epidemiol. data, yet the current understanding of nanotoxicity is insufficient relative to the rate of their emission in the environment and the lack of predictive platforms that mimic the human physiol. This calls for a development of more physiol. relevant models, which permit the comprehensive and systematic examn. of toxic properties of nanoparticles. With the advancement in microfabrication techniques, scientists have shifted their focus on the development of an engineered system that acts as an intermediate between a well-plate system and animal models, known as organ-on-a-chips. The ability of organ-on-a-chip models to recapitulate in vivo like microenvironment and responses offers a new avenue for nanotoxicol. research. In this review, we aim to provide overview of assessing potential risks of nanoparticle exposure using organ-on-a-chip systems and their potential to delineate biol. mechanisms of epidemiol. findings.
- 10Lehner, R.; Weder, C.; Petri-Fink, A.; Rothen-Rutishauser, B. Emergence of Nanoplastic in the Environment and Possible Impact on Human Health. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (4), 1748– 1765, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05512Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXms1CisA%253D%253D&md5=201f7fdc143cac8c910d8599b34a1cdbEmergence of Nanoplastic in the Environment and Possible Impact on Human HealthLehner, Roman; Weder, Christoph; Petri-Fink, Alke; Rothen-Rutishauser, BarbaraEnvironmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (4), 1748-1765CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review. On account of environmental concerns, the fate and adverse effects of plastics have attracted considerable interest in the past few years. Recent studies indicated the potential for fragmentation of plastic materials into nanoparticles, i.e., nanoplastics, and their possible accumulation in the environment. Nanoparticles can show markedly different chem. and phys. properties than their bulk material form. Therefore possible risks and hazards to the environment need to be considered and addressed. However, the fate and effect of nanoplastics in the (aquatic) environment has so far been little explored. In this review, the authors aim to provide an overview of the literature on this emerging topic, with an emphasis on the reported impacts of nanoplastics on human health, including the challenges involved in detecting plastics in a biol. environment. The authors 1st discuss the possible sources of nanoplastics and their fates and effects in the environment and then describe the possible entry routes of these particles into the human body, as well as their uptake mechanisms at the cellular level. Since the potential risks of environmental nanoplastics to humans have not yet been extensively studied, the authors focus on studies demonstrating cell responses induced by polystyrene nanoparticles. In particular, the influence of particle size and surface chem. are discussed, to understand the possible risks of nanoplastics for humans and provide recommendations for future studies.
- 11Wright, S. L.; Kelly, F. J. Plastic and Human Health: A Micro Issue?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (12), 6634– 6647, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00423Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXot1Squ70%253D&md5=2bb81eb3c6106f5a951840274b8c052cPlastic and Human Health: A Micro Issue?Wright, Stephanie L.; Kelly, Frank J.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (12), 6634-6647CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review. Microplastics are a pollutant of environmental concern. Their presence in food destined for human consumption and in air samples has been reported. Thus, microplastic exposure via diet or inhalation could occur, the human health effects of which are unknown. The current review article draws upon cross-disciplinary scientific literature to discuss and evaluate the potential human health impacts of microplastics and outlines urgent areas for future research. Key literature up to Sept. 2016 relating to bioaccumulation, particle toxicity, and chem. and microbial contaminants were critically examd. While this is an emerging field, complementary existing fields indicate potential particle, chem. and microbial hazards. If inhaled or ingested, microplastics may bioaccumulate and exert localized particle toxicity by inducing or enhancing an immune response. Chem. toxicity could occur due to the localized leaching of component monomers, endogenous additives, and adsorbed environmental pollutants. Chronic exposure is anticipated to be of greater concern due to the accumulative effect which could occur. This is expected to be dose-dependent, and a robust evidence-base of exposure levels is currently lacking. While there is potential for microplastics to impact human health, assessing current exposure levels and burdens is key. This information will guide future research into the potential mechanisms of toxicity and hence therein possible health effects.
- 12Qian, J.; Berkland, C. Drug Release Kinetics from Nondegradable Hydrophobic Polymers Can Be Modulated and Predicted by the Glass Transition Temperature. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2021, 10, 2100015, DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202100015Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtFClsLvJ&md5=1864666c4ff1024650db776c5835894dDrug Release Kinetics from Nondegradable Hydrophobic Polymers Can Be Modulated and Predicted by the Glass Transition TemperatureQian, Jian; Berkland, CoryAdvanced Healthcare Materials (2021), 10 (12), 2100015CODEN: AHMDBJ; ISSN:2192-2640. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)Controlling drug release kinetics within a desired therapeutic window is the central task when designing polymeric drug delivery systems. Complex polymer chemistries have often been explored to control water penetration, polymer degrdn. rate, or the mesh network size of delivery systems. Here, a simple parameter for controlling the release rate and duration of nondegradable hydrophobic polymers is discovered. A systematic study involving 59 polymers and multiple drugs demonstrates that the glass transition temp., Tg, is a crit. factor that dictates drug release kinetics from nondegradable hydrophobic polymers. Drug release rate exhibits a unique and simple linear correlation of (T - Tg)0.5 despite variability of polymer structure and type. An empirical model established based on the special correlation can accurately simulate and predict drug release kinetics from polymers saving substantial time typically required to test long-acting drug delivery systems.
- 13Galloway, T. S.; Cole, M.; Lewis, C. Interactions of Microplastic Debris throughout the Marine Ecosystem. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2017, 1 (5), 0116, DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0116Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1cfotVegsg%253D%253D&md5=30ad45a2216eb32723e00afbb85417d3Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystemGalloway Tamara S; Cole Matthew; Lewis CeriNature ecology & evolution (2017), 1 (5), 116 ISSN:.Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an 'ecocorona', increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.
- 14Fasoli, E. Protein Corona: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde of Nanomedicine. Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 2020, bab.2035, DOI: 10.1002/bab.2035Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 15Amaral-Zettler, L. A.; Zettler, E. R.; Mincer, T. J. Ecology of the Plastisphere. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2020, 18 (3), 139– 151, DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0308-0Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXis1Sjur8%253D&md5=53874876627257bfaa1ab691543170d0Ecology of the plastisphereAmaral-Zettler, Linda A.; Zettler, Erik R.; Mincer, Tracy J.Nature Reviews Microbiology (2020), 18 (3), 139-151CODEN: NRMACK; ISSN:1740-1526. (Nature Research)Abstr.: The plastisphere, which comprises the microbial community on plastic debris, rivals that of the built environment in spanning multiple biomes on Earth. Although human-derived debris has been entering the ocean for thousands of years, microplastics now numerically dominate marine debris and are primarily colonized by microbial and other microscopic life. The realization that this novel substrate in the marine environment can facilitate microbial dispersal and affect all aquatic ecosystems has intensified interest in the microbial ecol. and evolution of this biotope. Whether a 'core' plastisphere community exists that is specific to plastic is currently a topic of intense investigation. This Review provides an overview of the microbial ecol. of the plastisphere in the context of its diversity and function, as well as suggesting areas for further research.
- 16Arnold, J. W.; Roach, J.; Azcarate-Peril, M. A. Emerging Technologies for Gut Microbiome Research. Trends Microbiol. 2016, 24 (11), 887– 901, DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.06.008Google Scholar16https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtFanu7%252FI&md5=90b6edfc036ef44b78f8498e1e2869faEmerging Technologies for Gut Microbiome ResearchArnold, Jason W.; Roach, Jeffrey; Azcarate-Peril, M. AndreaTrends in Microbiology (2016), 24 (11), 887-901CODEN: TRMIEA; ISSN:0966-842X. (Elsevier Ltd.)Understanding the importance of the gut microbiome on modulation of host health has become a subject of great interest for researchers across disciplines. As an intrinsically multidisciplinary field, microbiome research has been able to reap the benefits of technol. advancements in systems and synthetic biol., biomaterials engineering, and traditional microbiol. Gut microbiome research has been revolutionized by high-throughput sequencing technol., permitting compositional and functional analyses that were previously an unrealistic undertaking. Emerging technologies, including engineered organoids derived from human stem cells, high-throughput culturing, and microfluidics assays allowing for the introduction of novel approaches, will improve the efficiency and quality of microbiome research. Here, we discuss emerging technologies and their potential impact on gut microbiome studies.
- 17Stubbins, A.; Law, K. L.; Muñoz, S. E.; Bianchi, T. S.; Zhu, L. Plastics in the Earth System. Science 2021, 373 (6550), 51– 55, DOI: 10.1126/science.abb0354Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhsV2mu7jM&md5=b385222dc9c25c7d46a6b7e654953139Plastics in the Earth systemStubbins, Aron; Law, Kara Lavender; Munoz, Samuel E.; Bianchi, Thomas S.; Zhu, LixinScience (Washington, DC, United States) (2021), 373 (6550), 51-55CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:1095-9203. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)Review. Plastic contamination of the environment is a global problem whose magnitude justifies the consideration of plastics as emergent geomaterials with chemistries not previously seen in Earth's history. At the elemental level, plastics are predominantly carbon. The comparison of plastic stocks and fluxes to those of carbon reveals that the quantities of plastics present in some ecosystems rival the quantity of natural org. carbon and suggests that geochemists should now consider plastics in their analyses. Acknowledging plastics as geomaterials and adopting geochem. insights and methods can expedite our understanding of plastics in the Earth system. Plastics also can be used as global-scale tracers to advance Earth system science.
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Abstract
Figure 1
Figure 1. A comparison of common polymers used and investigated in the biomedical and environmental sciences. Notably, the plastics most abundantly found in nature (PE, PP, PS, PET, PVC) are shared between the two fields. (1,17) Additionally, many of the properties and processes of interest are the same and simply differ only on the basis of favorability, for example, in the biomedical field the release of small molecules can be favorable for drug delivery, whereas in the environmental field the release of small molecules can be unfavorable in the form of leachates. Created with BioRender.com.
References
This article references 17 other publications.
- 1Biomaterials Science, 4th ed.; Wagner, W. R., Sakiyama-Elbert, S. E., Zhang, G., Yaszemski, M. J., Eds.; Elsevier, 2020. DOI: 10.1016/C2017-0-02323-6 .There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 2McMahon, T. T.; Zadnik, K. Twenty-Five Years of Contact Lenses. Cornea 2000, 19 (5), 730– 740, DOI: 10.1097/00003226-200009000-000182https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD3cvlt12ntg%253D%253D&md5=50e24bfd7cab08211066b128527247cbTwenty-five years of contact lenses: the impact on the cornea and ophthalmic practiceMcMahon T T; Zadnik KCornea (2000), 19 (5), 730-40 ISSN:0277-3740.PURPOSE: The history of contact lenses has occurred in the latter half of the 20th century. In particular, events in the 1970s through the 1980s related to the invention of soft, hydrogel contact lenses have revolutionized the contact lens industry and the eye care attached to it. This article recounts that history from the perspective of market forces, inventions, and discoveries about the physiologic functioning of the cornea. METHODS: The relevant literature is critically reviewed. RESULTS: Discoveries about the oxygen needs of the cornea and consumer pressure for clear, comfortable, around-the-clock vision have resulted in a history of rigid gas permeable and soft lenses that leads to today's contact lens picture. The short-term and long-term effects of chronic hypoxia and the levels of lens oxygen transmissibility necessary to avoid them have been well-described. The advent of the soft lens, followed by the "human experiment" with initial extended-wear modalities, led to the advent of the disposable soft contact lens. CONCLUSIONS: In the past 25 years, the development and wide acceptance of soft contact lenses have revolutionized the management of refractive error and corneal diseases.
- 3Hoshi, R. A.; van Lith, R.; Jen, M. C.; Allen, J. B.; Lapidos, K. A.; Ameer, G. The Blood and Vascular Cell Compatibility of Heparin-Modified EPTFE Vascular Grafts. Biomaterials 2013, 34 (1), 30– 41, DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2012.09.0463https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhsFSntr7F&md5=3c7c7d03f92d81439294b718f390bbecThe blood and vascular cell compatibility of heparin-modified ePTFE vascular graftsHoshi, Ryan A.; Van Lith, Robert; Jen, Michele C.; Allen, Josephine B.; Lapidos, Karen A.; Ameer, GuillermoBiomaterials (2013), 34 (1), 30-41CODEN: BIMADU; ISSN:0142-9612. (Elsevier Ltd.)Prosthetic vascular grafts do not mimic the antithrombogenic properties of native blood vessels and therefore have higher rates of complications that involve thrombosis and restenosis. We developed an approach for grafting bioactive heparin, a potent anticoagulant glycosaminoglycan, to the lumen of ePTFE vascular grafts to improve their interactions with blood and vascular cells. Heparin was bound to aminated poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citrate) (POC) via its carboxyl functional groups onto POC-modified ePTFE grafts. The bioactivity and stability of the POC-immobilized heparin (POC-Heparin) were characterized via platelet adhesion and clotting assays. The effects of POC-Heparin on the adhesion, viability and phenotype of primary endothelial cells (EC), blood outgrowth endothelial cells (BOECs) obtained from endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) isolated from human peripheral blood, and smooth muscle cells were also investigated. POC-Heparin grafts maintained bioactivity under physiol. relevant conditions in vitro for at least one month. Specifically, POC-Heparin-coated ePTFE grafts significantly reduced platelet adhesion and inhibited whole blood clotting kinetics. POC-Heparin supported EC and BOEC adhesion, viability, proliferation, NO prodn., and expression of endothelial cell-specific markers von Willebrand factor (vWF) and vascular endothelial-cadherin (VE-cadherin). Smooth muscle cells cultured on POC-Heparin showed increased expression of α-actin and decreased cell proliferation. This approach can be easily adapted to modify other blood contacting devices such as stents where antithrombogenicity and improved endothelialization are desirable properties.
- 4Karamanlioglu, M.; Robson, G. D. The Influence of Biotic and Abiotic Factors on the Rate of Degradation of Poly(Lactic) Acid (PLA) Coupons Buried in Compost and Soil. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2013, 98 (10), 2063– 2071, DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.07.0044https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtFOhsbvK&md5=048f1564d02318532812014f4986282aThe influence of biotic and abiotic factors on the rate of degradation of poly(lactic) acid (PLA) coupons buried in compost and soilKaramanlioglu, Mehlika; Robson, Geoffrey D.Polymer Degradation and Stability (2013), 98 (10), 2063-2071CODEN: PDSTDW; ISSN:0141-3910. (Elsevier Ltd.)Poly(lactic) acid (PLA) is a compostable biopolymer and has been commercialized for the for the manuf. of short-shelf life products. As a result, increasing amts. of PLA are entering waste management systems and the environment; however, the degrdn. mechanism is unclear. While hydrolysis of the polymer occurs abiotically at elevated temp. in the presence of water, potential catalytic role for microbes in this process is yet to be established. We examd. the degrdn. of PLA coupons from com. packaging at 25°, 37°, 45°, 50° and 55° in soil and compost and compared with the degrdn. rates in sterile aq. conditions by measuring loss of tensile strength and mol. wt. (Mw). In order to assess the possible effect of abiotic sol. factors in compost and soil on degrdn. of PLA, degrdn. rates in microorganism-rich compost and soil were compared with sterile compost and soil ext. at 50°. Temp. was the key parameter in PLA degrdn. and degrdn. rates in microorganism-rich compost and soil were faster than in sterile water at 45° and 50° detd. by tensile strength and Mw loss. All tensile strength was lost faster after 30 and 36 days in microorganism-rich compost and soil, resp., than in sterile compost and soil ext., 57 and 54 days, resp. at 50°. Significantly more Mw, 68 and 64%, was lost in compost and soil, resp. than in compost ext., Mw, 53%; and in soil ext., 57%. Therefore, degrdn. rates were faster in microorganism-rich compost and soil than in sterile compost and soil ext., which contained the abiotic sol. factors of compost and soil at 50°. These comparative studies support a direct role for microorganisms in PLA degrdn. at elevated temps. in humid environments. No change in tensile strength or Mw was obsd. either 25° or 37° after 1 yr suggesting that accumulation of PLA in the environment may cause future pollution issues.
- 5Crawford, L.; Wyatt, M.; Bryers, J.; Ratner, B. Biocompatibility Evolves: Phenomenology to Toxicology to Regeneration. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2021, 10 (11), 2002153, DOI: 10.1002/adhm.2020021535https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXotFeisLg%253D&md5=540965d252f5686244a80c7986e8777dBiocompatibility Evolves: Phenomenology to Toxicology to RegenerationCrawford, Lars; Wyatt, Meghan; Bryers, James; Ratner, BuddyAdvanced Healthcare Materials (2021), 10 (11), 2002153CODEN: AHMDBJ; ISSN:2192-2640. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)A review. The word "biocompatibility," is inconsistent with the observations of healing for so-called biocompatible biomaterials. The vast majority of the millions of medical implants in humans today, presumably "biocompatible," are walled off by a dense, avascular, crosslinked collagen capsule, hardly suggestive of life or compatibility. In contrast, one is now seeing examples of implant biomaterials that lead to a vascularized reconstruction of localized tissue, a biol. reaction different from traditional biocompatible materials that generate a foreign body capsule. Both the encapsulated biomaterials and the reconstructive biomaterials qualify as "biocompatible" by present day measurements of biocompatibility. Yet, this new generation of materials would seem to heal "compatibly" with the living organism, where older biomaterials are isolated from the living organism by the dense capsule. This review/perspective article will explore this biocompatibility etymol. conundrum by reviewing the history of the concepts around biocompatibility, today's std. methods for assessing biocompatibility, a contemporary view of the foreign body reaction and finally, a compendium of new biomaterials that heal without the foreign body capsule. A new definition of biocompatibility is offered here to address advances in biomaterials design leading to biomaterials that heal into the body in a facile manner.
- 6Motlagh, D.; Allen, J.; Hoshi, R.; Yang, J.; Lui, K.; Ameer, G. Hemocompatibility Evaluation of Poly(Diol Citrate)in Vitro for Vascular Tissue Engineering. J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Part A 2007, 82A (4), 907– 916, DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.312116https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXpslCht7Y%253D&md5=e51201cc196960f39caf6cc840513771Hemocompatibility evaluation of poly(diol citrate) in vitro for vascular tissue engineeringMotlagh, Delara; Allen, Josephine; Hoshi, Ryan; Yang, Jian; Lui, Karen; Ameer, GuillermoJournal of Biomedical Materials Research, Part A (2007), 82A (4), 907-916CODEN: JBMRCH; ISSN:1549-3296. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)One of the ongoing challenges in tissue engineering is the synthesis of a hemocompatible vascular graft. Specifically, the material used in the construct should have antithrombogenic properties and support the growth of vascular cells. The authors' lab. has designed a novel biodegradable, elastomeric copolymer, poly(1,8-octanediol citrate) (POC), with mech. and degrdn. properties suitable for vascular tissue engineering. The hemocompatibility of POC in vitro and its ability to support the attachment and differentiation of human aortic endothelial cell (HAEC) was assessed. The thrombogenicity and inflammatory potential of POC were assessed relative to poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide) and expanded poly(tetrafluoroethylene), as they were used in FDA-approved devices for blood contact. Specifically, platelet aggregation and activation, protein adsorption, plasma clotting, and hemolysis were investigated. To assess the inflammatory potential of POC, the release of IL-1β and TNF-α from THP-1 cells was measured. The cell compatibility of POC was assessed by confirming HAEC differentiation and attachment under flow conditions. POC exhibited decreased platelet adhesion and clotting relative to control materials. Hemolysis was negligible and protein adsorption was comparable to ref. materials. IL-1β and TNF-α release from THP-1 cells was comparable among all materials tested, suggesting minimal inflammatory potential. POC supported HAEC differentiation and attachment without any premodification of the surface. The results described herein are encouraging and suggest that POC is hemocompatible and an adequate candidate biomaterial for in vivo vascular tissue engineering.
- 7Ward, C. P.; Reddy, C. M. Opinion: We Need Better Data about the Environmental Persistence of Plastic Goods. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2020, 117 (26), 14618– 14621, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.20080091177https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXisVWktL%252FN&md5=b4d26858487ff3e3c19c057e11fb0779We need better data about the environmental persistence of plastic goodsWard, Collin P.; Reddy, Christopher M.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2020), 117 (26), 14618-14621CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 8Ward, C. P.; Armstrong, C. J.; Walsh, A. N.; Jackson, J. H.; Reddy, C. M. Sunlight Converts Polystyrene to Carbon Dioxide and Dissolved Organic Carbon. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019, 6 (11), 669– 674, DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b005328https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhvFars73J&md5=e8a4670e873c0182f620946f17bcc663Sunlight Converts Polystyrene to Carbon Dioxide and Dissolved Organic CarbonWard, Collin P.; Armstrong, Cassia J.; Walsh, Anna N.; Jackson, Julia H.; Reddy, Christopher M.Environmental Science & Technology Letters (2019), 6 (11), 669-674CODEN: ESTLCU; ISSN:2328-8930. (American Chemical Society)Numerous international governmental agencies that steer policy assume that polystyrene persists in the environment for millennia. Here, we show that polystyrene is completely photochem. oxidized to carbon dioxide and partially photochem. oxidized to dissolved org. carbon. Lifetimes of complete and partial photochem. oxidn. are estd. to occur on centennial and decadal time scales, resp. These lifetimes are orders of magnitude faster than biol. respiration of polystyrene and thus challenge the prevailing assumption that polystyrene persists in the environment for millennia. Additives disproportionately altered the relative susceptibility to complete and partial photochem. oxidn. of polystyrene and accelerated breakdown by shifting light absorbance and reactivity to longer wavelengths. Polystyrene photochem. oxidn. increased approx. 25% with a 10° increase in temp., indicating that temp. is unlikely to be a primary driver of photochem. oxidn. rates. Collectively, sunlight exposure appears to be a governing control of the environmental persistence of polystyrene, and thus, photochem. loss terms need to be included in mass balance studies on the environmental fate of polystyrene. The exptl. framework presented herein should be applied to a diverse array of polymers and formulations to establish how general these results are for other plastics in the environment.
- 9Lu, R. X. Z.; Radisic, M. Organ-on-a-Chip Platforms for Evaluation of Environmental Nanoparticle Toxicity. Bioactive Materials 2021, 6 (9), 2801– 2819, DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.01.0219https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtFKjsbvF&md5=8e5e8c07a4f3d131a90f5ef230e1ccc1Organ-on-a-chip platforms for evaluation of environmental nanoparticle toxicityLu, Rick Xing Ze; Radisic, MilicaBioactive Materials (2021), 6 (9), 2801-2819CODEN: BMIAD4; ISSN:2452-199X. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Despite showing a great promise in the field of nanomedicine, nanoparticles have gained a significant attention from regulatory agencies regarding their possible adverse health effects upon environmental exposure. Whether those nanoparticles are generated through intentional or unintentional means, the const. exposure to nanomaterials can inevitably lead to unintended consequences based on epidemiol. data, yet the current understanding of nanotoxicity is insufficient relative to the rate of their emission in the environment and the lack of predictive platforms that mimic the human physiol. This calls for a development of more physiol. relevant models, which permit the comprehensive and systematic examn. of toxic properties of nanoparticles. With the advancement in microfabrication techniques, scientists have shifted their focus on the development of an engineered system that acts as an intermediate between a well-plate system and animal models, known as organ-on-a-chips. The ability of organ-on-a-chip models to recapitulate in vivo like microenvironment and responses offers a new avenue for nanotoxicol. research. In this review, we aim to provide overview of assessing potential risks of nanoparticle exposure using organ-on-a-chip systems and their potential to delineate biol. mechanisms of epidemiol. findings.
- 10Lehner, R.; Weder, C.; Petri-Fink, A.; Rothen-Rutishauser, B. Emergence of Nanoplastic in the Environment and Possible Impact on Human Health. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (4), 1748– 1765, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b0551210https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXms1CisA%253D%253D&md5=201f7fdc143cac8c910d8599b34a1cdbEmergence of Nanoplastic in the Environment and Possible Impact on Human HealthLehner, Roman; Weder, Christoph; Petri-Fink, Alke; Rothen-Rutishauser, BarbaraEnvironmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (4), 1748-1765CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review. On account of environmental concerns, the fate and adverse effects of plastics have attracted considerable interest in the past few years. Recent studies indicated the potential for fragmentation of plastic materials into nanoparticles, i.e., nanoplastics, and their possible accumulation in the environment. Nanoparticles can show markedly different chem. and phys. properties than their bulk material form. Therefore possible risks and hazards to the environment need to be considered and addressed. However, the fate and effect of nanoplastics in the (aquatic) environment has so far been little explored. In this review, the authors aim to provide an overview of the literature on this emerging topic, with an emphasis on the reported impacts of nanoplastics on human health, including the challenges involved in detecting plastics in a biol. environment. The authors 1st discuss the possible sources of nanoplastics and their fates and effects in the environment and then describe the possible entry routes of these particles into the human body, as well as their uptake mechanisms at the cellular level. Since the potential risks of environmental nanoplastics to humans have not yet been extensively studied, the authors focus on studies demonstrating cell responses induced by polystyrene nanoparticles. In particular, the influence of particle size and surface chem. are discussed, to understand the possible risks of nanoplastics for humans and provide recommendations for future studies.
- 11Wright, S. L.; Kelly, F. J. Plastic and Human Health: A Micro Issue?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (12), 6634– 6647, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b0042311https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXot1Squ70%253D&md5=2bb81eb3c6106f5a951840274b8c052cPlastic and Human Health: A Micro Issue?Wright, Stephanie L.; Kelly, Frank J.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (12), 6634-6647CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A review. Microplastics are a pollutant of environmental concern. Their presence in food destined for human consumption and in air samples has been reported. Thus, microplastic exposure via diet or inhalation could occur, the human health effects of which are unknown. The current review article draws upon cross-disciplinary scientific literature to discuss and evaluate the potential human health impacts of microplastics and outlines urgent areas for future research. Key literature up to Sept. 2016 relating to bioaccumulation, particle toxicity, and chem. and microbial contaminants were critically examd. While this is an emerging field, complementary existing fields indicate potential particle, chem. and microbial hazards. If inhaled or ingested, microplastics may bioaccumulate and exert localized particle toxicity by inducing or enhancing an immune response. Chem. toxicity could occur due to the localized leaching of component monomers, endogenous additives, and adsorbed environmental pollutants. Chronic exposure is anticipated to be of greater concern due to the accumulative effect which could occur. This is expected to be dose-dependent, and a robust evidence-base of exposure levels is currently lacking. While there is potential for microplastics to impact human health, assessing current exposure levels and burdens is key. This information will guide future research into the potential mechanisms of toxicity and hence therein possible health effects.
- 12Qian, J.; Berkland, C. Drug Release Kinetics from Nondegradable Hydrophobic Polymers Can Be Modulated and Predicted by the Glass Transition Temperature. Adv. Healthcare Mater. 2021, 10, 2100015, DOI: 10.1002/adhm.20210001512https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhtFClsLvJ&md5=1864666c4ff1024650db776c5835894dDrug Release Kinetics from Nondegradable Hydrophobic Polymers Can Be Modulated and Predicted by the Glass Transition TemperatureQian, Jian; Berkland, CoryAdvanced Healthcare Materials (2021), 10 (12), 2100015CODEN: AHMDBJ; ISSN:2192-2640. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)Controlling drug release kinetics within a desired therapeutic window is the central task when designing polymeric drug delivery systems. Complex polymer chemistries have often been explored to control water penetration, polymer degrdn. rate, or the mesh network size of delivery systems. Here, a simple parameter for controlling the release rate and duration of nondegradable hydrophobic polymers is discovered. A systematic study involving 59 polymers and multiple drugs demonstrates that the glass transition temp., Tg, is a crit. factor that dictates drug release kinetics from nondegradable hydrophobic polymers. Drug release rate exhibits a unique and simple linear correlation of (T - Tg)0.5 despite variability of polymer structure and type. An empirical model established based on the special correlation can accurately simulate and predict drug release kinetics from polymers saving substantial time typically required to test long-acting drug delivery systems.
- 13Galloway, T. S.; Cole, M.; Lewis, C. Interactions of Microplastic Debris throughout the Marine Ecosystem. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2017, 1 (5), 0116, DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-011613https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1cfotVegsg%253D%253D&md5=30ad45a2216eb32723e00afbb85417d3Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystemGalloway Tamara S; Cole Matthew; Lewis CeriNature ecology & evolution (2017), 1 (5), 116 ISSN:.Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an 'ecocorona', increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.
- 14Fasoli, E. Protein Corona: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde of Nanomedicine. Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 2020, bab.2035, DOI: 10.1002/bab.2035There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 15Amaral-Zettler, L. A.; Zettler, E. R.; Mincer, T. J. Ecology of the Plastisphere. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2020, 18 (3), 139– 151, DOI: 10.1038/s41579-019-0308-015https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXis1Sjur8%253D&md5=53874876627257bfaa1ab691543170d0Ecology of the plastisphereAmaral-Zettler, Linda A.; Zettler, Erik R.; Mincer, Tracy J.Nature Reviews Microbiology (2020), 18 (3), 139-151CODEN: NRMACK; ISSN:1740-1526. (Nature Research)Abstr.: The plastisphere, which comprises the microbial community on plastic debris, rivals that of the built environment in spanning multiple biomes on Earth. Although human-derived debris has been entering the ocean for thousands of years, microplastics now numerically dominate marine debris and are primarily colonized by microbial and other microscopic life. The realization that this novel substrate in the marine environment can facilitate microbial dispersal and affect all aquatic ecosystems has intensified interest in the microbial ecol. and evolution of this biotope. Whether a 'core' plastisphere community exists that is specific to plastic is currently a topic of intense investigation. This Review provides an overview of the microbial ecol. of the plastisphere in the context of its diversity and function, as well as suggesting areas for further research.
- 16Arnold, J. W.; Roach, J.; Azcarate-Peril, M. A. Emerging Technologies for Gut Microbiome Research. Trends Microbiol. 2016, 24 (11), 887– 901, DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.06.00816https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtFanu7%252FI&md5=90b6edfc036ef44b78f8498e1e2869faEmerging Technologies for Gut Microbiome ResearchArnold, Jason W.; Roach, Jeffrey; Azcarate-Peril, M. AndreaTrends in Microbiology (2016), 24 (11), 887-901CODEN: TRMIEA; ISSN:0966-842X. (Elsevier Ltd.)Understanding the importance of the gut microbiome on modulation of host health has become a subject of great interest for researchers across disciplines. As an intrinsically multidisciplinary field, microbiome research has been able to reap the benefits of technol. advancements in systems and synthetic biol., biomaterials engineering, and traditional microbiol. Gut microbiome research has been revolutionized by high-throughput sequencing technol., permitting compositional and functional analyses that were previously an unrealistic undertaking. Emerging technologies, including engineered organoids derived from human stem cells, high-throughput culturing, and microfluidics assays allowing for the introduction of novel approaches, will improve the efficiency and quality of microbiome research. Here, we discuss emerging technologies and their potential impact on gut microbiome studies.
- 17Stubbins, A.; Law, K. L.; Muñoz, S. E.; Bianchi, T. S.; Zhu, L. Plastics in the Earth System. Science 2021, 373 (6550), 51– 55, DOI: 10.1126/science.abb035417https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhsV2mu7jM&md5=b385222dc9c25c7d46a6b7e654953139Plastics in the Earth systemStubbins, Aron; Law, Kara Lavender; Munoz, Samuel E.; Bianchi, Thomas S.; Zhu, LixinScience (Washington, DC, United States) (2021), 373 (6550), 51-55CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:1095-9203. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)Review. Plastic contamination of the environment is a global problem whose magnitude justifies the consideration of plastics as emergent geomaterials with chemistries not previously seen in Earth's history. At the elemental level, plastics are predominantly carbon. The comparison of plastic stocks and fluxes to those of carbon reveals that the quantities of plastics present in some ecosystems rival the quantity of natural org. carbon and suggests that geochemists should now consider plastics in their analyses. Acknowledging plastics as geomaterials and adopting geochem. insights and methods can expedite our understanding of plastics in the Earth system. Plastics also can be used as global-scale tracers to advance Earth system science.
