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Mass-Balance-Consistent Geological Stock Accounting: A New Approach toward Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources
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  • Mark U. Simoni*
    Mark U. Simoni
    Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway
    Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Industrial Ecology Programme, Høgskoleringen 5, NO-7034 Trondheim, Norway
    *E-mail: [email protected]; mobile phone: +4746777449.
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    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-9253-9569
  • Johannes A. Drielsma
    Johannes A. Drielsma
    Drielsma Resources Europe, 2585 GT The Hague, Netherlands
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  • Magnus Ericsson
    Magnus Ericsson
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences, 97187 Luleå, Sweden
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    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6395-1001
  • Andrew G. Gunn
    Andrew G. Gunn
    British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdom
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  • Sigurd Heiberg
    Sigurd Heiberg
    Petronavit AS, C/o Heiberg, Stokkahagen 23, 4022 Stavanger, Norway
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  • Tom A. Heldal
    Tom A. Heldal
    Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway
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  • Nedal T. Nassar
    Nedal T. Nassar
    U.S. Geological Survey, National Mineral Information Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., MS 988, Reston, Virginia 20192, United States
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    Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8758-9732
  • Evi Petavratzi
    Evi Petavratzi
    British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdom
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  • Daniel B. Müller
    Daniel B. Müller
    Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Industrial Ecology Programme, Høgskoleringen 5, NO-7034 Trondheim, Norway
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 2, 971–990
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c03088
Published January 2, 2024

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Abstract

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Global resource extraction raises concerns about environmental pressures and the security of mineral supply. Strategies to address these concerns depend on robust information on natural resource endowments, and on suitable methods to monitor and model their changes over time. However, current mineral resources and reserves reporting and accounting workflows are poorly suited for addressing mineral depletion or answering questions about the long-term sustainable supply. Our integrative review finds that the lack of a robust theoretical concept and framework for mass-balance (MB)-consistent geological stock accounting hinders systematic industry-government data integration, resource governance, and strategy development. We evaluate the existing literature on geological stock accounting, identify shortcomings of current monitoring of mine production, and outline a conceptual framework for MB-consistent system integration based on material flow analysis (MFA). Our synthesis shows that recent developments in Earth observation, geoinformation management, and sustainability reporting act as catalysts that make MB-consistent geological stock accounting increasingly feasible. We propose first steps for its implementation and anticipate that our perspective as “resource realists” will facilitate the integration of geological and anthropogenic material systems, help secure future mineral supply, and support the global sustainability transition.

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1. Introduction

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Are we running out of mineral resources? Resource optimists embrace the economic perspective of Smith, (1) and others (2−5) in arguing that markets are self-regulating, and that global mineral depletion is a nonissue (6,7) for society. Indeed, while mineral extraction accelerated over the last century, (8) there is little historical indication that physical depletion of individual deposits has impacted the global availability of minerals: inflation-corrected commodity prices remained stable over the past century, (4,9−11) and commodity time-price trends indicate that mineral products became more affordable. (12)
Resource pessimists follow Malthus, (13) Jevons, (14) and Hubbert, (15) in arguing that unconstrained mining will deplete Earth’s finite nonrenewable mineral stocks to the point of constraining future growth. The Club of Rome’s report “Limits to Growth” (16) intensified the discussion about finite stocks. (17−19) While its predictions of physical scarcity have not materialized, (20) the depletion of deposits indeed accelerated together with extraction rates, (21,22) ore grades in production declined, (23,24) and environmental impacts and resource conflicts multiplied and intensified. (22,25−29) Global trends continue to raise broad concerns about future raw material availability and sustainability. (21,30−33)
The mineral depletion and sustainability debate continues unabated, and while neither the optimistic nor the pessimistic perspective is inherently contradictory or incorrect, neither has offered a unifying solution to reconcile the positions. (4,34−39) Notably, both resource optimists and resource pessimists base their claims on the same national and global mineral production statistics and estimates for mineral resources and reserves. (40−42) Whether these data are at all suitable for quantifying long-term mineral depletion is questioned by recent studies. (11,43−46) Various authors highlight significant uncertainties regarding conceptual methods for estimation, classification, and spatial aggregation of mineral resources and reserves across all data sources, particularly for critical raw materials. (47−51) Moreover, the general lack of systematic and standardized granular mine-site-level “bottom-up” information is a key concern for comparing, aggregating, and monitoring mineral resources and mineral reserves. (42,51,52) Poor data availability also hampers environmental, social, and governance (ESG) risk assessments, (53,54) sustainability analysis, (55,56) and raw materials scenario modeling. (47,53,54) Notwithstanding, there are few recommendations on how mineral-related data collection may be streamlined and industry-government integration facilitated to address data gaps and fragmentation. Here, we use material flow analysis (MFA) and mass-balance (MB) principles to review current mineral reserve accounting, mine production monitoring, and industry-government data integration. We use this background to define a MB-consistent geological stock accounting approach and broader framework that can help to establish a coherent language across the relevant research fields. We will illustrate how our approach may be used to address the identified data gaps and data fragmentation, and review its context within recent trends in Earth Systems modeling and policymaking to propose next steps toward physical accounting and material systems integration.

2. A Brief Review of Mass-Balance-Consistent Accounting

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Monitoring dynamic changes of physical stocks and flows of materials and energy in the socioeconomic metabolism (57) or physical economy (58) reveals how we as producers and consumers of goods and services depend on, and shape, the anthropogenic and natural environment. The birth of industrial dynamics (59) in the late 1950s, industrial metabolism (60,61) in the 1980s, and industrial ecology (62,63) in the 1990s, have laid the groundwork for using integrated system approaches as tools for natural resource management, circular economy efforts, and sustainable development. (64−66) Since the first formal “materials balance approach” of the U.S. economy was published in 1969, (67) MFA has become a well-established method for modeling anthropogenic and natural physical systems at multiple scales, from single-unit processes at the facility level, to complex global material and energy systems. (68,69) MFA builds on the basic principle of conservation of mass, derived from the First Law of Thermodynamics. (70,71) Throughout history, conservation of mass (MB-consistency) has been recognized as fundamental in chemistry, (72,73) forestry, (74−76) glaciology, (77−79) hydrology, (80−82) climatology, (83,84) as well as in geology, (85−87) petroleum reservoir modeling, (88,89) mineral processing, (90,91) and urban metabolism studies. (92,93) MFA formalizes MB-consistency for physical accounting (materials accounting) by requiring that (i) the system boundary be explicitly defined in space and time, (ii) stocks and flows be expressed in consistent physical (nonmonetary) units, and (iii) mass and energy be in balance across transformation, distribution, and storage processes in the system. (68,69) Materials occupy space and can only be accounted for if the system boundary and the processes are clearly defined in space (3D) and time, (70) e.g., to quantify natural groundwater flows in the Earth’s subsurface, or to model the material stock in houses in the built environment. 2D geospatial data are insufficient, as they can only indicate where materials are on a map but cannot capture their physical characteristics (e.g., 3D shape and extent, mineral distribution, overburden thickness) or their material balance volumes.
For analyzing physical systems, a MB-consistent MFA approach brings diverse benefits: (70,71,94)

  • The system structure of connected flows carries additional information about the origin and destination of the flows.

  • Mass balance equations make the system structure explicit and can close data gaps without requiring additional data collection.

  • The explicit system definition allows for balancing each process for total mass and all chemical elements, and facilitates data harmonization and integration (e.g., to avoid double-counting).

  • The MB principle is useful for sensitivity analysis and data reconciliation. It enables robust accounting and scenario models for physical matter in the “real world”.

Altogether, MFA provides a robust and transparent reference framework to understand, visualize, and transform material and energy systems and their associated value, information, and emission layers toward sustainability. (94−96) Recent applications include a plant-level study for Europe’s biggest aluminum smelter outside of Russia, (97) the International Aluminium Institute’s “Global Aluminium Cycle”, (98) the European Union’s “Material System Analysis” studies, (99) and U.S. Geological Survey publications on tantalum, niobium, and rare earth elements (REEs). (100−102) While there are many examples to demonstrate MFA’s utility, there has not been much discussion about MFA in mineral resource geology, mineral depletion studies, and sustainable mining (cf. Supporting Information, S1.3), partly because of data gaps and a lack of transparency in current industry minerals reporting. Data fragmentation and poor international harmonization (8,41,42,51) impede MB-consistent physical accounting. Here, we address this gap and use MFA principles to discuss three key issues related to (1) geological stock accounting (section 3), (2) monitoring of mine production flows (section 4), and (3) systems integration (sections 5 and 6), as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Simplified material flow analysis (MFA) system of the global mineral material cycle. Material flows (arrows) connect material transformation, transport, market, and storage processes (blue boxes) with or without material stocks (white boxes). Highlights in red identify three key issues that require mass-balance-consistent mineral information: geological stock accounting (section 3), monitoring of mine production (section 4), and physical systems integration (sections 5 and 6).

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3. The Concept of Geological Stocks

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Mineral deposits are nonrenewable in human time scales, and geological exploration and mine project development need to compensate for deposits being depleted. This is increasingly challenging, as global demand for minerals continues to grow, (22) while the probability of exploration projects reaching the mining stage remains notoriously low. (20) Moreover, lead times from prospecting to production often reach 8–11 years for exploration and additional 9–12 years for mine development. (103) Government-industry information flows are crucial in this context. Definitions, methods, and standards for government and industry data collection, sharing, and integration, however, have diverse historical backgrounds and have been developed by different organizations to serve distinct information needs: Government agencies, for instance, collect basic geoscientific and industry data to inform long-term resource management, promote sustainable development, and secure an affordable supply of raw materials at national, regional, and local levels. National- and regional-scale geospatial data sets and mineral resource estimates by government agencies often cover both known and undiscovered mineral deposits, and aim to inform a wide range of users including policy makers, exploration companies, and investors. (42,104−107) These data sets and resource estimates, however, have diverse underlying assumptions, varying uncertainty, and significant data gaps, (41,50,108,109) which make them difficult to compare and integrate. Exploration and mining companies, on the other hand, collect detailed site-scale information for project-specific appraisal (valuation) and operations planning, with the goal of generating revenue though successful mining and refining ventures (Figure 1). As early stage industry exploration projects advance to drilling, permitting, and construction, their costs rapidly grow, (20) and companies may use public disclosure to report promising exploration results and attract capital for project development. The 1997 Bre-X mining fraud, which cost investors US$6 billion, (110) led regulators and professional associations to increasingly require that such industry disclosures follow “resource classification standards” (108,111) (cf. S2) overseen by a certified professional, known as competent person (CP) (112) or qualified expert (QE). (108,111,113) While the definitions of the terms resources and reserves vary across extractive industries (e.g., industrial minerals, metals, oil and gas) and between jurisdictions (e.g., Australia, Canada, China, United States), (108,111,114) they are commonly understood along following lines: (104,115) reserves are the amount of discovered in-ground commodities that are considered to be economically recoverable and marketable at the time of determination through projects that are committed to be realized, while resources comprise both discovered and undiscovered quantities that are not yet economically recoverable at present in this sense, but may, eventually, be extracted. Both definitions presume some degree of recoverability and human intent, which indicates that resources and reserves are a function of exploration efforts, market demand, regulations, and other environmental, socioeconomic and technical variables (collectively often called “modifying factors” (50,112)). Reserves are by definition better constrained than resources, yet both are somewhat uncertain, and inherently dynamic. (108,109) Remembering this commonality, we here simply use “reserves” to refer to reported quantities estimated through national and international (e.g., CRIRSCO-aligned) (112) resource classification standards or through the more generic United Nations Framework Classification for Resources UNFC. (116) In contrast to project- and commodity-specific classification of reserves (i.e., reporting only the amount of commodity x we can mine and sell for profit or by applying subsidies), the scope for MB-consistent geological stock accounting is broader in that it aims to facilitate spatiotemporally explicit and MB-consistent data integration and physical accounting for the entire geological “subsurface” (117) of a geographical region. Using the terms stock, (70,118) intrinsic physical properties, (119,120) spatial compartment, (68,70) and mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive (MECE), (119) we suggest the following new definitions: the geological stock is the physical content of a natural material compartment that is delimited by a spatiotemporally explicit, georeferenced, and time-invariant 3D system boundary. Geological stock quantification maps the material content in the defined compartment in a mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive manner at a specified reference point in time, based on purely intrinsic (e.g., physical, chemical, and mechanical) material properties. Intrinsic properties include, for instance, the total mass, elemental composition, mineralogy, and strength. A physical material flow out of the defined compartment occurs when natural material leaves the system boundary during the period of consideration between two reference points in time, independent of whether the material has an economic value, and regardless of whether the flow results from human activity or natural processes. Geological stock accounting tracks physical material stocks and flows and their changes over time based on their purely physical attributes, which makes it conceptually suitable for MB-consistent raw material system modeling and scenario development. To illustrate conceptual differences between mineral resource classification and MB-consistent physical accounting, we use four MFA system definitions (Figure 2), and individually discuss them below.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Different approaches for geological stock accounting: (a) reserves included as fixed stocks within the system boundary; (b) exploration interpreted as a (in)flow of material; (c) geosphere excluded from the system boundary; (d) multidimensional and mass-balance (MB)-consistent geological stock model. Approaches (a) and (b) violate material flow analysis (MFA) principles, (c) is permissible but uninformative, and (d) is the spatiotemporally explicit conceptual approach.

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3.1. Using Reserves to Calculate Depletion (Figure 2a)

National and global resources and reserves numbers are often combined with production statistics to calculate mineral depletion rates. (16,35,36,38,39,121) This incorrectly assumes, without explicitly stating so, that reserves are fixed physical quantities, i.e., “all there is”. (111) Accelerating global resource extraction would thus progressively deplete them, aligning with the “fixed-stock paradigm” (4) and pessimistic predictions of impending global exhaustion. However, Zimmermann (122) pointedly stated in 1951: “resources are not, they become; they are not static, but expand and contract in response to human wants and human actions”. Indeed, reported global resources and reserves of many commodities continue to grow, despite accelerating extraction rates. (107,123,124) That reserves are inherently dynamic (125) is illustrated by two examples: first, mine life cycle disruptions such as bankruptcy can unexpectedly and instantaneously “erase” a company’s reserves, reducing national (and global) reserve totals; and second, more efficient technology can turn previously subeconomic parts of a deposit into economic reserves, thus increasing reserve totals. Notably, long-term commodity prices have remained relatively stable (4,9,11) despite declining ore grades in production. (23,24) This was predominantly driven by exploration successes, technological innovation, and economies of scale, which lowered the threshold for economic mining and increased global reserves. (23,126,127) On a project level, reserve calculations commonly use a cutoff grade to estimate recoverable in-ground quantities, defined by a set of assumed operating conditions with variable uncertainty, including technical feasibility, labor and fuel costs, taxes, and projected commodity prices. Changes to any of these may call for adjusting the cutoff grade. Higher market prices, for instance, make it feasible to profitably mine lower-grade and deeper ores. Interestingly, empirical data suggest that there is no specific geological or thermodynamic grade-threshold that may limit this trend. While geologists previously postulated a “mineralogical barrier” for the copper concentration (copper ore grade) in the crust, (128,129) randomly sampled data across all rock types indicate a unimodal continuum. (130) The absence of a clearly identifiable intrinsic (119) ore grade threshold emphasizes that the definition of “ore deposits” (i.e., naturally occurring mineral material “known to be producible to yield a profit”) (131) is arbitrary from a physical accounting perspective. Reserve numbers of individual industry projects can thus be understood as a snapshot of a “working inventory” (132) that dynamically evolves in function of socioeconomic (and thus extrinsic (119)) factors. In addition, project owners may choose or be required to selectively disclose only some of their reserves, to the extent that fits their commercial interest and applicable regulations. Arguably, project owners theoretically have the information to “account” for the entire 3D geological stock volume in their concession area in a MB-consistent manner (e.g., by using 3D block models and data reconciliation). (133,134) However, their published reserve numbers only represent those selected individual 3D “blocks” (20,135) that fulfill the reserve classification criteria (i.e., a dynamically evolving subsample of the total geological stock). All 3D information is lost after reporting, which implies that published reserves become decoupled in space and time and do not allow for MB-consistent data integration, reconciliation, and material stock and flow accounting. Government mineral inventories and national reserve totals compiled from these selectively reported industry reserve quantities (plus possibly additional government estimates) are hence poorly suited for MB-consistent physical stock accounting. Altogether, while previous authors have already pointed out that reported reserve numbers should not be misinterpreted as fixed stocks, (7,11,111,122) we here show that doing so violates MFA principles, and that these estimates cannot be used for MB-consistent physical accounting because reserves data (i) lack explicit georeferencing and a time-invariant 3D system boundary (cf. spatial compartment); (ii) are inherently dynamic and co-defined by extrinsic socioeconomic factors (which continuously changes the MFA balance volume); (iii) and are selectively sampled and neither mutually exclusive nor collectively exhaustive across time and space.

3.2. Modeling Exploration as an Inflow (Figure 2b)

To account for the dynamic nature of reserves, it has been suggested to introduce exploration as an imaginary inflow (136) (“exploration” arrow) representing “flows from unknown resources into a reserve inventory”. (7) Geologists commonly categorize exploration projects into greenfields and brownfields exploration, and aim to provide information that helps to “convert” (137) or “upgrade” (125) mineral discoveries into mineable reserves. Conceptually, greenfield exploration expands the system boundary of reserves though new discoveries and classification outside of previously known geological districts or terrains. This changes the balance volume during the accounting period, which makes it impossible to uphold the MB-principle because the 3D system boundary (spatial compartment) is not time-invariant. (70) Brownfields exploration, in contrast, increases the knowledge within previously known terrains that have existing data, often in the vicinity of abandoned or operating mines. New measurements and subsequent (re)classification (20) update the geological knowledge of individual blocks inside the imagined 3D system boundary around the entire brownfields volume, and may increase or decrease reported reserves. Regardless, exploration is no measurable physical flow, and this approach cannot solve the MB-consistency issues inherent to reserves accounting.

3.3. MB-Consistency without Geological Stocks (Figure 2c)

The resource optimist’s view can be framed as geological stocks being so vast and markets and human ingenuity so successful in developing new solutions, that accurate quantification of geological stocks is simply irrelevant. (2−5,138) In other words: “Whatever is left in the ground is unknown, probably unknowable, but surely unimportant; a geological fact of no economic interest”. (7) Indeed, geologists point out that the mineral content of the Earth’s crust is orders of magnitude bigger than reported industry reserves. (111,130) Economists may argue that functioning markets automatically balance production and consumption, and that focusing on production costs and prices, and addressing market failures, is more important than quantifying physical availability. (4,139) Translated to MFA, this approach draws the system boundary such that the geological subsystem (geosphere) is excluded from consideration. While this is indeed a MB-consistent system definition, it does not contribute to tracking how Earth’s natural resources are depleted. Importantly, it does not contribute to data collection and knowledge integration for “physically consistent” (140) modeling and Earth System Science, (141) which we need to evaluate prospective mining localities, develop supply scenarios, and address the ESG issues that are likely to limit mineral production well before any global physical depletion. (132,142,143)

3.4. MB-Consistent Geological Stock Accounting (Figure 2d)

MB-consistent geological stock accounting requires a spatiotemporally explicit system definition to describe and monitor changes in the geological stock volume in the geosphere. Here, we propose to model the geological stock using a full-coverage 3D digital geomodel (cf. section 5) with a georeferenced time-invariant (fixed) spatial system boundary that establishes the model’s initial physical reference state (27) at an initial reference point in time. By recording the intrinsic physical material properties of stocks and separating them from socioeconomic (and thus extrinsic) (119) factors, we can use MFA to track the actual physical changes over time. Combining spatial resolution and MB-equations facilitates both site-specific and regional-scale geological stock quantification and MFA data integration (MFA subsystem modeling approach). (144) Section 5 elaborates how changes in geological stocks due to mining and better knowledge about intrinsic material properties of specific blocks can be represented. Moreover, this method considers the entire 3D distribution of geological materials in the Earth’s crust and its uncertainty, not just the continuously changing reserves in known mineral deposits. Notably, this scope definition also satisfies the stated objective of the UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) (145) “to include all of the resources that may provide benefits to humanity” (i.e., the entire 3D geological stock), while it also “allows for a full analysis of changes”. (145) Altogether, our geological stock accounting approach aims to facilitate data integration to represent the physical reality as accurately as possible with a continuously increasing resolution.

4. Physical Monitoring of Mine Production

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It is widely accepted that granular disclosure of relevant data is a key driver for responsible mining and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), for example decent work and economic growth (SDG 8), and responsible consumption and production (SDG 12). (146,147) However, systematic site-scale information is still “conspicuously missing” (148) from corporate sustainability reporting of mining companies, while corresponding government data sets are often incomplete, fragmented across different agencies, and difficult to integrate, as we show in Figure 3 and the following sections.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Physical monitoring of mine production. (a) Mine planning: The natural characteristics of mineral deposits such as depth and ore grade, combined with mine design and operating efficiency, determine the expected (ex-ante) material flows. Figure not to scale, modified after ref (163). (b) Material flows and sustainability: Material flows of mining are interlinked with environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues and tracking them is thus crucial for the Social License to Operate (SLO) and Sustainable Development License to Operate (SDLO). (c) Reference system for physical monitoring: A standardized material flow analysis (MFA) system definition with explicit reference points and a mutually agreed-upon terminology facilitates systematic reporting and enables mass-balance-consistent monitoring of mine production flows.

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4.1. Industry Reporting of Mine Production Flows

Mining companies routinely collect material flow data at different stages of their mine life cycles to manage their economic efficiency (149) and ESG risks. (150,151) However, public disclosure of data on observed past (ex-post) or expected future (ex-ante) material flows is rare and typically neither systematic nor MB-consistent. The amount and quality of in-house information increases as projects advance along the project-production cycle: (152) during the prefeasibility and feasibility stages, expected sales production and waste flows can be estimated by combining geological information with mine design and scheduling. (153) This makes it necessary to characterize in-ground materials and to calculate total extraction (excavation) volumes and associated flows of topsoil, overburden, below cutoff grade waste rock, and pay-grade ore for further processing (Figure 3a). Besides being essential for mine life cycle costing and environmental optimization at a corporate management level, (154,155) this ex-ante information is also of interest for national mineral resource governance and local stakeholders: Specifically, it could be used to demonstrate compliance with legal, regulatory, contractual, fiscal, and infrastructural requirements, and could facilitate stakeholder negotiations to define the terms of the “Social License to Operate” (SLO) and “Sustainable Development License to Operate” (SDLO). (53,148,156) Ex-ante data could also help exploit synergies (71) between different projects at an early planning stage where design decisions can still be influenced. Yet, these data are rarely systematically reported or updated to reflect changes in planning. During the actual production phase(s), companies routinely monitor material flows along the processing chain to manage operations and ESG risks (Figure 3b). (91,133,134) Many jurisdictions mandate annual reporting of “mine production” or “sold production” quantities to mining authorities. However, reported data (information flows) are typically not defined with MB-consistent reference systems (e.g., Figure 3c). This results in misunderstandings regarding what reported production data refer to (e.g., the total mass with average ore grade, or the total pure metal content of sold products) and allows for “hidden” inconsistencies. Moreover, published industry data generally only cover some selected materials and flows (e.g., omit to report removed waste rock), (40) exclude relevant details (e.g., whole-rock composition including companion or critical metals and deleterious elements; mineralogy; pH; physical product qualities), (50,157) and may be preaggregated across projects to company-levels (i.e., not granular, site-scale). Moreover, depending on the jurisdiction, they may remain entirely undisclosed for entities that are not listed on stock exchanges, or that have revenues below a given threshold. (158,159) Similarly, government communication is a problem. (160) Reporting may for instance be fragmented across agencies: mining directorates, tax authorities, national environmental protection agencies, or local municipal planning offices collect (but not necessarily share) ex-ante or ex-post information on mining-related material flows for environmental impact assessments, license extensions, taxation, and closure procedures. Similarly, information on planned or completed excavation for urban and infrastructure development projects are often poorly integrated with information on mining projects, (161) despite being relevant for construction aggregates (“development minerals”) management and circular economy strategies. (162) Altogether, current production reporting does not provide complete material flow data coverage and lacks a material systems context.

4.2. Government Aggregation of Production Data

Reported mine production data are commonly ingested by geological survey organizations (GSOs), mining directorates, and industry associations. Due to confidentiality concerns, these organizations usually only publish them as aggregated mineral production statistics. (40−42,158) National mine production totals and global production estimates are used by a wide range of stakeholders, e.g., to evaluate markets for project development, assess raw material criticality, (164−168) investigate the long-run availability of metals, (43,105) and develop raw material policies and science-based resource efficiency targets. (169) However, the published production statistics are often misinterpreted by data users that do not know their context. Back-calculations using published production statistics, for instance, systematically underestimate total extraction (46) because the quantities, types, and composition of nonsales material flows are not correctly reported. Historically, the flows of topsoil, over- and interburden, and below-cutoff waste rock, collectively referred to as hidden or indirect flows, (170) unused extraction, (171) or natural resource residuals, (145) were not considered as tradeable commodities with economic value (46,67,172,173) and are thus not reported. Indeed, national accounting systems including Eurostat (cf. “Waste disposal to the environment”) (171) and the UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) (145) still consider them to be “outside” of the system boundary, assuming they are immediately returned to and part of “the environment”. This scope partly explains why quantitative data on unused extraction are absent from national statistics. (46,174) Yet, this does not lessen their relevance for sustainability-related discussions. Hidden flows exert various pressures on the environment and can contain both potentially harmful and useful material. (175) For open pit mines, hidden flows are commonly two, and occasionally 30 times bigger than the ore retained (used extraction), (176) and orders of magnitude bigger than final sales quantities. (40,177) Globally, the mining industry is the largest “waste” producer, (156) and in 2016 alone the flow of unreported waste rock was estimated to be 72 billion tonnes (Gt). (178) Altogether, the historical flow of nonsales quantities (hidden flows, reported tailings, and other residues) is estimated to have accumulated a total of several hundred Gt of mine wastes. (179) While nonsales quantities raise various ESG issues, they can also offer opportunities for remining of tailings, ecosystem restoration, and higher-value land use (Figure 3b). All countries with important mining histories have legacy mine waste stocks. In the United States alone, there are estimated 550 000 abandoned mines, 4–13% of which may pose a risk to human health and the environment. (180−182) The estimated remediation costs of the 64 priority sites are US$7.8 billion, of which $2.4 billion would come from taxpayers. (183) Notably, many risk-prone historical practices have been superseded, (184) and historical extraction rates used to be much lower than today. The accelerating mineral extraction rates (21,22) and increasing waste-to-ore ratios, (51) on the other hand, spotlight the need to better understand and address future waste flows, including though transparent reporting of tailings storage (178,185) and monitoring of unused extraction (e.g., topsoil, over- and interburden, waste rock; Figure 3b). This emphasizes concepts such as circular economy, (186) zero waste, (187) comprehensive extraction/comprehensive resource recovery, (188,189) in addition to remining, reprocessing, and rehabilitation. (184,190) All require site-scale and MB-consistent data on material flows and stocks to identify ESG risks, (191) facilitate sustainable sourcing, evaluate residual resources and market potentials, (192) and to allow for robust data integration. Still, data gaps on mine waste types, volumes, mineralogy, and composition continue to impede resource recovery from growing waste streams (“mining” of flows) and historical waste deposits (193) (remining of legacy stocks). Similarly, Economy-Wide Material Flow Accounts (194) and indicators for Material Footprints, (195) Total Material Requirements, (172,173) Rock-to-Metal Ratios, (40) and project-specific resource efficiency (54,196) are all hindered by the poor availability or lack of relevant, robust, and accessible site-scale material stock and flow data.

4.3. Reference Systems for Consistent Reporting

MB-consistent material systems are useful for defining terms (e.g., stocks, flows), relationships, and indicators (e.g., circularity, efficiency, recovery rate). Mining has a long and diverse history across the world, and conflicting definitions abound. The term ore, for instance, can refer to either crude ore or usable ore. Crude ore is often used for run-of-mine or pithead output material that needs further processing to become a saleable product; useable ore may refer to either high-grade direct-shipping ore, or to finished (beneficiated) ore that has undergone further processing to turn it into a saleable product, such as concentrate or pellets. Without a MB-consistent system definition, there is a risk for calculation errors with potentially far-reaching consequences: the U.S. World iron ore production statistics between 2000 and 2014, for instance, overestimated the global production of useable ore by 10 to 32% (197) because Chinese production numbers were interpreted as useable ore, although they actually reported crude ore.
Such misunderstandings can be avoided by publishing material system diagrams or material flowcharts that define key terms and use explicit reference points to place reported mine production data into a systems context (Figure 3c). Indeed, the Norwegian Directorate of Mining (DMF) recommends material flowsheets as part of permitting procedures for mining activities. (198) Similarly, the Canadian Institute of Mining (CIM) notes that material flow diagrams are of “great assistance” for reconciling long-term models with plant production data, (199) and that mass balances of the major flows should be included for internal as well as public reporting of minerals projects. (199,200) These guidelines are a first step toward, but not sufficient for, systematic physical monitoring and accounting. They acknowledge that material system diagrams are helpful but do not make their use mandatory, and do not discuss how explicit system boundaries, reference points, and MB principles can facilitate transparent regular (e.g., annual) reporting and monitoring of mine production flows.

5. Geomodeling of Material Stocks and Flows

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5.1. Geomodels for Stock Accounting and Resource Classification

Geomodels are digital representations of the Earth’s subsurface (201) that are essential for addressing a wide range of societal issues. (202) They can be expressed though gridded volume elements (voxels) and attributes that characterize and quantify continuous physical phenomena such as geological formations, groundwater flows, and other subsurface features. (203) Geomodels have been extensively used in petroleum reservoir engineering since computers became available in the late 1960s. (88) Given our previous definition, geological stocks can be modeled with voxels and analyzed either as a whole or in parts to quantify the total material content together with its average composition and/or that of selected individual voxels, elements, or substances, for any specific point of time, with a certain level of confidence. This may, for instance, be used to calculate the elementary stock of pure copper in tonnes based on the copper grade distribution within a defined volume, or to quantify the total stock of sand and gravel in a region as the sum of sand-containing voxels, for a specific reference point of time. An unlimited number of voxel attributes can be defined to describe stock characteristics. Here, we illustrate geological stock accounting in Figure 4a, using only ore grade and uncertainty. The total extraction flow during the time interval from the initial reference state at t0 to a specified reference state at t1 corresponds to an observed stock reduction. Using prospective geomodeling, further stock reduction may be simulated for a future state t2, subject to probabilistic geomodeling, mine design, and operational planning. (204,205) The extracted material leaves the geological stock subsystem (geosphere) and enters the economy. Notably, natural processes such as erosion move material only within the geological subsystem and do not register as a transfer of material from the geosphere. We deliberately separate the geological stock accounting step (a) from the resource classification (b). Geological stock accounting is necessary to build a robust and MB-consistent full-coverage digital model of the physical reality. Resource classification is conceptualized as an optional and independent additional step that acts as a “filter” to selectively appraise specific stock segments that are thought to be of particular interest for further mineral project development. While we postulate that a MB-consistent geological stock model can always serve as a robust information source for subsequent resource classification and aggregation, earlier sections have outlined that the inverse is impossible: reserve numbers cannot be converted to geospatial models and thus have limited utility for mineral depletion, environmental, and sustainability monitoring and assessments.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Multidimensional geological stock accounting illustrated as a cube with 27 voxels at three reference points (t0, t1, t2). (a) Geological stock accounting monitors changes of the physical domain over time and shows historical extraction as a measured reduction of the total stock S by 0.5 voxels from 27 → 26.5 during t0 → t1 and anticipated further reduction 26.5 → 26 during t1 → t2, assuming stock scenario S1. Exploration activity changes only the attributes (e.g., ore grade) and associated uncertainty of the geological stock characterization (2 voxels from 0% → 25–50% confidence during t0 → t1, and from 25 to 50% →>75% during t1 → t2, assuming stock scenario S1). (b) Resource classification acts as a filter domain that selectively appraises parts of the geological stock to report reserves and resources, while omitting the rest of the geological stock including known but low grade (barren) voxels; Individual geological stock voxels may remain physically unchanged but may nevertheless be reclassified as time passes (1 resources to 1 reserves during t0 → t1) or vice versa (1 reserves to 1 resources during t1 → t2 assuming resource classification scenario S1,ii(t2)). (c) Uncertainty attribution is considered as two separate steps: step c[a] addresses solely the uncertainty of the physical attributes for stock quantification; step c[b] incorporates the additional uncertainty of socioeconomic assumptions of resource classification. Color hue (red, green, blue) represents three ore grade classes relative to average crustal abundance (depleted, average to low grade, enriched); color saturation (0–25, 25–50, 50–75, 75–100) shows the confidence in the results (unknown to complete knowledge). MB, mass-balance.

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5.2. Model Uncertainty

Uncertainty is pertinent to the quantification, and visualization of 3D geodata. (206−208) Epistemic uncertainty arises from incomplete knowledge and can be reduced though new exploration, geological mapping, drilling, and sample analysis. (209,210) MB-consistent geological stock accounting presumes that the model’s system boundary (i.e., envelope of all 27 voxels in Figure 4) remains fixed though time. This enables spatially explicit uncertainty attribution for every voxel to capture the evolution of knowledge over time (confidence intervals in Figure 4c). Exploration activity is not considered to be a physical material flow and does not affect the system boundary or the total geological stock volume. Rather, new observations reduce the uncertainty of the attributed physical characteristics of voxels (i.e., increase the confidence in the stock characterization). Conversely, measurements during production can provide a “closed-loop” (133) feedback to validate or reconcile the model and increase the confidence for the remaining in situ material. Both integration of (ex-ante) exploration data and closed-loop (ex-post) analysis and feedback thus make the geological stock model for the remaining stock more accurate, useful, and valuable over time. Reported mineral reserve numbers, in contrast, are valid only at a specific point of time; they have additional uncertainty due to extrinsic socioeconomic assumptions that are difficult to constrain and predict. (211,212) This shortcoming underscores the strategic benefit of allocating research and funding for MB-consistent geological stock accounting and material flow monitoring: information on material systems describes observable real-world phenomena, helps understand physical changes such as resource depletion, and can contribute to building a continuously growing, versatile, robust, and increasingly accurate global geoscientific knowledge base.

6. Framework for Systems Integration

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While the credo of the extractive industry has long been “if we can’t grow it, we have to mine it”, (213,214) one may add ‘but we need robust material stock and flow models to know when, where and how to best get it’. The clean energy transition, for instance, requires batteries, solar cells, and wind turbines, but national policies seldom quantify how much lithium, indium and dysprosium will be needed to produce them, and where and how to sustainably source the required minerals, components, or products. (215) Answering these questions is challenging without reliable geospatial information and robust scenario models, which again require systematic mine-site-scale material stock (key issue one) and material flow data (issue two). We argue that a more physical-accounting-centric approach to industry-government data integration is necessary and mutually beneficial.

6.1. The Current Situation: Data Fragmentation and Limited Coordination (Figure 5a)

The mining industry collects detailed 3D geological as well as material flow data for site-specific project planning and operational management. However, these data sets are typically stored in proprietary company data “silos”, (216) and generally not part of public disclosure or formal government reporting (5a, information flow ‘A’). Often, only stock-market-listed mining and exploration companies have public disclosure routines in place. Even in these cases, published data are incompletely georeferenced and lack comparability and consistency both between entities in the same industry and across jurisdictions. (52,114) Moreover, details on intrinsic physical properties for systematic quantification and characterization of relevant material stocks and flows (e.g., mass and volume of waste rock, whole-rock composition, mineralogy, pH of tailings) are commonly missing. Notwithstanding, data providers such as S&P Global or Wood Mackenzie compile comprehensive datasets from the available company data; governments, on the other hand, rarely systematically harvest these data to supplement or validate their own information.

Figure 5

Figure 5. (a) Today’s information flows on nonrenewable mineral resources result in incomplete, fragmented, and inconsistent knowledge that is unsuitable for addressing systemic issues related to sustainable resource management. (b) The proposed monitoring of physical systems is based on an Open Government Data (OGD) framework that supports multidimensional geodata integration, mass-balance (MB) consistent geological stock accounting, and spatiotemporally explicit material systems governance. PPP: Public-Private Partnership; SLO: Social License to Operate; SDLO: Sustainable Development License to Operate; GSO: Geological Survey Organization; EO: Earth Observation; IoT: Internet of Things; BIM/CIM: Building/City Information Modeling; ML: Machine Learning; AI Artificial Intelligence; AR/VR: Augmented/Virtual Reality; G2B, G2G, B2B, B2G: Government-to-Business data sharing, etc.

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Governments collect data by different means and manage enormous amounts of multiscale geospatial information. Data provided by geological survey organisations (GSOs), for instance, are sought-after for mineral exploration and project planning (“information flow” arrow ‘B’), and are key drivers for economic development. (217−220) In Western Australia, for instance, GSO data delivered an estimated 31-fold total return on investment. (219) However, the minerals and mining-related datasets are still mostly 2D, have coarse resolution, and mainly cover areas where publicly funded exploration campaigns have been conducted (“mapped areas” labeled ‘B’). National mineral inventories and mineral statistics combine such government data with mandatory company reporting, and occasionally also voluntary public disclosures and information from industry associations and commercial data providers. (41,221) Such data compilation and integration from sources that are poorly standardized, diverse, and can only be selectively sampled is time-consuming and costly. (42) Moreover, nongeospatial “external” data cannot readily be integrated into existing geomodels, but rather only indirectly linked to administrative records (e.g., mapped concession areas ‘A’) or approximate locations of production sites (e.g., ‘ID1’). This entails that national mineral inventories have known and unknown (hidden) spatiotemporal data gaps (e.g., irregularly updated reserves information; areas without geodata ‘C’, NoData or data N/A), irreconcilable data overlaps (e.g., contradictory government-industry geodata), and thematic inconsistencies (e.g., different survey methods, reporting dates, or spatiotemporal resolution). Poor metadata and lack of documentation on data collection, cleaning, and aggregation workflows further increases uncertainty. Altogether, today’s government-industry data integration produces inconsistent 2D maps with hidden gaps and unnecessary overlaps. This results in national spatiotemporal data coverages that are neither mutually exclusive (A∩B∩C:= 0), nor collectively exhaustive (total geological stock:= ΣA + ΣB + ΣC).

6.2. Facilitating Integrated Monitoring of Physical Systems (Figure 5b)

Interdisciplinary, cross-scale, digital Earth science platforms and information infrastructures are needed for environmental monitoring, Big Data analytics and cross-disciplinary Earth science. (222) Such platforms could form the basis for hybrid modeling approaches (140) that obey physical laws, while leveraging data-driven machine learning to better understand the Human–Earth system. (223) The OneGeology initiative, for instance, was established to harmonize global geoscience data, (224) while the EarthServer community wishes to allow users to “ask any question, any time, on any volume”. (225) MB-consistent geological stock accounting aligns with these visions, with Figure 5b showing its role as part of what we call the monitoring of physical systems. Advances in three key domains are particularly favorable for further developments:
(i)

Earth Observation (EO) and Geomodeling. Earth observation (EO) continuously expands our knowledge of an urbanizing planet (226−228) with exponentially increasing amounts of global-scale, multidimensional time-series data. Data acquisition technologies such as satellites and drones that interact the Internet of Things (IoT) facilitate both global mapping of mining land use, (229) and high-resolution mine-site-scale monitoring of production stockpiles and tailings storage facilities. (230,231) Such remote and in situ measurements are key to the extractive industry’s Mining 4.0 vision of smart and connected digital transformation. (232,233) It is estimated that 95% of EO data have never been accessed, partly due to challenges with managing its volume, variety, veracity, velocity, and the difficulty to extract value (the five Vs). (222) This indicates that there is a huge potential for Big Earth Data fusion, (222) geospatial artificial intelligence (GeoAI), (234) and cloud-based computing, which together can help improve data accessibility and support investigative approaches also for users with limited knowledge. (235,236) Simultaneously, free or relatively inexpensive access to open government servers (223) or proprietary platforms such as Google’s Earth Engine (237) and Microsoft’s Planetary Computer, (238) coupled with geodata modeling environments including the Open Data Cube (ODC) (236,239) and advances in data processing (240) and visualization technologies, (241−243) facilitate large-area high-resolution geomodeling. (244−246) Digital twins (247,248) may soon become standard tools for modeling the geological subsurface together with production facilities at mine-site (plant) scale, and may be part of larger models that integrate geological information with urban-scale building- and city information models (BIM/CIM) into regional GeoBIM systems. (249,250) Indeed, two decades after the former Vice President of the USA Al Gore outlined his vision of a “Digital Earth”, (251) the UN-led Coalition for Digital Environmental Sustainability (252) has recently declared the development of a “Planetary Digital Twin” a strategic priority for the sustainability transformation. Given the accelerating rate of innovation, we can imagine multidimensional (e.g., 6D = x,y,z + time + scale/resolution + uncertainty) (253,254) Digital Earth Science Platforms (254−256) that allow us to model historical, monitor ongoing, and simulate future geological and anthropogenic stock changes and material flows through space and time.

(ii)

Multidimensional Geoinformation Management. The value of data is maximized by reuse. (257) Standards and protocols such as the forthcoming ISO 19123-1 on multidimensional “coverages” (256) and the “Spatial Data on the Web Best Practices” (258) facilitate sharing and integration of georeferenced multidimensional data with their original granularity (triple-lined arrows). Standardization can be voluntary or mandatory: the European INSPIRE Directive on establishing an infrastructure for spatial information, (259) for instance, defines legally binding goals for geodata harmonization across European countries, while the International Union of Geological Sciences follows a voluntary “Big Science Initiative” standardization approach. (260,261) Development of a multidimensional “Open Government Data (OGD5.0) Framework for Physical Accounting” can draw on such efforts (cf. Figures 4, 5), while spatiotemporally explicit and MB-consistent reporting can support mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive (119) data integration and the establishment of digital twins and “cyber-physical systems”. (262) Multistakeholder involvement and Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) (263) can commit to “co-create” (264) the OGD5.0 for secure, consistent, and integrated Government-to-Government (G2G) and Government-to-Business (G2B) information exchange. (218,265) For governments, which serve as stewards for data and natural resources on behalf of society, a material systems approach can help close data gaps, reduce industry-government information asymmetries, and build public knowledge capital to support long-term sustainable development. The industry can benefit from access to previously unavailable information through the B2B data trade. This would allow partners to exploit the collective data volume though machine learning (ML), artificial intelligence (AI), (234,266,267) and digital laboratories with augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR), (268,269) and can inform mineral systems analysis (270) and exploration, (47,217) process innovation, (266) and supply chain management. (103) Similarly, transdisciplinary stakeholder collaborations (271) can contribute to joint problem solving.

(iii)

Policy Trends and Best Practice Examples. Knowledge sharing between government and industry, and across supply chains, is a key challenge for mineral resource governance. (156,272) The FAIR (273) and OGD (274) principles, OECD Recommendations, (275) and the Integrated Geospatial Information (276) and Global Statistical Geospatial Frameworks (277) provide high-level guidance for addressing “data and organizational silos”. (278) However, additional efforts are needed to ensure more effective data collection (e.g., to avoid data duplication and target key gaps), facilitate better data integration (e.g., georeferencing, MFA system diagrams/flowsheets with explicit data reference points), and promote data reuse (e.g., FAIR principles, PPPs). Various studies have found that voluntary reporting commitments by mining companies emphasized documentation of compliance over actual data disclosure, (159,279) failed to guarantee timely and granular project-by-project level reporting, (280−282) and had limited impact on mine-site level action. (148,279) In response, governments are called upon to use their legislative, regulatory, and policy tools to implement new frameworks that support systematic ESG reporting (cf. S2) (53,56,283) and granular data disclosure. (194,283−288) Governments could use a common physical systems approach to monitor and manage material systems, and to set predictable but yet flexible framework conditions (263) that allow the extractive industries to compete with their best capabilities for securing future mineral supply. By inviting/requiring mining and exploration companies to submit collected geodata into secure public databases, long-term public knowledge and value creation can be maximized. (160) MB-consistent monitoring can promote transparency (e.g., materials certification, traceability) that helps build public trust, contributes to fighting theft, corruption, and tax fraud (e.g., fraudulent transfer pricing) and can ensure that mining activities achieve their project-specific commercial interests, while fulfilling their broader societal obligations toward the SDGs. (94,146,147)

Altogether, we can maximize the robustness and value of reported material stock and flow data by ensuring that they are (a) georeferenced and MB-consistent over consecutive accounting steps, which enables geospatial analytics, bottom-up raw material analysis, and scenario development with MFA; (289) (b) collectively exhaustive regarding spatial coverage and stakeholders including SMEs, (283) which facilitates more representative aggregation across project, enterprise, and jurisdictional levels; and (c) open (FAIR), which supports SLO and SDLO negotiations and digital innovation. Reported site-scale data can be used in sustainability assessments (55) to inform investors about project risks and opportunities, (191,290,291) and to identify trade-offs and synergies across different projects. Overall, MB-consistent data on physical stocks and flows can help to understand decision path dependency (292) (e.g., historical mine production data allow approximation of accumulated mine waste stocks), and help set science-based targets (293) for mineral supply within the “sustainability solution space” (294) or “safe operating space”. (295) Future efforts toward integration can draw on experiences from following three initiatives:
(1)

the European Open Data Directive, which requires from its member States that “public sector bodies and public undertakings shall make their documents available [...] in formats that are open, machine-readable, accessible, findable, and re-usable [...] at the best level of precision and granularity”. (296) Six thematic categories of high-value data sets are highlighted: geospatial, Earth observation and environment, meteorological, statistical, company information and ownership, and mobility. (297) Moreover, the European Commission announced in its European strategy for data (167) that it will explore a regulatory framework to govern the public sector’s reuse of privately held data of public interest, and will launch a strategic “Destination Earth” initiative to develop a very high precision digital model of the Earth.

(2)

the Dutch law on subsurface information, which establishes the Dutch National Key Registry of the Subsurface (BRO) as a central data repository to collect, store, and manage all publicly funded subsurface data. (298) A crucial aspect of the BRO is that it integrates confidential personal and industry information related to licensing and use, and that its stepwise implementation is intended to ultimately include data on all subsurface construction activities including measurements related to exploration, extraction, and storage of minerals and geothermal heat.

(3)

the Norwegian National Data Repository for petroleum exploration and production data (Diskos), which is a public-private partnership established in 1992 as a joint venture between the Norwegian government and the oil companies on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. (299) Diskos ensures secure, efficient, and standardized data management on behalf of its members, with shared overheads and added benefits. The system holds all the data of all licensees including detailed project metrics (i.e., all geological data, time-based forecasts, investment and operating cost schedules, production, emissions, cash flows etc.). (300) This reduces individual data handling costs as company repositories are no longer required, allows business-to-business (B2B) trade of entitlements to confidential data, and facilitates business-to-government (B2G) reporting. Although company data remain confidential, they are accessible for authorized government processes. This decreases the reporting burden, expedites processing, and reduces administrative costs because the government already has access to the information it requires for taxation and resource governance. Diskos also incorporates the information that financial regulators typically require for stock market disclosure, which instills confidence, promotes transparency, and ensures consistency between industry reporting and government inventories. By leveraging the “digital economy” (268) for exploration and minerals development, (301) common repositories can stimulate data reuse, value maximation in mining, and more transparent taxation. Finally, Diskos contributes significantly to expanding Norway’s collective knowledge capital as new data on licensed and unlicensed areas are continuously integrated. This information will eventually be made public as the needs for confidentiality cease or when licenses expire or are relinquished.

All three initiatives make some level of stakeholder coordination and reporting mandatory. They maximize collective value generation from both a business and societal perspective, clarify roles and responsibilities, and advocate data sharing and reuse.

7. Implementing Physical Monitoring

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Transdisciplinary (271) research and coordinated efforts can help to ensure that (1) reported data on stocks and stock changes are explicitly georeferenced in space and time, and that documentation includes the original granular data on volume, mass, composition, and relevant intrinsic material properties; (2) reporting mandates cover all relevant stakeholders (including both the formal sector and estimates on artisanal mining) and all relevant material stocks and flows for calculating mass balances across processes; and that (3) reporting workflows use common data standards, MFA system diagrams with explicit reference points and terminology, and multidimensional geodata models that maintain MB-consistency across processing stages through space and time.
Given the increasing momentum toward sustainability reporting, the global appetite for transformative change, and the emergence of Big Earth Data technologies, MB-consistent physical accounting is becoming feasible. Better industry-government coordination and data integration are of mutual benefit, supporting the statement that “without a common framework to organize findings, isolated knowledge does not cumulate.” (302) Governments and industry typically share the risks and rewards of mineral extraction in the monetary economy (e.g., operating surplus, taxes), physical economy (mining waste, material supply), and digital economy (data waste, data reuse). Our definitions and framework for MB-consistent geological stock accounting are designed to guide efforts toward an integration of terminology and data, and sustainable management of human-natural physical systems. For implementation, we suggest the following next steps:
(i)

Review and Adapt Policy Frameworks and Legislation for Physical Accounting. Intergovernmental bodies and governments can review current mineral resource, mine production, and ESG reporting to identify their key gaps and limitations with focus on geodata integration and material stock and flow analysis. To clarify information under their stewardship, they may use their platforms to showcase typical applications and limitations of current data and outline key benefits of mass-balance-consistent accounting. Next steps may include defining roles and responsibilities across stakeholders to formalize data sharing and standardization; assigning explicit mandates to address data fragmentation and promote cross-institutional integration; enacting new policies for systematic monitoring of the physical human-natural system; and developing data-driven scenario models to inform decision-making. International partners may include the UN Statistics Division (UNSD), International Resource Panel (IRP), UNECE Expert Group on Resource Management (EGRM), UN Initiative on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM), and UN-led Coalition for Digital Environmental Sustainability (CODES). On a country-level, relevant bodies include GSOs, mining directorates, mapping and planning authorities, environment agencies, and statistical offices, as well as professional associations, NGOs, academia, and industry.

(ii)

Develop Infrastructures for Multidimensional Geoinformation. Through transdisciplinary government mandates and partnerships, appointed agencies and relevant stakeholders can review how technical data standards, reporting workflows and accounting systems (e.g., ISO, (256) INSPIRE, (259) UNFC, (116) SEEA, (145) UNEP (194)) may be adapted to facilitate systematic and granular disclosure in-line with OGD, FAIR, and SDLO principles, and how to automate consistent integration for multidimensional minerals-related material stock and flow information. A first step toward promoting research and development of technical infrastructures could make it mandatory for companies and data providers to map their current reporting of materials-related stock and flow data using MFA system diagrams (flowsheets), standard terminology, and explicit reference points. Funding bodies and relevant stakeholders may consider pilot projects to evaluate this idea, define and map relevant terms, and initiate the development of common data models for physical monitoring, multiscale modeling, and MB-consistent accounting.

8. Conclusions

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Finding new ways to understand stock-service-benefit relations and make human interactions with the natural environment more sustainable is a key challenge for Earth System Science. (140,141,303,304) The proposed definition and conceptual approach combines multidimensional geomodeling with MFA to facilitate mass-balance-consistent geological stock accounting as part of efforts to secure a sustainable mineral supply within biophysical planetary boundaries. (66,169,305,306) It marks a paradigm shift for mineral resource governance by (1) enabling integrated monitoring of stock changes and impacts over time; (2) creating a robust basis for on-the-fly calculation of geological and waste stocks, mineral reserves, ESG risks, and asset portfolios; (3) pooling of government-industry information for mineral systems analysis, predictive mapping, and spatial planning to “safeguard” geological deposits for future mining; and by (4) using MFA to inform strategies for mineral supply, circular economy, and on how to balance sustainability trade-offs. While legal and proprietary issues, coordination, and the need to change legacy data systems pose a sizable challenge, investments into integrated physical monitoring and modeling are likely to yield substantial long-term benefits. Data fragmentation, ownership rights to commercial-in-confidence information, as well as diverse definitions, reporting schemes, and institutional responsibilities call for more research on how to standardize terminology, streamline reporting requirements, and collaborate to make mineral information more available and useful for resource management. We expect that industry and professional associations, regulators, and relevant government and international agencies can start with small first steps to promote standardized and granular reporting of site-scale geological stock and material flow data without imposing significant additional burdens on operators, as much of the relevant data are already routinely collected. Further research could help to better understand how the growing momentum of Earth systems monitoring, digital twins, and multistakeholder resource governance dialogue can be combined with FAIR data policies and sustainability efforts to accelerate the buildup of geoscientific knowledge of the “knowns” (showing, e.g., that Europe is not necessarily resource-poor), to better inform efforts on “what needs to be known” (e.g., where to target exploration and direct innovation) for the global public good.
Resource realists play a vital role in research on methods and models to monitor and anticipate physical human-nature interactions, can support initiatives that build the common global Earth System knowledge base, and can help communicate the interconnected challenges of mineral resource depletion and sustainable supply to explore new pathways for satisfying our societal needs within planetary boundaries.

Supporting Information

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The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c03088.

  • Materials and methods section describing literature selection and bibliometric analysis; timeline of historical events with reference list; notes on mass balance consistency in financial reporting and the UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (PDF)

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Author Information

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  • Corresponding Author
    • Mark U. Simoni - Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway;  Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Industrial Ecology Programme, Høgskoleringen 5, NO-7034 Trondheim, Norway;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-9253-9569;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Johannes A. Drielsma - Drielsma Resources Europe, 2585 GT The Hague, Netherlands
    • Magnus Ericsson - Luleå University of Technology, Department of Business Administration, Technology and Social Sciences, 97187 Luleå, Sweden;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6395-1001
    • Andrew G. Gunn - British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdom
    • Sigurd Heiberg - Petronavit AS, C/o Heiberg, Stokkahagen 23, 4022 Stavanger, Norway
    • Tom A. Heldal - Geological Survey of Norway, Leiv Eirikssons vei 39, 7040 Trondheim, Norway
    • Nedal T. Nassar - U.S. Geological Survey, National Mineral Information Center, 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., MS 988, Reston, Virginia 20192, United States;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8758-9732
    • Evi Petavratzi - British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, United Kingdom
    • Daniel B. Müller - Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Industrial Ecology Programme, Høgskoleringen 5, NO-7034 Trondheim, Norway
  • Author Contributions

    M.U.S. conceived, designed, and formalized the research and writing. D.B.M. supervised the work. All authors contributed to authoring the article and provided critical input that helped shape the research, analysis, and paper.

  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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We appreciate the insightful comments and valuable feedback provided by our three anonymous reviewers, which greatly contributed to refining this manuscript. We also acknowledge the diligent efforts of the editor, Matthew Eckelman, whose guidance supported the publishing process. M.U.S. thanks the Norwegian University of Science and Technology for funding this research. We gratefully acknowledge support for inputs though the MinFuture project under the European Horizon 2020 Grant Agreement No. 730330. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

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    Niobium, often classified as crit., is typically embedded within steels essential for infrastructure and transportation. Most niobium-consuming countries are import-dependent on primary stage niobium, meaning traditional material flow anal., which often excludes crit. commodities embedded within products of large-scale industries, would miss important flows in the fabrication and manufg. stages and underestimate niobium consumption. This study presents the first dynamic (2000-2020) niobium flow anal. for two niobium-consuming, net import-dependent countries: the United States (U.S.) and China. Results demonstrate that the U. S. is import-dependent throughout all stages of the niobium flow cycle including embedded and primary flows, whereas China is only import-dependent on primary niobium. Moreover, while most U. S. imports of niobium embedded within (semi-)finished goods are consumed domestically, most niobium-contg. goods manufd. in China are exported, suggesting a supply disruption would affect their economies differently. This research demonstrates the necessity of embedded flows for criticality assessments and evaluating supply restrictions.
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    A review. Cobalt (Co) is a transition metal featuring unique phys. properties which makes its use crit. for many high-tech applications such as high strength materials, magnets and most importantly, rechargeable batteries. The bulk of world cobalt output usually arises as a byproduct of extg. other metals, mostly nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu), from a wide variety of deposit types mostly Cu-Co sediment-hosted deposits, but also Ni-Co laterites, Ni-Cu-Co sulfides or hydrothermal and volcanogenic deposits. Significant differences in ore properties (geochem., mineralogy, alteration and phys. properties) exist between cobalt-contg. deposits, as well as within a single deposit, which can host a range of ore types. Variability of cobalt ores makes it challenging to develop a single extn. or treatment process that will be able to accommodate all geometallurgical variation. Overall, there is a lack of fundamental knowledge on cobalt minerals and their processability. The recovery efficiency for cobalt is generally low, in particular for processes involving flotation and smelting, leading to significant cobalt losses to mine tailings or smelter slags. This paper starts by reviewing the main geometallurgical properties of cobalt ores, with a particular focus on ore mineralogy which exerts a significant control over ore processing behavior and cobalt extn., such as the oxidn. state, i.e. oxide or sulfides which drives the selection of the processing route (leaching vs flotation), and the assocd. gangue mineralogy, which can affect acid consumption during leaching or flotation performance. The main processing routes and assocd. specific geometallurgical aspects of each deposit type are presented. The paper concludes on the future cobalt prospects, in terms of primary and secondary resources, cobalt processing and sustainable cobalt sourcing for which further research is needed.
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    Scientific data (2022), 9 (1), 433 ISSN:.
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    There is an urgent need to improve the infrastructure supporting the reuse of scholarly data. A diverse set of stakeholders-representing academia, industry, funding agencies, and scholarly publishers-have come together to design and jointly endorse a concise and measureable set of principles that we refer to as the FAIR Data Principles. The intent is that these may act as a guideline for those wishing to enhance the reusability of their data holdings. Distinct from peer initiatives that focus on the human scholar, the FAIR Principles put specific emphasis on enhancing the ability of machines to automatically find and use the data, in addition to supporting its reuse by individuals. This Comment is the first formal publication of the FAIR Principles, and includes the rationale behind them, and some exemplar implementations in the community.
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Simplified material flow analysis (MFA) system of the global mineral material cycle. Material flows (arrows) connect material transformation, transport, market, and storage processes (blue boxes) with or without material stocks (white boxes). Highlights in red identify three key issues that require mass-balance-consistent mineral information: geological stock accounting (section 3), monitoring of mine production (section 4), and physical systems integration (sections 5 and 6).

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Different approaches for geological stock accounting: (a) reserves included as fixed stocks within the system boundary; (b) exploration interpreted as a (in)flow of material; (c) geosphere excluded from the system boundary; (d) multidimensional and mass-balance (MB)-consistent geological stock model. Approaches (a) and (b) violate material flow analysis (MFA) principles, (c) is permissible but uninformative, and (d) is the spatiotemporally explicit conceptual approach.

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Physical monitoring of mine production. (a) Mine planning: The natural characteristics of mineral deposits such as depth and ore grade, combined with mine design and operating efficiency, determine the expected (ex-ante) material flows. Figure not to scale, modified after ref (163). (b) Material flows and sustainability: Material flows of mining are interlinked with environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues and tracking them is thus crucial for the Social License to Operate (SLO) and Sustainable Development License to Operate (SDLO). (c) Reference system for physical monitoring: A standardized material flow analysis (MFA) system definition with explicit reference points and a mutually agreed-upon terminology facilitates systematic reporting and enables mass-balance-consistent monitoring of mine production flows.

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    Figure 4

    Figure 4. Multidimensional geological stock accounting illustrated as a cube with 27 voxels at three reference points (t0, t1, t2). (a) Geological stock accounting monitors changes of the physical domain over time and shows historical extraction as a measured reduction of the total stock S by 0.5 voxels from 27 → 26.5 during t0 → t1 and anticipated further reduction 26.5 → 26 during t1 → t2, assuming stock scenario S1. Exploration activity changes only the attributes (e.g., ore grade) and associated uncertainty of the geological stock characterization (2 voxels from 0% → 25–50% confidence during t0 → t1, and from 25 to 50% →>75% during t1 → t2, assuming stock scenario S1). (b) Resource classification acts as a filter domain that selectively appraises parts of the geological stock to report reserves and resources, while omitting the rest of the geological stock including known but low grade (barren) voxels; Individual geological stock voxels may remain physically unchanged but may nevertheless be reclassified as time passes (1 resources to 1 reserves during t0 → t1) or vice versa (1 reserves to 1 resources during t1 → t2 assuming resource classification scenario S1,ii(t2)). (c) Uncertainty attribution is considered as two separate steps: step c[a] addresses solely the uncertainty of the physical attributes for stock quantification; step c[b] incorporates the additional uncertainty of socioeconomic assumptions of resource classification. Color hue (red, green, blue) represents three ore grade classes relative to average crustal abundance (depleted, average to low grade, enriched); color saturation (0–25, 25–50, 50–75, 75–100) shows the confidence in the results (unknown to complete knowledge). MB, mass-balance.

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    Figure 5

    Figure 5. (a) Today’s information flows on nonrenewable mineral resources result in incomplete, fragmented, and inconsistent knowledge that is unsuitable for addressing systemic issues related to sustainable resource management. (b) The proposed monitoring of physical systems is based on an Open Government Data (OGD) framework that supports multidimensional geodata integration, mass-balance (MB) consistent geological stock accounting, and spatiotemporally explicit material systems governance. PPP: Public-Private Partnership; SLO: Social License to Operate; SDLO: Sustainable Development License to Operate; GSO: Geological Survey Organization; EO: Earth Observation; IoT: Internet of Things; BIM/CIM: Building/City Information Modeling; ML: Machine Learning; AI Artificial Intelligence; AR/VR: Augmented/Virtual Reality; G2B, G2G, B2B, B2G: Government-to-Business data sharing, etc.

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      The interests of the current and future generations concerning the access to and the use of geol. scarce mineral resources diverge. This article explores whether this apparent irreconcilability can be resolved. It is investigated how far the extn. rate of thirteen scarce raw materials can be reduced while simultaneously increasing the services they provide worldwide to the level prevailing in developed countries in 2020. The scarce raw materials considered are antimony, bismuth, boron, chromium, copper, gold, indium, molybdenum, nickel, silver, tin, tungsten, and zinc. Indicative ests. of how long these mineral resources will be available for humanity are calcd., assuming (1)the world population stabilizes at ten billion people, (2) the global service level of these resources attains that prevailing in developed countries in 2020 and (3) max. resource-saving measures are taken. The conclusion is that immediate implementation of the most stringent resource-saving measures could extend the estd. exhaustion periods of most of the scarcest raw materials by an av. factor of approx. four, even while simultaneously increasing the global service level of these resources by a factor four as well. Without sufficient and adequate resource saving measures it will be difficult or impossible for a substantial part of the future world population to attain the service level of mineral resources prevailing in developed countries at this moment. Moreover, without such measures, the period of time that future citizens of rich countries can continue enjoying the current service level of some of the scarcest mineral resources in their countries, will be severely limited.
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      Sverdrup, H. U.; Olafsdottir, A. H.; Ragnarsdottir, K. V. Development of a Biophysical Economics Module for the Global Integrated Assessment Model WORLD7. In Feedback Economics: Economic Modeling with System Dynamics; Cavana, R. Y., Dangerfield, B. C., Pavlov, O. V., Radzicki, M. J., Wheat, I. D., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2021; pp 247– 283.
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      Nassar, N. T.; Lederer, G. W.; Brainard, J. L.; Padilla, A. J.; Lessard, J. D. Rock-to-Metal Ratio: A Foundational Metric for Understanding Mine Wastes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56 (10), 6710– 6721,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c07875
      40
      Rock-to-Metal Ratio: A Foundational Metric for Understanding Mine Wastes
      Nassar, Nedal T.; Lederer, Graham W.; Brainard, Jamie L.; Padilla, Abraham J.; Lessard, Joseph D.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2022), 56 (10), 6710-6721CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:1520-5851. (American Chemical Society)
      The quantity of ore mined and waste rock (i.e., overburden or barren rock) removed to produce a refined unit of a mineral commodity, its rock-to-metal ratio (RMR), is an important metric for understanding mine wastes and environmental burdens. In this anal., we provide a comprehensive examn. of RMRs for 25 commodities for 2018. The results indicate significant variability across commodities. Precious metals like gold have RMRs in the range of 105-106, while iron ore and aluminum are on the order of 101. The results also indicate significant variability across operations for a single commodity. The interquartile range of RMRs for individual cobalt operations, for example, varies from 465 to 2157, with a global RMR of 859. RMR variability is mainly driven by ore grades and revenue contribution. The total attributable ore mined and waste rock removed in the prodn. of these 25 commodities sums to 37.6 billion metric tons, 83% of which is attributable to iron ore, copper, and gold. RMRs provide an addnl. dimension for evaluating the impact of materials and material choice trade-offs. The results can enhance life cycle inventories and be extended to evaluate areas of surface disturbances, mine tailings, energy requirements, and assocd. greenhouse gas emissions.
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      Bide, T.; Brown, T. J.; Gunn, A. G.; Deady, E. Development of decision-making tools to create a harmonised UK national mineral resource inventory using the United Nations Framework Classification. Resources Polym. 2022, 76, 102558,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102558
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      Jorgensen, L. F.; Wittenberg, A.; Deady, E.; Kumelj, Š.; Tulstrup, J. European mineral intelligence - collecting, harmonizing and sharing data on European raw materials. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2023, 526 (1), 51– 67,  DOI: 10.1144/SP526-2022-179
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      Graedel, T. E.; Barr, R.; Cordier, D.; Enriquez, M.; Hagelüken, C.; Hammond, N. Q.; Kesler, S.; Mudd, G.; Nassar, N.; Peacey, J.; Reck, B. K.; Robb, L.; Skinner, B. J.; Turnbull, I.; Santos, R. V.; Wall, F.; Wittmer, D. Estimating Long-Run Geological Stocks of Metals; Working Group on Geological Stocks of Metals, UNEP International Panel on Sustainable Resource Management: Paris, 2011.
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      Northey, S. A.; Klose, S.; Pauliuk, S.; Yellishetty, M.; Giurco, D. Primary Exploration, Mining and Metal Supply Scenario (PEMMSS) model: Towards a stochastic understanding of the mineral discovery, mine development and co-product recovery requirements to meet demand in a low-carbon future. Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances 2023, 17, 200137,  DOI: 10.1016/j.rcradv.2023.200137
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      Mudd, G. M.; Jowitt, S. M. The New Century for Nickel Resources, Reserves, and Mining: Reassessing the Sustainability of the Devil’s Metal. Econ. Geol. 2022, 117 (8), 1961– 1983,  DOI: 10.5382/econgeo.4950
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      Mudd, G. M.; Jowitt, S. M.; Werner, T. T. The world’s by-product and critical metal resources part I: Uncertainties, current reporting practices, implications and grounds for optimizm. Ore Geol. Rev. 2017, 86, 924– 938,  DOI: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.05.001
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      Northey, S. A.; Mudd, G. M.; Werner, T. T. Unresolved Complexity in Assessments of Mineral Resource Depletion and Availability. Nat. Resour. Res. 2018, 27 (2), 241– 255,  DOI: 10.1007/s11053-017-9352-5
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      Unresolved Complexity in Assessments of Mineral Resource Depletion and Availability
      Northey, Stephen A.; Mudd, Gavin M.; Werner, T. T.
      Natural Resources Research (Dordrecht, Netherlands) (2018), 27 (2), 241-255CODEN: NRREFQ; ISSN:1520-7439. (Springer)
      A review. Considerations of mineral resource availability and depletion form part of a diverse array of sustainable development-oriented studies, across domains such as resource criticality, life cycle assessment and material flow anal. Given the multidisciplinary nature of these studies, it is important that a common understanding of the complexity and nuances of mineral supply chains be developed. In this paper, we provide a brief overview of these assessment approaches and expand on several areas that are conceptually difficult to account for in these studies. These include the dynamic nature of relationships between reserves, resources, cut-off grades and ore grades; the ability to account for local economic, social and environmental factors when performing global assessments; and the role that technol. improvements play in increasing the availability of economically extractable mineral resources. Advancing knowledge in these areas may further enhance the sophistication and interpretation of studies that assess mineral resource depletion or availability.
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      Simoni, M. U.; Aslaksen Aasly, K.; Eilu, P.; Schjødt, F. Mintell4 EU Deliverable D4.1. Case Study Review with Guidance and Examples for Applying the UNFC to European Mineral Resources; Geological Survey of Norway (NGU): Trondheim, Norway, 2021.
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      Sustainability Reporting in the Mining Sector - Current Status and Future Trends; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Nairobi, Kenya, 2020.
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      Lebre, E.; Owen, J. R.; Kemp, D.; Valenta, R. K. Complex orebodies and future global metal supply: An introduction. Resour. Policy 2022, 77, 102696,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.102696
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      Material Flows and Efficiency
      Cullen, Jonathan M.; Cooper, Daniel R.
      Annual Review of Materials Research (2022), 52 (), 525-559CODEN: ARMRCU; ISSN:1531-7331. (Annual Reviews)
      Attempts to track material flows and the calcn. of efficiency for material systems go hand in hand. Questions of where materials come from, where materials go to, and how much material is lost along the way are embedded in human societies. This article reviews material flows, their anal., and progress toward material efficiency. We focus first on material flow anal. (MFA) and the three key tenets of any MFA: presentation of materials, visualization of the flow structure, and insight derived from anal. Reviewing recent literature, we explore how each of these concepts is described, organized, and presented in MFA studies. We go on to show the role of MFA in material efficiency calcns. and what-if scenario anal. for informed decision-making. We investigate the origins and motivations behind the material efficiency paradigm and the key efficiency strategies and practices developed in recent years and conclude by suggesting priorities for a future research agenda.
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      Regional strategies for the accelerating global problem of groundwater depletion
      Aeschbach-Hertig, Werner; Gleeson, Tom
      Nature Geoscience (2012), 5 (12), 853-861CODEN: NGAEBU; ISSN:1752-0894. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Groundwater-the world's largest freshwater resource-is critically important for irrigated agriculture and hence for global food security. Yet depletion is widespread in large groundwater systems in both semi-arid and humid regions of the world. Excessive extn. for irrigation where groundwater is slowly renewed is the main cause of the depletion, and climate change has the potential to exacerbate the problem in some regions. Globally aggregated groundwater depletion contributes to sea-level rise, and has accelerated markedly since the mid-twentieth century. But its impacts on water resources are more obvious at the regional scale, for example in agriculturally important parts of India, China and the United States. Food prodn. in such regions can only be made sustainable in the long term if groundwater levels are stabilized. To this end, a transformation is required in how we value, manage and characterize groundwater systems. Tech. approaches-such as water diversion, artificial groundwater recharge and efficient irrigation-have failed to balance regional groundwater budgets. They need to be complemented by more comprehensive strategies that are adapted to the specific social, economic, political and environmental settings of each region.
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      Methods for automatic control, observation, and optimization in mineral processing plants
      Hodouin, Daniel
      Journal of Process Control (2011), 21 (2), 211-225CODEN: JPCOEO; ISSN:0959-1524. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      For controlling strongly disturbed, poorly modeled, and difficult to measure processes, such as those involved in the mineral processing industry, the peripheral tools of the control loop (fault detection and isolation system, data reconciliation procedure, observers, soft sensors, optimizers, model parameter tuners) are as important as the controller itself. The paper briefly describes each element of this generalized control loop, while putting emphasis on mineral processing specific cases.
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      Kennedy, C.; Pincetl, S.; Bunje, P. The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning and design. Environ. Pollut. 2011, 159 (8), 1965– 1973,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10.022
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      The study of urban metabolism and its applications to urban planning and design
      Kennedy, C.; Pincetl, S.; Bunje, P.
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2011), 159 (8-9), 1965-1973CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Following formative work in the 1970s, disappearance in the 1980s, and reemergence in the 1990s, a chronol. review shows that the past decade has witnessed increasing interest in the study of urban metab. The review finds that there are two related, non-conflicting, schools of urban metab.: one following Odum describes metab. in terms of energy equiv.; while the second more broadly expresses a city's flows of water, materials and nutrients in terms of mass fluxes. Four example applications of urban metab. studies are discussed: urban sustainability indicators; inputs to urban greenhouse gas emissions calcn.; math. models of urban metab. for policy anal.; and as a basis for sustainable urban design. Future directions include fuller integration of social, health and economic indicators into the urban metab. framework, while tackling the great sustainability challenge of reconstructing cities. This paper presents a chronol. review of urban metab. studies and highlights four areas of application.
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      Müller, D. B.; Billy, R.; Simoni, M. U.; Petavratzi, E.; Liu, G.; Rechberger, H.; Lundhaug, M. C.; Cullen, J. M. Maps of the physical economy to inform sustainability strategies. In Handbook of Recycling, 2nd ed.; Meskers, C., Worrell, E., Reuter, M. A., Eds.; Elsevier: Waltham, USA, 2023; pp 1– 18.
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      Gonzalez Hernandez, A.; Lupton, R. C.; Williams, C.; Cullen, J. M. Control data, Sankey diagrams, and exergy: Assessing the resource efficiency of industrial plants. Appl. Energy 2018, 218, 232– 245,  DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.02.181
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      Lupton, R. C.; Allwood, J. M. Hybrid Sankey diagrams: Visual analysis of multidimensional data for understanding resource use. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2017, 124, 141– 151,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.05.002
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      Billy, R. G.; Monnier, L.; Nybakke, E.; Isaksen, M.; Müller, D. B. Systemic Approaches for Emission Reduction in Industrial Plants Based on Physical Accounting: Example for an Aluminum Smelter. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56 (3), 1973– 1982,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05681
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      Systemic Approaches for Emission Reduction in Industrial Plants Based on Physical Accounting: Example for an Aluminum Smelter
      Billy, Romain G.; Monnier, Louis; Nybakke, Even; Isaksen, Morten; Muller, Daniel B.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2022), 56 (3), 1973-1982CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:1520-5851. (American Chemical Society)
      Greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting in industrial plants usually has multiple purposes, including mandatory reporting, shareholder and stakeholder communication, developing key performance indicators (KPIs), or informing cost-effective mitigation options. Current carbon accounting systems, such as the one required by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), ignore the system context in which emissions occur. This hampers the identification and evaluation of comprehensive mitigation strategies considering linkages between materials, energy, and emissions. Here, we propose a carbon accounting method based on multilevel material flow anal. (MFA), which aims at addressing this gap. Using a Norwegian primary aluminum prodn. plant as an example, we analyzed the material stocks and flows within this plant for total mass flows of goods as well as substances such as aluminum and carbon. The results show that the MFA-based accounting (i) is more robust than conventional tools due to mass balance consistency and higher granularity, (ii) allows monitoring the performance of the company and defines meaningful KPIs, (iii) can be used as a basis for the EU ETS reporting and linked to internal reporting, (iv) enables the identification and evaluation of systemic solns. and resource efficiency strategies for reducing emissions, and (v) has the potential to save costs.
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    98. 98
      IAI. The Global Aluminium Cycle - Aluminium Stocks and Flows Visualization, 2023. https://alucycle.international-aluminium.org/. (accessed 14.08.2023).
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    99. 99
      Torres De Matos, C.; Wittmer, D.; Mathieux, F.; Pennington, D. Revision of the Material System Analyses Specifications; JRC118827; European Commission: Luxembourg, 2020. DOI: 10.2760/374178 .
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    100. 100
      Padilla, A. J.; Nassar, N. T. Dynamic material flow analysis of tantalum in the United States from 2002 to 2020. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2023, 190, 106783,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106783
      100
      Dynamic material flow analysis of tantalum in the United States from 2002 to 2020
      Padilla, Abraham J.; Nassar, Nedal T.
      Resources, Conservation and Recycling (2023), 190 (), 106783CODEN: RCREEW; ISSN:0921-3449. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Tantalum has received considerable attention due to risks assocd. with its supply chain. In 2020 ∼70% of global tantalum supply originated in Africa, with 40% produced in the Democratic Republic of Congo alone. The United States has relied entirely on imports since the 1950s. However, quantifying total domestic consumption is problematic because refined tantalum compds. do not have unique tariff codes resulting in significant trade vols. not properly documented. Furthermore, tantalum incorporated into finished goods is not tracked as tantalum. Thus, ests. only capture a fraction of total consumption. We performed a material flow anal. to quantify total domestic tantalum consumption from 2002 to 2020. Our results indicate that consumption may be up to 250% more than previously estd. Our detailed results allow quantification of tantalum stocks in-use as well as coming out of use any year, providing valuable insight to industry and policymakers for addressing potential supply security issues.
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    101. 101
      McCaffrey, D. M.; Nassar, N. T.; Jowitt, S. M.; Padilla, A. J.; Bird, L. R. Embedded critical material flow: The case of niobium, the United States, and China. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2023, 188, 106698,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106698
      101
      Embedded critical material flow: The case of niobium, the United States, and China
      McCaffrey, Dalton M.; Nassar, Nedal T.; Jowitt, Simon M.; Padilla, Abraham J.; Bird, Laurence R.
      Resources, Conservation and Recycling (2023), 188 (), 106698CODEN: RCREEW; ISSN:0921-3449. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Niobium, often classified as crit., is typically embedded within steels essential for infrastructure and transportation. Most niobium-consuming countries are import-dependent on primary stage niobium, meaning traditional material flow anal., which often excludes crit. commodities embedded within products of large-scale industries, would miss important flows in the fabrication and manufg. stages and underestimate niobium consumption. This study presents the first dynamic (2000-2020) niobium flow anal. for two niobium-consuming, net import-dependent countries: the United States (U.S.) and China. Results demonstrate that the U. S. is import-dependent throughout all stages of the niobium flow cycle including embedded and primary flows, whereas China is only import-dependent on primary niobium. Moreover, while most U. S. imports of niobium embedded within (semi-)finished goods are consumed domestically, most niobium-contg. goods manufd. in China are exported, suggesting a supply disruption would affect their economies differently. This research demonstrates the necessity of embedded flows for criticality assessments and evaluating supply restrictions.
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    102. 102
      Alonso, E.; Pineault, D. G.; Gambogi, J.; Nassar, N. T. Mapping first to final uses for rare earth elements, globally and in the United States. J. Ind. Ecol. 2023, 27 (1), 312– 322,  DOI: 10.1111/jiec.13354
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    103. 103
      Petavratzi, E.; Gunn, G. Decarbonising the automotive sector: a primary raw material perspective on targets and timescales. Miner. Econ. 2023. 36 545 DOI: 10.1007/s13563-022-00334-2
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    104. 104
      McKelvey, V. E. Mineral Resource Estimates and Public Policy: Better methods for estimating the magnitude of potential mineral resources are needed to provide the knowledge that should guide the design of many key public policies. Am. Sci. 1972, 60 (1), 32– 40
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      Skinner, B. J. Earth resources. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1979, 76 (9), 4212– 4217,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.76.9.4212
      105
      Earth resources
      Skinner, Brian J.
      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (1979), 76 (9), 4212-17CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424.
      A review with 11 refs.
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    106. 106
      Kesler, S. E. Geological Stocks and Prospects for Nonrenewable Resources. In Linkages of Sustainability; Graedel, T. E.; van der Voet, E., Eds. The MIT Press: Cambridge, Mass., 2009.
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      NEA, IAEA. Uranium 2020: Resources, Production and Demand; NEA No. 7413; OECD Publishing: Paris, 2021. DOI: 10.1787/d82388ab-en .
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      Arndt, N. T.; Fontboté, L.; Hedenquist, J. W.; Kesler, S. E.; Thompson, J. F. H.; Wood, D. G. Metals and Minerals, Now and in The Future. Geochem. Perspect. 2017, 6 (1), 3– 17
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      West, J. Extractable global resources and the future availability of metal stocks: “Known Unknowns” for the foreseeable future. Resour. Policy 2020, 65, 101574,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101574
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      Andrews, G. C.; Shaw, P.; McPhee, J. Canadian Professional Engineering and Geoscience: Practice and Ethics, 6 ed.; Nelson: Toronto, 2019.
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      Meinert, L. D.; Robinson, G. R., Jr; Nassar, N. T. Mineral resources: Reserves, peak production and the future. Resources 2016, 5 (1), 14,  DOI: 10.3390/resources5010014
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      International Reporting Template for the Public Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves; Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards (CRIRSCO) and International Council on Mining & Metals (ICMM): London, 2013.
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    113. 113
      Guidance Note on Competency Requirements for the Estimation, Classification and Management of Resources; ECE/ENERGY/GE.3/2022/4; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2022.
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      IFRS. Extractive Activities - Reserve and Resource Reporting; International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), 2020.
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    115. 115
      Mineral Commodity Summaries 2019 - Appendix C - Reserves and Resources; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, 2023. DOI: 10.3133/mcs2023 .
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      UNECE. United Nations Framework Classification for Resources Update 2019; ECE/ENERGY/125; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      Volchko, Y.; Norrman, J.; Ericsson, L. O.; Nilsson, K. L.; Markstedt, A.; Öberg, M.; Mossmark, F.; Bobylev, N.; Tengborg, P. Subsurface planning: Towards a common understanding of the subsurface as a multifunctional resource. Land Use Policy 2020, 90, 104316,  DOI: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104316
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      Faber, M.; Frank, K.; Klauer, B.; Manstetten, R.; Schiller, J.; Wissel, C. On the foundation of a general theory of stocks. Ecological Economics 2005, 55 (2), 155– 172,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.06.006
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      Pauliuk, S.; Majeau-Bettez, G.; Müller, D. B.; Hertwich, E. G. Toward a Practical Ontology for Socioeconomic Metabolism. J. Ind. Ecol. 2016, 20 (6), 1260– 1272,  DOI: 10.1111/jiec.12386
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      USGS. NADM Conceptual Model 1.0 - A Conceptual Model for Geologic Map Information; 2004–1334; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, 2004. DOI: 10.3133/ofr20041334 .
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      Cohen, D. Earth’s natural wealth: an audit. New Scientist 2007, 194, 34– 41, 23 May 2007  DOI: 10.1016/S0262-4079(07)61315-3
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      Zimmermann, E. W. World Resources and Industries: A Functional Appraisal of the Availability of Agricultural and Industrial Materials, revised ed.; Harper & Row: New York, 1951.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      Mudd, G. M. Assessing the Availability of Global Metals and Minerals for the Sustainable Century: From Aluminium to Zirconium. Sustainability 2021, 13 (19), 10855,  DOI: 10.3390/su131910855
      123
      Assessing the Availability of Global Metals and Minerals for the Sustainable Century: From Aluminium to Zirconium
      Mudd, Gavin M.
      Sustainability (2021), 13 (19), 10855CODEN: SUSTDE; ISSN:2071-1050. (MDPI AG)
      Mining supplies metals and minerals to meet the material and energy needs of the modern world. Typically, mineral resources are widely considered to be 'finite' in nature, yet, paradoxically, global prodn. and reported reserves and resources continue to grow. This paper synthesizes an extensive array of data on the long-term trends in cumulative mine prodn., reserves and resources at a global level as well detailed case studies of Australia, a global leader in many sectors of mining, and lithium, a new metal with rapidly growing demand. Overall, the paper shows that growing mine prodn. has been clearly matched by growing reserves and resources, although there are numerous complex social, environmental and governance factors which are already affecting mines and are expected to increasingly affect mining into the future. Thus it is not possible at present to det. the 'ultimately recoverable resource', esp. as this is a dynamic quantity dependent on a variety of inter-related factors (e.g., exploration, social issues, technol., market dynamics, environmental risks, governance aspects, etc.). This finding reinforces the need for continuing detailed studies of all metals and minerals to understand their individual supply and use dynamics to help modern society meet its needs and sustainable development goals.
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    124. 124
      Zeng, X. Win-Win: Anthropogenic circularity for metal criticality and carbon neutrality. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering 2023, 17 (2), 23,  DOI: 10.1007/s11783-023-1623-2
      124
      Win-Win: Anthropogenic circularity for metal criticality and carbon neutrality
      Zeng Xianlai
      Frontiers of environmental science & engineering (2023), 17 (2), 23 ISSN:2095-2201.
      Resource depletion and environmental degradation have fueled a burgeoning discipline of anthropogenic circularity since the 2010s. It generally consists of waste reuse, remanufacturing, recycling, and recovery. Circular economy and "zero-waste" cities are sweeping the globe in their current practices to address the world's grand concerns linked to resources, the environment, and industry. Meanwhile, metal criticality and carbon neutrality, which have become increasingly popular in recent years, denote the material's feature and state, respectively. The goal of this article is to determine how circularity, criticality, and neutrality are related. Upscale anthropogenic circularity has the potential to expand the metal supply and, as a result, reduce metal criticality. China barely accomplished 15 % of its potential emission reduction by recycling iron, copper, and aluminum. Anthropogenic circularity has a lot of room to achieve a win-win objective, which is to reduce metal criticality while also achieving carbon neutrality in a near closed-loop cycle. Major barriers or challenges for conducting anthropogenic circularity are deriving from the inadequacy of life-cycle insight governance and the emergence of anthropogenic circularity discipline. Material flow analysis and life cycle assessment are the central methodologies to identify the hidden problems. Mineral processing and smelting, as well as end-of-life management, are indicated as critical priority areas for enhancing anthropogenic circularity. Electronic Supplementary Material: Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at 10.1007/s11783-023-1623-2 and is accessible for authorized users.
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    125. 125
      Ray, G. F. Mineral reserves: Projected lifetimes and security of supply. Resour. Policy 1984, 10 (2), 75– 80,  DOI: 10.1016/0301-4207(84)90016-3
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    126. 126
      Mudd, G. M.; Jowitt, S. M. Growing Global Copper Resources, Reserves and Production: Discovery Is Not the Only Control on Supply. Econ. Geol. 2018, 113 (6), 1235– 1267,  DOI: 10.5382/econgeo.2018.4590
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    127. 127
      Ericsson, M.; Drielsma, J.; Humphreys, D.; Storm, P.; Weihed, P. Why current assessments of ‘future efforts’ are no basis for establishing policies on material use─a response to research on ore grades. Miner. Econ. 2019, 32 (1), 111– 121,  DOI: 10.1007/s13563-019-00175-6
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    128. 128
      Skinner, B. J. Exploring the resource base. In Resources for the Future (RFF) Workshop on “The Long-Run Availability of Minerals”; Resources for the Future (RFF) and the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Project (MMSD): Washington, D.C., 2001; p 25.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    129. 129
      Skinner, B. J. A Second Iron Age Ahead? The distribution of chemical elements in the earth’s crust sets natural limits to man’s supply of metals that are much more important to the future of society than limits on energy. Am. Sci. 1976, 64 (3), 258– 269
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    130. 130
      Arndt, N.; Fontboté, L.; Hedenquist, J.; Kesler, S.; Thompson, J.; Wood, D. Future Global Mineral Resources. Geochem. Perspect. 2017, 6 (1), 1– 171,  DOI: 10.7185/geochempersp.6.1
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    131. 131
      United States Bureau of Mines. Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms, 2nd ed.; American Geological Institute: Alexandria, VA, 1997.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    132. 132
      Jowitt, S. M.; Mudd, G. M.; Thompson, J. F. H. Future availability of non-renewable metal resources and the influence of environmental, social, and governance conflicts on metal production. Commun. Earth Environ. 2020, 1 (1), 13,  DOI: 10.1038/s43247-020-0011-0
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    133. 133
      Benndorf, J. A Closed-Loop Approach for Mineral Resource Extraction. In Closed Loop Management in Mineral Resource Extraction: Turning Online Geo-Data into Mining Intelligence; Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2020; pp 5– 17.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    134. 134
      Ghorbani, Y.; Nwaila, G. T.; Chirisa, M. Systematic Framework toward a Highly Reliable Approach in Metal Accounting. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev. 2022, 43 (5), 664– 678,  DOI: 10.1080/08827508.2020.1784164
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    135. 135
      Emery, X.; Ortiz, J. M.; Rodríguez, J. J. Quantifying Uncertainty in Mineral Resources by Use of Classification Schemes and Conditional Simulations. Math. Geol. 2006, 38 (4), 445– 464,  DOI: 10.1007/s11004-005-9021-9
      135
      Quantifying uncertainty in mineral resources by use of classification schemes and conditional simulations
      Emery, Xavier; Ortiz, Julian M.; Rodriguez, Juan J.
      Mathematical Geology (2006), 38 (4), 445-464CODEN: MATGED; ISSN:0882-8121. (Springer)
      Mineral inventory detn. consists of estg. the amt. of mineral resources on a block-by-block basis and classifying individual blocks into categories with increasing level of geol. confidence. Such classification is a crucial issue for mining companies, investors, financial institutions, and authorities, but it remains subject to some confusion because of the wide variations in methodologies and the lack of standardized procedures. The first part of this paper considers some of the criteria used to classify resources in practice and their impact through a sensitivity study using data from a Chilean porphyry copper ore deposit. Five classification criteria are compared and evaluated, namely: Search neighborhoods, abs. and relative kriging variances, abs. and relative conditional simulation variances. It is shown that some classification criteria either favor or penalize the high-grade areas if the grade distribution presents a proportional effect. In the second part of the paper, conditional simulations are used to quantify the uncertainty on the overall mineral resources. This approach is promising for risk anal. and decision-making. Unlike linear kriging, simulations allow inclusion of a cutoff grade in the calcn. of the resources and also provide measures of their joint uncertainty over prodn. vols.
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    136. 136
      Sonderegger, T.; Berger, M.; Alvarenga, R.; Bach, V.; Cimprich, A.; Dewulf, J.; Frischknecht, R.; Guinée, J.; Helbig, C.; Huppertz, T.; Jolliet, O.; Motoshita, M.; Northey, S.; Rugani, B.; Schrijvers, D.; Schulze, R.; Sonnemann, G.; Valero, A.; Weidema, B. P.; Young, S. B. Mineral resources in life cycle impact assessment─part I: a critical review of existing methods. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2020, 25 (4), 784– 797,  DOI: 10.1007/s11367-020-01736-6
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    137. 137
      Whiting, T. H.; Schodde, R. C. Why do brownfields exploration? In International Mine Management 2006; Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne, 2006; pp 41– 50.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      Solow, R. M. Resources and Economic Growth. American Economist 1978, 22 (2), 5– 11,  DOI: 10.1177/056943457802200201
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    139. 139
      Tilton, J. E. The Hubbert peak model and assessing the threat of mineral depletion. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 139, 280– 286,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.08.026
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      Reichstein, M.; Camps-Valls, G.; Stevens, B.; Jung, M.; Denzler, J.; Carvalhais, N.; Prabhat Deep learning and process understanding for data-driven Earth system science. Nature 2019, 566 (7743), 195– 204,  DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-0912-1
      140
      Deep learning and process understanding for data-driven Earth system science
      Reichstein, Markus; Camps-Valls, Gustau; Stevens, Bjorn; Jung, Martin; Denzler, Joachim; Carvalhais, Nuno; Prabhat
      Nature (London, United Kingdom) (2019), 566 (7743), 195-204CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Research)
      Machine learning approaches are increasingly used to ext. patterns and insights from the ever-increasing stream of geospatial data, but current approaches may not be optimal when system behavior is dominated by spatial or temporal context. Here, rather than amending classical machine learning, we argue that these contextual cues should be used as part of deep learning (an approach that is able to ext. spatio-temporal features automatically) to gain further process understanding of Earth system science problems, improving the predictive ability of seasonal forecasting and modeling of long-range spatial connections across multiple timescales, for example. The next step will be a hybrid modeling approach, coupling phys. process models with the versatility of data-driven machine learning.
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    141. 141
      Steffen, W.; Richardson, K.; Rockström, J.; Schellnhuber, H. J.; Dube, O. P.; Dutreuil, S.; Lenton, T. M.; Lubchenco, J. The emergence and evolution of Earth System Science. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 2020, 1 (1), 54– 63,  DOI: 10.1038/s43017-019-0005-6
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      Prior, T.; Giurco, D.; Mudd, G.; Mason, L.; Behrisch, J. Resource depletion, peak minerals and the implications for sustainable resource management. Global Environ. Change 2012, 22 (3), 577– 587,  DOI: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.08.009
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      Dewulf, J.; Hellweg, S.; Pfister, S.; León, M. F. G.; Sonderegger, T.; de Matos, C. T.; Blengini, G. A.; Mathieux, F. Towards sustainable resource management: identification and quantification of human actions that compromise the accessibility of metal resources. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2021, 167, 105403,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105403
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    144. 144
      Tanzer, J.; Rechberger, H. Setting the Common Ground: A Generic Framework for Material Flow Analysis of Complex Systems. Recycling 2019, 4 (2), 23,  DOI: 10.3390/recycling4020023
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      United Nations; European Commission; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations; International Monetary Fund; Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development; World Bank. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting 2012: Central Framework; United Nations: Washington, 2014. DOI: 10.5089/9789211615630.069 .
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    146. 146
      Sonesson, C.; Davidson, G.; Sachs, L. Mapping Mining to the Sustainable Development Goals: An Atlas; Geneva, Switzerland, 2016.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    147. 147
      Mining and the SDGs: A 2020 Status Update; RMF, CCS: Nyon, Switzerland, 2020. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3726386 .
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    148. 148
      RMI Report 2022 - Summary; Responsible Mining Foundation (RMF): Ontwerp, NL, 2022.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    149. 149
      Steiner, G.; Geissler, B.; Watson, I.; Mew, M. C. Efficiency developments in phosphate rock mining over the last three decades. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2015, 105, 235– 245,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.10.004
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      Lèbre, C.; Owen, J. R.; Corder, G. D.; Kemp, D.; Stringer, M.; Valenta, R. K. Source Risks As Constraints to Future Metal Supply. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (18), 10571– 10579,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02808
      150
      Source Risks As Constraints to Future Metal Supply
      Lebre, Eleonore; Owen, John R.; Corder, Glen D.; Kemp, Deanna; Stringer, Martin; Valenta, Rick K.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (18), 10571-10579CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Rising consumer demand is driving concerns around the "availability" and "criticality" of metals. Methodologies have emerged to assess the risks related to global metal supply. None have specifically examd. the initial supply source: the mine site where primary ore is extd. Environmental, social, and governance ("ESG") risks are crit. to the development of new mining projects and the conversion of resources to mine prodn. In this paper, we offer a methodol. that assesses the inherent complexities surrounding extractives projects. It includes eight ESG risk categories that overlay the locations of undeveloped iron, copper, and aluminum orebodies that will be crit. to future supply. The percentage of global reserves and resources that are located in complex ESG contexts (i.e., with four or more concurrent medium-to-high risks) is 47% for iron, 63% for copper, and 88% for aluminum. This work contributes to research by providing a more complete understanding of source level constraints and risks to supply.
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    151. 151
      Mine-Site Study 2019: Mine-Site ESG Data Disclosure by Small and Mid-Tier Mining Companies; Responsible Mining Foundation (RMF): Antwerp, NL, 2019.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    152. 152
      McLellan, B. C.; Corder, G. D. Risk reduction through early assessment and integration of sustainability in design in the minerals industry. J. Clean. Prod. 2013, 53 (0), 37– 46,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.02.014
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    153. 153
      Noble, A. C. Mineral resource estimation. In SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 3rd ed.; Darling, P., Ed.; Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration: Englewood, CO, 2011; pp 203– 217.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    154. 154
      Pell, R.; Tijsseling, L.; Palmer, L. W.; Glass, H. J.; Yan, X.; Wall, F.; Zeng, X.; Li, J. Environmental optimization of mine scheduling through life cycle assessment integration. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 142, 267– 276,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.11.022
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      Dehaine, Q.; Tijsseling, L. T.; Glass, H. J.; Törmänen, T.; Butcher, A. R. Geometallurgy of cobalt ores: A review. Miner. Eng. 2021, 160, 106656,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106656
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      Dehaine, Quentin; Tijsseling, Laurens T.; Glass, Hylke J.; Tormanen, Tuomo; Butcher, Alan R.
      Minerals Engineering (2021), 160 (), 106656CODEN: MENGEB; ISSN:0892-6875. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      A review. Cobalt (Co) is a transition metal featuring unique phys. properties which makes its use crit. for many high-tech applications such as high strength materials, magnets and most importantly, rechargeable batteries. The bulk of world cobalt output usually arises as a byproduct of extg. other metals, mostly nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu), from a wide variety of deposit types mostly Cu-Co sediment-hosted deposits, but also Ni-Co laterites, Ni-Cu-Co sulfides or hydrothermal and volcanogenic deposits. Significant differences in ore properties (geochem., mineralogy, alteration and phys. properties) exist between cobalt-contg. deposits, as well as within a single deposit, which can host a range of ore types. Variability of cobalt ores makes it challenging to develop a single extn. or treatment process that will be able to accommodate all geometallurgical variation. Overall, there is a lack of fundamental knowledge on cobalt minerals and their processability. The recovery efficiency for cobalt is generally low, in particular for processes involving flotation and smelting, leading to significant cobalt losses to mine tailings or smelter slags. This paper starts by reviewing the main geometallurgical properties of cobalt ores, with a particular focus on ore mineralogy which exerts a significant control over ore processing behavior and cobalt extn., such as the oxidn. state, i.e. oxide or sulfides which drives the selection of the processing route (leaching vs flotation), and the assocd. gangue mineralogy, which can affect acid consumption during leaching or flotation performance. The main processing routes and assocd. specific geometallurgical aspects of each deposit type are presented. The paper concludes on the future cobalt prospects, in terms of primary and secondary resources, cobalt processing and sustainable cobalt sourcing for which further research is needed.
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      Yan Wenyi; Cao Hongbin; Zhang Yi; Sun Zhi; Yan Wenyi; Cao Hongbin; Sun Zhi; Wang Zhaolong
      iScience (2021), 24 (6), 102524 ISSN:.
      With the development of modern industries, the sustainability of critical resources has attracted worldwide attention considering the entire supply chain. With a large industrial sector size in China, a safe supply of metal resources is crucial to ensure the effective operation of the whole industry. Although specific criticality analyses have been applied to identify critical resources in some regions, including Europe and the USA, they are not ready to be directly applied in the case of China because the structure of China's industry is remarkably different from other areas. In this research, a three-dimensional methodology considering supply safety, domestic economy, and environmental risk is demonstrated, where Chinese industrial conditions are specifically considered. In total, 64 materials were introduced to perform the criticality assessment, and 18 metals were classified with a high criticality degree in the three-dimensional criticality space. With the obtained findings decision-makers can formulate strategic deployment to promote resource management.
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      McNulty, Brian A.; Jowitt, Simon M.
      iScience (2021), 24 (7), 102809CODEN: ISCICE; ISSN:2589-0042. (Elsevier B.V.)
      A review. The crit. minerals and elements are natural substances that are essential to modern life but have insecure supply. This lack of a secure supply clashes with the increasing importance of these elements, esp. given their use in technologies needed to reduce global CO2 emissions and mitigate against anthropogenic climate change. In this contribution we review the byproduct nature of the crit. minerals and elements and the inherant uncertainties in reported crit. mineral and element annual prodn. as well as the relationships between these commodities and main-product metals and assocd. concs. We explore the geol. and geog. barriers to crit. mineral and element supplies, as well as how the lack of available data and the uncertainties in the data that are available hinder our ability to est. global resources with confidence.
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      Elements (Chantilly, VA, United States) (2011), 7 (6), 405-410CODEN: EOOCAG; ISSN:1811-5209. (Mineralogical Society of America)
      If we want to ensure a sustainable future for the human race, we must learn to prevent, minimize, reuse and recycle waste. Reuse of mine wastes allows their beneficial application, whereas recycling exts. resource ingredients or converts wastes into valuable products. Yet, today, many of the proposed reuse and recycling concepts for mine wastes are not economic. Consequently, the great majority of mine wastes are still being placed into waste storage facilities. Significant research efforts are required to develop cost-effective reuse and recycling options and to prevent the migration of contaminants from rehabilitated waste repositories in the long term.
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      Franks, D. M.; Stringer, M.; Torres-Cruz, L. A.; Baker, E.; Valenta, R.; Thygesen, K.; Matthews, A.; Howchin, J.; Barrie, S. Tailings facility disclosures reveal stability risks. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11 (1), 5353,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84897-0
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      Franks, Daniel M.; Stringer, Martin; Torres-Cruz, Luis A.; Baker, Elaine; Valenta, Rick; Thygesen, Kristina; Matthews, Adam; Howchin, John; Barrie, Stephen
      Scientific Reports (2021), 11 (1), 5353CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Research)
      Abstr.: Tailings facility failures represent a significant risk to the environment and communities globally, but until now little data was available on the global distribution of risks and characteristics of facilities to ensure proper governance. We conducted a survey and compiled a database with information on tailings facilities disclosed by extractive companies at the request of institutional investors. Despite limitations in the data, this information disclosure request represents the most comprehensive survey of tailings facilities ever undertaken. The compiled dataset includes 1743 tailings facilities and provides insights into a range of topics including construction method, stability, consequence of failure, stored vol., and the rate of uptake of alternative technologies to dewater tailings and reduce geotech. risk. Our anal. reveals that 10 per cent of tailings facilities reported notable stability concerns or failure to be confirmed or certified as stable at some point in their history, with distinct trends according to construction method, governance, age, height, vol. and seismic hazard. Controversy has surrounded the safety of tailings facilities, most notably upstream facilities, for many years but in the absence of definitive empirical data differentiating the risks of different facility types, upstream facilities have continued to be used widely by the industry and a consensus has emerged that upstream facilities can theor. be built safely under the right circumstances. Our findings reveal that in practice active upstream facilities report a higher incidence of stability issues (18.3%) than other facility types, and that this elevated risk persists even when these facilities are built in high governance settings. In-pit/natural landform and dry-stack facilities report lower incidence of stability issues, though the rate of stability issues is significant by engineering stds. (> 2 per cent) across all construction methods, highlighting the universal importance of careful facility management and governance. The insights reported here can assist the global governance of tailings facility stability risks.
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      MacDonald, D.; Hilton, J.; Elliott, D.; Heiberg, S.; Tulsidas, H.; Griffiths, C. In Transforming Natural Resource Management for a Sustainable Planet; SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition 2018, ATCE 2018; Dallas, U.S.A., 2018; p 10.
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      Lebre, E.; Stringer, M.; Svobodova, K.; Owen, J. R.; Kemp, D.; Cote, C.; Arratia-Solar, A.; Valenta, R. K. The social and environmental complexities of extracting energy transition metals. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11 (1), 4823,  DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18661-9
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      Lebre, Eleonore; Stringer, Martin; Svobodova, Kamila; Owen, John R.; Kemp, Deanna; Cote, Claire; Arratia-Solar, Andrea; Valenta, Rick K.
      Nature Communications (2020), 11 (1), 4823CODEN: NCAOBW; ISSN:2041-1723. (Nature Research)
      Environmental, social and governance pressures should feature in future scenario planning about the transition to a low carbon future. As low-carbon energy technologies advance, markets are driving demand for energy transition metals. Increased extn. rates will augment the stress placed on people and the environment in extractive locations. To quantify this stress, we develop a set of global composite environmental, social and governance indicators, and examine mining projects across 20 metal commodities to identify the co-occurrence of environmental, social and governance risk factors. Our findings show that 84% of platinum resources and 70% of cobalt resources are located in high-risk contexts. Reflecting heightened demand, major metals like iron and copper are set to disturb more land. Jurisdictions extg. energy transition metals in low-risk contexts are positioned to develop and maintain safeguards against mining-related social and environmental risk factors.
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      Žibret, G.; Lemiere, B.; Mendez, A.-M.; Cormio, C.; Sinnett, D.; Cleall, P.; Szabó, K.; Carvalho, M. T. National Mineral Waste Databases as an Information Source for Assessing Material Recovery Potential from Mine Waste, Tailings and Metallurgical Waste. Minerals 2020, 10 (5), 446,  DOI: 10.3390/min10050446
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      The Use of Natural Resources in the Economy: A Global Manual on Economy Wide Material Flow Accounting; DEW/2356/NA; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2023.
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      Lenzen, M.; Geschke, A.; West, J.; Fry, J.; Malik, A.; Giljum, S.; Milài Canals, L.; Piñero, P.; Lutter, S.; Wiedmann, T.; Li, M.; Sevenster, M.; Potočnik, J.; Teixeira, I.; Van Voore, M.; Nansai, K.; Schandl, H. Implementing the material footprint to measure progress towards Sustainable Development Goals 8 and 12. Nat. Sustainability 2022, 5 (2), 157– 166,  DOI: 10.1038/s41893-021-00811-6
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      Lebre, E.; Corder, G. D.; Golev, A. Sustainable practices in the management of mining waste: A focus on the mineral resource. Miner. Eng. 2017, 107, 34– 42,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mineng.2016.12.004
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      Sustainable practices in the management of mining waste: A focus on the mineral resource
      Lebre, Eleonore; Corder, Glen D.; Golev, Artem
      Minerals Engineering (2017), 107 (), 34-42CODEN: MENGEB; ISSN:0892-6875. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      A review. The environmental legacies of metal mining are often dominated by large waste facilities, which can be sources of acid and metalliferous drainage, resulting in both local pollution and irreversible loss of some of the sol. minerals. Whether a material is treated as waste or ore depends on a wide variety of factors and circumstances. Three crit. aspects - time, the extractive strategy and the economic context - are discussed in this paper. The authors argue that the fine line between waste and ore requires a mine waste management (MWM) hierarchy that properly considers waste as a potential future resource. This hierarchy exhibits four main levels: reduce, reprocess & stockpile, downcycle and dispose, which are illustrated by a review of both academic research and public data on industrial practices. The authors conclude that to generate the most successful outcomes the hierarchy must operate across all levels and is a core component of an overall mine sustainability framework.
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      McManus, S.; Rahman, A.; Coombes, J.; Horta, A. Uncertainty assessment of spatial domain models in early stage mining projects - A review. Ore Geol. Rev. 2021, 133, 104098,  DOI: 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104098
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      Cole, L. How ending mining would change the world. 2022. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20220413-how-ending-mining-would-change-the-world (accessed 18.04.2023).
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      Yousefi, M.; Carranza, E. J. M.; Kreuzer, O. P.; Nykänen, V.; Hronsky, J. M. A.; Mihalasky, M. J. Data analysis methods for prospectivity modelling as applied to mineral exploration targeting: State-of-the-art and outlook. J. Geochem. Explor. 2021, 229, 106839,  DOI: 10.1016/j.gexplo.2021.106839
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      Data analysis methods for prospectivity modelling as applied to mineral exploration targeting: State-of-the-art and outlook
      Yousefi, Mahyar; Carranza, Emmanuel John M.; Kreuzer, Oliver P.; Nykanen, Vesa; Hronsky, Jon M. A.; Mihalasky, Mark J.
      Journal of Geochemical Exploration (2021), 229 (), 106839CODEN: JGCEAT; ISSN:0375-6742. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Mineral exploration targeting is a highly complex decision-making task. Two key risk factors, the quality of exploration data and robustness of the underlying conceptual targeting model, have a strong impact on the effectiveness of this decision-making. Geog. information systems (GIS) can be used not only for compiling, integrating, interrogating and interpreting diverse exploration data, but also for targeting by employing powerful math. algorithms, an approach that is commonly referred to as mineral potential modeling or mineral prospectivity mapping (MPM). Here, we pose and examine key aspects around the question of "how can we get better at mineral exploration targeting using GIS". We do this by (1) reviewing the fundamental aspects of MPM, (2) identifying significant deficiencies of MPM, and (3) discussing possible solns. to alleviating or eliminating these deficiencies. In particular, we discuss how these deficiencies can be overcome by adopting an intelligence amplification system, such as the recently proposed exploration information system (EIS) for translating crit. ore-forming processes into spatially predictive criteria (i.e., predictor maps and spatial proxies) and improving decision-making in mineral exploration targeting.
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      Nurmi, P. A. The Geological Survey of Finland strengthening its role as a key player in mineral raw materials innovation ecosystems. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2020, 499 (1), 149– 163,  DOI: 10.1144/SP499-2019-83
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      Fogarty, J. J. An Economic Assessment of the Exploration Incentive Scheme: 10 years from 2009 to 2020; Prepared for the Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety: Geological Survey of Western Australia: Perth, Australia, 2021.
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      Wittenberg, A.; Oliveira, D. d.; Jorgensen, L. F.; Gonzalez, F. J.; Heldal, T.; Aasly, K. A.; Deady, E.; Kumelj, Š.; Sievers, H.; Horvath, Z.; McGrath, E. GeoERA Raw Materials Monograph - The Past and the Future; Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR): Hannover, Germany, 2022. DOI: 10.25928/geoera_rawmat22_1 .
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      Bide, T.; Brown, T. J.; Gunn, A. G.; Mankelow, J. M. Utilisation of multiple current and legacy datasets to create a national minerals inventory: A UK case study. Resour. Policy 2020, 66, 101654,  DOI: 10.1016/j.resourpol.2020.101654
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      van Genderen, J.; Goodchild, M. F.; Guo, H.; Yang, C.; Nativi, S.; Wang, L.; Wang, C. Digital Earth Challenges and Future Trends. In Manual of Digital Earth; Guo, H., Goodchild, M. F., Annoni, A., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp 811– 827.
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      Sudmanns, M.; Tiede, D.; Lang, S.; Bergstedt, H.; Trost, G.; Augustin, H.; Baraldi, A.; Blaschke, T. Big Earth data: disruptive changes in Earth observation data management and analysis?. International Journal of Digital Earth 2020, 13 (7), 832– 850,  DOI: 10.1080/17538947.2019.1585976
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      Baumann, P.; Rossi, A. P.; Bell, B.; Clements, O.; Evans, B.; Hoenig, H.; Hogan, P.; Kakaletris, G.; Koltsida, P.; Mantovani, S.; Marco Figuera, R.; Merticariu, V.; Misev, D.; Pham, H. B.; Siemen, S.; Wagemann, J. Fostering Cross-Disciplinary Earth Science Through Datacube Analytics. In Earth Observation Open Science and Innovation, Mathieu, P.-P.; Aubrecht, C., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2018; pp 91– 119.
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      O’Sullivan, C.; Wise, N.; Mathieu, P.-P. The Changing Landscape of Geospatial Information Markets. In Earth Observation Open Science and Innovation; Mathieu, P.-P., Aubrecht, C., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, 2018; pp 3– 23.
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      Zhu, Z.; Zhou, Y.; Seto, K. C.; Stokes, E. C.; Deng, C.; Pickett, S. T. A.; Taubenböck, H. Understanding an urbanizing planet: Strategic directions for remote sensing. Remote Sens. Environ. 2019, 228, 164– 182,  DOI: 10.1016/j.rse.2019.04.020
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      Maus, V.; Giljum, S.; da Silva, D. M.; Gutschlhofer, J.; da Rosa, R. P.; Luckeneder, S.; Gass, S. L. B.; Lieber, M.; McCallum, I. An update on global mining land use. Sci. Data 2022, 9 (1), 433,  DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01547-4
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      An update on global mining land use
      Maus Victor; Giljum Stefan; Gutschlhofer Jakob; Luckeneder Sebastian; Lieber Mirko; Maus Victor; McCallum Ian; da Silva Dieison M; Gass Sidnei L B; da Rosa Robson P
      Scientific data (2022), 9 (1), 433 ISSN:.
      The growing demand for minerals has pushed mining activities into new areas increasingly affecting biodiversity-rich natural biomes. Mapping the land use of the global mining sector is, therefore, a prerequisite for quantifying, understanding and mitigating adverse impacts caused by mineral extraction. This paper updates our previous work mapping mining sites worldwide. Using visual interpretation of Sentinel-2 images for 2019, we inspected more than 34,000 mining locations across the globe. The result is a global-scale dataset containing 44,929 polygon features covering 101,583 km(2) of large-scale as well as artisanal and small-scale mining. The increase in coverage is substantial compared to the first version of the dataset, which included 21,060 polygons extending over 57,277 km(2). The polygons cover open cuts, tailings dams, waste rock dumps, water ponds, processing plants, and other ground features related to the mining activities. The dataset is available for download from https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.942325 and visualisation at www.fineprint.global/viewer .
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      Ren, H.; Zhao, Y.; Xiao, W.; Hu, Z. A review of UAV monitoring in mining areas: current status and future perspectives. Int. J. Coal Sci. 2019, 6 (3), 320– 333,  DOI: 10.1007/s40789-019-00264-5
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      Tucci, G.; Gebbia, A.; Conti, A.; Fiorini, L.; Lubello, C. Monitoring and Computation of the Volumes of Stockpiles of Bulk Material by Means of UAV Photogrammetric Surveying. Remote Sens. 2019, 11 (12), 1471,  DOI: 10.3390/rs11121471
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      New Tech, new deal - Technology Impacts Review; Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development (IGF). International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD): Winnipeg, Canada, 2019.
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      Jang, H.; Topal, E. Transformation of the Australian mining industry and future prospects. Mining Technology 2020, 129 (3), 120– 134,  DOI: 10.1080/25726668.2020.1786298
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      Li, W.; Hsu, C.-Y. GeoAI for Large-Scale Image Analysis and Machine Vision: Recent Progress of Artificial Intelligence in Geography. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 2022, 11 (7), 385,  DOI: 10.3390/ijgi11070385
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      Smith, W. D.; Maier, W. D. The geotectonic setting, age and mineral deposit inventory of global layered intrusions. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2021, 220, 103736,  DOI: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103736
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      The geotectonic setting, age and mineral deposit inventory of global layered intrusions
      Smith, W. D.; Maier, W. D.
      Earth-Science Reviews (2021), 220 (), 103736CODEN: ESREAV; ISSN:0012-8252. (Elsevier B.V.)
      A review. In the present paper, we have compiled data on 565 layered and differentiated igneous intrusions globally, documenting their (i) location, (ii) age, (iii) size, (iv) geotectonic setting, (v) putative parent magma(s), (vi) crystn. sequence, and (vii) mineral deposits. Most studied intrusions occur in Russia (98), Australia (72), Canada (52), Finland (37), South Africa (38), China (33), and Brazil (31). Notable clusters of: (i) Archaean intrusions (∼ 15%) include those of the McFaulds Lake Area (commonly known as the Ring of Fire, Canada), Pilbara and Yilgarn cratons (Australia), and Barberton (South Africa); (ii) Proterozoic intrusions (∼ 56%) include those of the Giles Event and Halls Creek Orogen (Australia), Kaapvaal craton and its margin (South Africa and Botswana), Kola and Karelia cratons (Finland and Russia), and Midcontinent Rift (Canada and USA); and (iii) Phanerozoic intrusions (∼ 29%) include those of eastern Greenland, the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (China and Mongolia) and Emeishan large igneous province (China). Throughout geol. time, the occurrence of many layered intrusions correlate broadly with the amalgamation and break-up of supercontinents, yet the size and mineral inventory of intrusions shows no obvious secular changes. In our compilation, 337 intrusions possess one or more types of mineral occurrences, including: (i) 107 with stratiform PGE reef-style mineralization, (ii) 138 with Ni-Cu-(PGE) contact-style mineralization, (iii) 74 with stratiform Fe-Ti-V-(P) horizons, and (iv) ≥ 35 with chromitite seams. Sill-like or chonolithic differentiated intrusions present in extensional tectonic settings and spanning geol. time are most prospective for Ni-Cu-(PGE) mineralization. In contrast, PGE reef-style deposits are most prevalent in larger, commonly lopolithic intrusions that are generally >1 Ga in age (∼ 75%). Stratiform Fe-Ti-V-(P) horizons are most common in the central and upper portions of larger layered intrusions, occurring in the Archaean and Phanerozoic. Approx. 80% of intrusions with chromitite seams are older than 1 Ga and greater than 50% of them also contain PGE reefs. Based on the distribution of layered intrusions in relatively well explored terranes (e.g., Finland, South Africa, Western Australia), we propose that many layered intrusions remain to be discovered on Earth, particularly in poorly explored and relatively inaccessible regions of Africa, Australia, Russia, Greenland, Antarctica, South America, and northern Canada.
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      Dong, J.; Metternicht, G.; Hostert, P.; Fensholt, R.; Chowdhury, R. R. Remote sensing and geospatial technologies in support of a normative land system science: status and prospects. COSUST 2019, 38, 44– 52,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cosust.2019.05.003
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      Gorelick, N.; Hancher, M.; Dixon, M.; Ilyushchenko, S.; Thau, D.; Moore, R. Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sens. Environ. 2017, 202, 18– 27,  DOI: 10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031
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      Planetary Computer; Microsoft, 2022.
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      Kopp, S.; Becker, P.; Doshi, A.; Wright, D. J.; Zhang, K.; Xu, H. Achieving the Full Vision of Earth Observation Data Cubes. Data 2019, 4 (3), 94,  DOI: 10.3390/data4030094
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      Bauer, P.; Dueben, P. D.; Hoefler, T.; Quintino, T.; Schulthess, T. C.; Wedi, N. P. The digital revolution of Earth-system science. Nature Computational Science 2021, 1 (2), 104– 113,  DOI: 10.1038/s43588-021-00023-0
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      Schokker, J.; Sandersen, P.; de Beer, J.; Eriksson, I.; Kallio, H.; Kearsey, T.; Pfleiderer, S.; Seither, A. 3D Urban Subsurface Modelling and Visualisation - A Review of Good Practices and Techniques to Ensure Optimal Use of Geological Information in Urban Planning; COST Action Sub-Urban, 2017.
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      Baumberger, R.; Oesterling, N. The National Geological Model: Towards mastering the Digital Transformation in Switzerland. In Three-Dimensional Geological Mapping and Modeling; Vancouver, BC, 2018; pp 19– 23.
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      Guo, J.; Wang, X.; Wang, J.; Dai, X.; Wu, L.; Li, C.; Li, F.; Liu, S.; Jessell, M. W. Three-dimensional geological modeling and spatial analysis from geotechnical borehole data using an implicit surface and marching tetrahedra algorithm. Eng. Geol. 2021, 284, 106047,  DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106047
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      Grieves, M. Virtually Intelligent Product Systems: Digital and Physical Twins. In Complex Systems Engineering: Theory and Practice; Flumerfelt, S., Schwartz, K. G., Mavris, D., Briceno, S., Eds. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics: Reston, VA, 2019; pp 175– 200.
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      Åm, K.; Heiberg, S. Public-private partnership for improved hydrocarbon recovery - Lessons from Norway’s major development programs. Energy Strategy Reviews 2014, 3, 30– 48,  DOI: 10.1016/j.esr.2014.06.003
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      Nad, A.; Jooshaki, M.; Tuominen, E.; Michaux, S.; Kirpala, A.; Newcomb, J. Digitalization Solutions in the Mineral Processing Industry: The Case of GTK Mintec, Finland. Minerals 2022, 12 (2), 210,  DOI: 10.3390/min12020210
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      Sun, Z.; Sandoval, L.; Crystal-Ornelas, R.; Mousavi, S. M.; Wang, J.; Lin, C.; Cristea, N.; Tong, D.; Carande, W. H.; Ma, X.; Rao, Y.; Bednar, J. A.; Tan, A.; Wang, J.; Purushotham, S.; Gill, T. E.; Chastang, J.; Howard, D.; Holt, B.; Gangodagamage, C.; Zhao, P.; Rivas, P.; Chester, Z.; Orduz, J.; John, A. A review of Earth Artificial Intelligence. Comput. Geosci. 2022, 159, 105034,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cageo.2022.105034
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      Litvinenko, V. S. Digital Economy as a Factor in the Technological Development of the Mineral Sector. Nat. Resour. Res. 2020, 29 (3), 1521– 1541,  DOI: 10.1007/s11053-019-09568-4
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      Ghorbani, Y.; Zhang, S. E.; Nwaila, G. T.; Bourdeau, J. E. Framework components for data-centric dry laboratories in the minerals industry: A path to science-and-technology-led innovation. Extr. Ind. Soc. 2022, 10, 101089,  DOI: 10.1016/j.exis.2022.101089
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      Lawrence, M. G.; Williams, S.; Nanz, P.; Renn, O. Characteristics, potentials, and challenges of transdisciplinary research. One Earth 2022, 5 (1), 44– 61,  DOI: 10.1016/j.oneear.2021.12.010
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      Wilkinson, M. D.; Dumontier, M.; Aalbersberg, I. J.; Appleton, G.; Axton, M.; Baak, A.; Blomberg, N.; Boiten, J.-W.; da Silva Santos, L. B.; Bourne, P. E.; Bouwman, J.; Brookes, A. J.; Clark, T.; Crosas, M.; Dillo, I.; Dumon, O.; Edmunds, S.; Evelo, C. T.; Finkers, R.; Gonzalez-Beltran, A.; Gray, A. J. G.; Groth, P.; Goble, C.; Grethe, J. S.; Heringa, J.; ’t Hoen, P. A. C.; Hooft, R.; Kuhn, T.; Kok, R.; Kok, J.; Lusher, S. J.; Martone, M. E.; Mons, A.; Packer, A. L.; Persson, B.; Rocca-Serra, P.; Roos, M.; van Schaik, R.; Sansone, S.-A.; Schultes, E.; Sengstag, T.; Slater, T.; Strawn, G.; Swertz, M. A.; Thompson, M.; van der Lei, J.; van Mulligen, E.; Velterop, J.; Waagmeester, A.; Wittenburg, P.; Wolstencroft, K.; Zhao, J.; Mons, B. The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship. Sci. Data 2016, 3 (1), 160018,  DOI: 10.1038/sdata.2016.18
      273
      The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship
      Wilkinson Mark D; Dumontier Michel; Aalbersberg I Jsbrand Jan; Appleton Gabrielle; Dumon Olivier; Groth Paul; Strawn George; Axton Myles; Baak Arie; Blomberg Niklas; Boiten Jan-Willem; da Silva Santos Luiz Bonino; Bourne Philip E; Bouwman Jildau; Brookes Anthony J; Clark Tim; Crosas Merce; Dillo Ingrid; Edmunds Scott; Evelo Chris T; Finkers Richard; Gonzalez-Beltran Alejandra; Rocca-Serra Philippe; Sansone Susanna-Assunta; Gray Alasdair J G; Goble Carole; Grethe Jeffrey S; Heringa Jaap; Kok Ruben; 't Hoen Peter A C; Hooft Rob; Kuhn Tobias; Kok Joost; Lusher Scott J; Mons Barend; Martone Maryann E; Mons Albert; Packer Abel L; Persson Bengt; Roos Marco; Thompson Mark; van Schaik Rene; Schultes Erik; Sengstag Thierry; Slater Ted; Swertz Morris A; van der Lei Johan; van Mulligen Erik; Mons Barend; Velterop Jan; Waagmeester Andra; Wittenburg Peter; Wolstencroft Katherine; Zhao Jun; Mons Barend
      Scientific data (2016), 3 (), 160018 ISSN:.
      There is an urgent need to improve the infrastructure supporting the reuse of scholarly data. A diverse set of stakeholders-representing academia, industry, funding agencies, and scholarly publishers-have come together to design and jointly endorse a concise and measureable set of principles that we refer to as the FAIR Data Principles. The intent is that these may act as a guideline for those wishing to enhance the reusability of their data holdings. Distinct from peer initiatives that focus on the human scholar, the FAIR Principles put specific emphasis on enhancing the ability of machines to automatically find and use the data, in addition to supporting its reuse by individuals. This Comment is the first formal publication of the FAIR Principles, and includes the rationale behind them, and some exemplar implementations in the community.
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      Ubaldi, B. Open Government Data: Towards Empirical Analysis of Open Government Data Initiatives; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development: 2013. DOI: 10.1787/5k46bj4f03s7-en .
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      Recommendation of the Council on Enhancing Access to and Sharing of Data; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2022.
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      Integrated Geospatial Information Framework: A Strategic Guide to Develop and Strengthen National Geospatial Information Management - Part 1: Overarching Strategic Framework; World Bank, United Nations Committee of Experts on Global Geospatial Information Management (UN-GGIM): New York, 2018.
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      UN-GGIM. The Global Statistical Geospatial Framework; United Nations: New York, 2019.
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      Tate, M.; Bongiovanni, I.; Kowalkiewicz, M.; Townson, P. Managing the “Fuzzy front end” of open digital service innovation in the public sector: A methodology. IJIM 2018, 39, 186– 198,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.11.008
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      Recent years have seen a proliferation of frameworks for assessing and reporting mining sustainability. While these frameworks vary substantially in scope and approach, they all seem to share the purported goal of better informing decision-makers about the future implications of mining to the environment and society. Whether they do so, however, remains an open question. The purpose of this paper is to describe, compare and critically analyze five sustainability assessment and reporting frameworks used by, or proposed for, the mining industry. Based on literature reviews, the paper highlights the underlying assumptions of those frameworks and presents a diagram that helps to clarify aspects such as temporal orientation, geog. scope and quantity of indicators. Three out of the five frameworks follow a siloed approach to assessing mining sustainability, overlooking trade-offs and synergies among variables and sustainability dimensions. None of the frameworks seems to fully shed light on the problem of mineral scarcity and the effective legacy of mineral operations. The paper concludes by emphasizing the need to carefully consider the information generated by the analyzed frameworks and suggest more fruitful ways to foster sustainability reports.
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      A major problem worldwide is the potential loss of fisheries, forests, and water resources. Understanding of the processes that lead to improvements in or deterioration of natural resources is limited, because scientific disciplines use different concepts and languages to describe and explain complex social-ecol. systems (SESs). Without a common framework to organize findings, isolated knowledge does not cumulate. Until recently, accepted theory has assumed that resource users will never self-organize to maintain their resources and that governments must impose solns. Research in multiple disciplines, however, has found that some government policies accelerate resource destruction, whereas some resource users have invested their time and energy to achieve sustainability. A general framework is used to identify 10 subsystem variables that affect the likelihood of self-organization in efforts to achieve a sustainable SES.
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    • Materials and methods section describing literature selection and bibliometric analysis; timeline of historical events with reference list; notes on mass balance consistency in financial reporting and the UN System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (PDF)


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