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PFAS-Free Energy Storage: Investigating Alternatives for Lithium-Ion Batteries
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 50, 21908–21917
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c06083
Published December 4, 2024

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Abstract

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The class-wide restriction proposal on perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in the European Union is expected to affect a wide range of commercial sectors, including the lithium-ion battery (LIB) industry, where both polymeric and low molecular weight PFAS are used. The PFAS restriction dossiers currently state that there is weak evidence for viable alternatives to the use of PFAS in LIBs. In this Perspective, we summarize both the peer-reviewed literature and expert opinions from academia and industry to verify the legitimacy of the claims surrounding the lack of alternatives. Our assessment is limited to the electrodes and electrolyte, which account for the most critical uses of PFAS in LIB cells. Companies that already offer or are developing PFAS-free electrode and electrolyte materials were identified. There are also indications that PFAS-free electrolytes are in development by at least one other company, but there is no information regarding the alternative chemistries being proposed. Our review suggests that it is technically feasible to make PFAS-free batteries for battery applications, but PFAS-free solutions are not currently well-established on the market. Successful substitution of PFAS will require an appropriate balance among battery performance, the environmental effects associated with hazardous materials and chemicals, and economic considerations.

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Contrary to the battery industry’s claims, there are potential alternatives to the use of PFAS in lithium-ion batteries.

Introduction

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Efforts to substitute certain uses of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) with PFAS-free alternatives are being opposed by both the fluorochemical industry and the manufacturers of renewable energy technologies. (1−5) The arguments used by these industries are as follows: 1) that PFAS are essential for a green energy future, with no viable alternatives in sight; 2) that the European Union’s (EU’s) PFAS restriction proposal (6) will inhibit innovation and economic growth; and 3) the implicit assumption that chemical regulation is less critical than climate mitigation. This Perspective examines these arguments and counterarguments for the continued use of PFAS in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and potential future battery technologies. Modern society increasingly relies on LIBs for energy storage in, for example, electronics (laptops, cell phones, tablets), toys, power tools, and electric vehicles, besides stationary applications. Given the increasing production volumes of LIBs, (7) the demand for certain PFAS used in their manufacturing is also expected to rise. PFAS are recognized for their persistence and widespread occurrence in the environment, (8) with some linked to concerning health effects. (9)
In our recent review paper on PFAS in LIBs, (10) we noted that the EU’s PFAS restriction proposal (6) includes a claim that PFAS-free alternatives for use in LIBs are currently unavailable. RECHARGE, Europe’s industry association for advanced rechargeable and lithium batteries, recently reviewed and explained (in an online document (2)) the types of PFAS used in LIBs. RECHARGE also considered the availability of non-PFAS alternatives for multiple identified uses of PFAS in LIBs. They concluded that there are presently no viable alternatives available for the use of PFAS in LIB electrodes and electrolytes. The German Electro and Digital Industry Association ZVEI has made similar claims. (11) In light of the ongoing consultation on the PFAS restriction proposal, we decided that it was necessary to carefully and independently evaluate these claims.
For this Perspective, a search of the available scientific literature was conducted, including peer-reviewed journal articles, monographs, industry reports, product descriptions, and patents. In addition, we contacted some innovative electrode and electrolyte manufacturers and downstream users and received additional input from technical experts from both industry and academia. We acknowledge that PFAS (largely fluoropolymers) are used as separator coatings, gaskets/seals, pipes, valves and sealings, (1) and considering alternatives to all of these uses of PFAS requires a more thorough investigation and have been excluded from the study for now.

Findings from Our Review and Consultations with Industry and Academia

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Alternatives for the Electrodes

In order to bind the active material (electrochemically active components, e.g., lithium metal oxide) and make it adhere to the current collector, a polymeric binder is used in the electrode (Figure 1). The polymeric binder is essential for battery efficiency as it provides the electrodes with the necessary structure and robustness for effective electron movement and ion transition during the process of charging and discharging. (12) In modern battery designs, the negative electrode (anode) made of graphite or silicone commonly uses nonfluorinated binders, e.g. carboxylmethyl cellulose (CMC), styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR), poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) and alginate. (13,14) For the positive electrode (the cathode) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and variations such as polyvinylidene fluoride cohexafluoroethylene (PVDF-HFP), are commonly used due to the chemical inertness and high thermal stability derived from the carbon–fluorine bond as well as strong adhesive properties. (12) In some cases blends of PVDF-copolymers and fluorinated ionic liquids are used because these ionic liquids provide useful antistatic properties. (15) The manufacturing process of the cathode with PVDF as binder involves the use of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) which is a teratogenic solvent. According to RECHARGE, the only viable alternative involves using dry electrode processing, which eliminates the use of the toxic NMP, but requires application of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) instead of PVDF. While PTFE is favorable for reducing occupational exposure to NMP, its lifecycle includes similar environmental impacts to PVDF. (16) Modern fluoropolymer products are typically inert and contain few impurities, so in the use phase they are usually nonproblematic. (17) However, considering the lifecycle of fluoropolymers the manufacturing and waste handling (especially using heat treatment processes with insufficiently high temperatures) can account for the emission of low molecular weight hazardous PFAS to the environment. (16,18−20) Despite efforts to improve fluoropolymer manufacturing and waste handling in recent years, (21) many problems remain. There are, for example, both regulated and nonregulated releases of multiple PFAS during fluoropolymer manufacturing, (18) which can affect areas surrounding the plant. (22) Moreover, there is growing evidence of PFAS emissions during waste handling, (16,23) including during the recycling of LIBs. (10)

Figure 1

Figure 1. Schematic structure of a lithium-ion battery cell highlighting the components where PFAS (and other fluorinated substances) are used to the largest extent (with given example structures) and alternatives are needed. Adapted from ref (10) under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 License. Copyright 2023 The Authors.

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In the scientific literature, there are multiple reports of development of alternative materials to PVDF, which were initially motivated by replacing or abstaining from the use of NMP. Bresser et al. (24) reviewed a wide range of alternative binders for sustainable electrochemical energy storage. They point out that PVDF is expensive and not environmentally friendly. Bresser et al. (24) instead recommend using other materials such as water-processable PFAS-free polymers, which they claim could also reduce costs by a factor of 2–3 for the polymer and by a factor of about 100 for the processing solvent (NMP vs water). Innovation is, for example, ongoing to make an aqueous environment-friendly gelatin binder for LiFePO4 cathodes. (25) Moreover, Rynne et al. (26) showed that the commercially available elastomer Lotader 5500 (polyethylene-co-ethyl acrylate-co-maleic anhydride thermoplastic elastomer) could provide similar performance to PVDF in LIB composite electrodes with LiFePO4 and Li4Ti5O12 cathodes. (26) However, this technology is applicable for coin cell batteries and still needs to be tested for industrially produced cylindrical or pouch cells as well as other cathode chemistries such as lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMC) which are more commonly used. Nguyen and Kuss (27) reviewed the potential of a wide variety of conducting polymers as binders in LIBs, some (but not all) of which are PFAS-free alternatives to PVDF. (27) Another study by Dobryden et al. (28) examined biobased (natural organic polymer) binders which can be comprised of cellulose, lignin, alginate, gums, starch, and other biobased materials, and reviewed the current progress for these type of binders. They found that the raw materials have a rather low long-term performance which can be improved by surface modifications, but this approach still requires optimization to be commercially viable. (28) In addition to organic (polymeric) binders, the application of ionically conducting inorganic binders was also explored recently by Trivedi et al.. (29) In that work, 12 binders based on sodium or lithium phosphates and silicates were examined for several different cathode materials, and shown to excel in performance compared to commonly used PVDF. These alternatives also demonstrated an improvement in battery manufacturing and recycling yields. (29) The possibility for implementation of these novel technologies can vary depending on the cathode chemistry, and challenges for upscaling could arise for higher mass-loadings or different cell designs, among other aspects.
Although many of the breakthroughs in fundamental science surrounding LIB technologies stem from academia, the academic literature regarding future alternatives can be considered somewhat idealistic and does not by default provide a full indication of what is commercially viable and/or available on the market. (30) This mismatch can be because 1) innovation occurs at companies as well as academia and can be trade secrets and 2) academic discoveries may work at the lab-scale but have not been scaled up and tested whether they are suitable for mass production. This also highlights the need for stronger cooperation between academic and industry research. Furthermore, economic applicability is an important deciding factor for industry, as facilities are designed for established manufacturing processes and changes would potentially result in high costs. We therefore sought to identify companies that already provide PFAS-free binder solutions, which are presented in the following paragraphs.
The company Leclanché has been using aqueous binders without organic solvents in its production process already for around 13 years. (31) Their technology is used in LIBs for stationary energy storage (commercial and industrial) and e-mobility (heavier vehicles such as trains and buses). At the beginning of 2023, the company began the production of graphite anode and NiMnCoAl cathode cells with reduced cobalt content (as little as ∼5%) and a high nickel content of ∼90% using a water-based binder. (32) Further, they have validated and produced PFAS-free electrodes, and with minor process adaptions, can now manufacture PFAS-free cells using the standard electrode stacking process. (33) The company GRST has commercialized PFAS-free battery cells since 2022, with its proprietary water-based technology. (34) Finally, the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW) demonstrated pilot-scale production of water-based electrodes and cells that are free from NMP and fluorinated binders thus environmentally friendly in this aspect, using an alternative process that is cost-effective and suitable for mass production of cathodes. (35,36)
Despite their potential, water-soluble polymeric binder alternatives come with specific challenges, depending on the specific battery chemistry. As exemplified by the Leclanché alternative above, the market is shifting toward cathodes with a higher nickel content, driven by their overall superior performance. (37) It is expected that chemistries of NMC 811 (LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2, Ni-rich lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide) or other chemistries with high Ni-content together with LFP (LiFePO4, lithium iron phosphate) will be the most prevalent lithium-ion batteries. (38) However, a cathode chemistry with higher nickel content is more susceptible to processes involving water, which can lead to an increase of the pH of the slurry (suspension of active material). This can cause corrosion of the aluminum current collector, reducing the longevity and performance of the cell. (36)
Another potentially viable PFAS-free binder alternative for the cathode is a carbon-based material developed by Nanoramic Laboratories. This material, marketed as “Neocarbonix at the Core”, is a three-dimensional nanocarbon binding structure. (39) This technology does not require NMP for solvent-processing or PFAS in binders and works as a drop-in replacement, allowing existing manufacturing processes and equipment to remain unchanged. Furthermore, it exhibits compatibility with a wide range of battery technologies. (40) However, it is important to note that this technology is currently in its start-up stage.
Lastly, the companies 24M and FREYR produce binder-free electrodes, using a technology called “SemiSolid”, which is a mix of electrolyte and the active material that involves a simple and economical manufacturing process. (41,42) Currently, we have not gathered more information about their processes and materials.
Our findings show that in the case of cathodes, some emerging technologies have been turned into commercially viable products or are close to this stage. This is in contrast to RECHARGE’s claim that the dry process using PTFE without NMP is the only viable alternative to PVDF in the cathode. A question that remains is if these technologies are suitable for large-scale production with competitive life cycle performance and thus can withstand growing demand in the near future in very different application fields with different technological performance requirements. Additionally, the environmental impacts of the alternative materials in their full lifecycle need to be assessed further to avoid “problem shifting”, e.g., regrettable chemical substitutions, less safety or shorter lifetime, higher climate impacts and low circularity. (43)

Alternatives for the Electrolytes

The electrolyte is the medium in which the Li+ ions are transferred between the electrodes when charging/discharging the battery and is usually composed of a salt and a (organic) solvent. It is essential that the electrolyte is thermally and chemically stable, exhibits high Li+ ion conductivity and electronic insulation. (12) Specific properties that the electrolyte salt (in this case a lithium salt) must demonstrate are low molecular weight and nontoxicity, electrochemical stability and the ability to form an effective interphase between the electrolyte and electrode. (12) For the design of electrolytes, fluorination of the key components can help achieve optimal performance requirements for LIBs. (44−46) The common electrolyte salt is lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6, CAS 21324–40–3, not a PFAS) dissolved in a mixture of carbonates (Figure 1). (12) LiPF6 offers several key benefits, including high ionic conductivity and oxidation stability, along with the ability to passivate the electrode (passivating means creating a protective layer, the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, on the surface of electrode to prevent it from reacting with other components in the battery throughout many cycles). However, LiPF6 hydrolyzes in the presence of moisture with subsequent formation of hydrofluoric acid (HF) which can lead to corrosion of the cell with implications for performance, longevity and safety of LIBs. (12)
Addition of PFAS salts such as lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI, CAS 90076–65–6, classified as a PFAS) can replace a small percentage of the LiPF6 in some electrolyte formulations. Typically, the quantity of these additives is ≤10% of the total weight or volume. (44) In some specific cases, LiTFSI can be used as the major component of the electrolyte. (47) The impetus for using such PFAS (and the so-called fluorinated ionic liquids) in the electrolyte is to improve overall cycling performance, but they are also more thermally stable, nonflammable, and less prone to HF formation, which provides a higher performing, longer-lasting and safer battery application overall. (12,44,48,49)
Based on input from consultation with experts, it is less common for PFAS salts like LiTFSI to serve as the primary electrolyte salt due to their potential to cause corrosion of the aluminum current collector (50) and their higher associated costs. It is important to note that electrolyte formulations are often trade secrets and that it is difficult to estimate the exact amounts of certain substances used. In a recent study by Guelfo et al. (51) commercially available LIBs from different brands were analyzed for bis-perfluoroalkyl sulfonimides (bis-FASIs), including LiTFSI (bis-FMeSI), lithium bis(pentafluoroethanesulfonyl)imide (LiBETI; bis-FEtSI; CAS 132843–44–8) and lithium bis(nonafluorobutanesulfonyl)imide (LiNFSI; bis-FBSI; CAS 119229–99–1). The total mass in the batteries for LiTFSI ranged from 7.2 ng to 35.6 mg. Further, as mentioned above, the study noted the potential blending of the TFSI anion paired with a different cation in the PVDF binder due to its antistatic properties. (51,52) Emissions of these PFAS electrolyte salts and additives should be better controlled as they are widely detectable in the environment, (51,53,54) along with the inorganic salts PF6– and BF4–. (55)
Solvents in the electrolyte may also be fluorinated to render them nonflammable, prevent electrochemical oxidation and promote the formation of a more stable and lithium fluoride (LiF)-saturated SEI. (12) Given that the formed SEI can be unstable, reducing the capacity of the cell, (56) partially fluorinating the solvents can help enhance their compatibility with the lithium salt, and can aid in protecting the electrodes. (12) For instance, silicone-containing anodes have higher energy densities, but are more sensitive regarding the charge–discharge-cycle, as the material breaks after a short time due to volume expansion and detaches from the current collector. (56) The addition of a fluorinated solvent such as fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) can help prevent this by decomposing and passivating the electrode surface as LiF is formed. (57)
Research is underway to develop fluorine-free electrolytes for LIBs. Despite the prevalence of fluorine-based options, there are several fluorine-free anions available, such as perchlorate (ClO4–), bis(oxalato)borate (BOB), tris(oxalate)phosphate, tetracyanoborate, and dicyanotriazolate. (58) Among these alternatives, the primary drawback is their limited ability to passivate the aluminum current collector when compared to LiPF6. However, BOB has demonstrated the most promising outcomes. (58) In a study by Hernández et al. (59) where a fluorine-free electrolyte based on LiBOB and vinylene carbonate was shown to provide higher discharge capacity and a longer cycle life than a cell using a highly fluorinated electrolyte for an NMC111 (LiNi0.33Mn0.33Co0.33O2) cathode with silicon-graphite composite anodes. For instance, He et al. (60) report an aqueous electrolyte system using a lithium salt/polymer complex for LiTi2(PO4)3/LiMn2O4 and TiO2/LiMn2O4 lithium-ion cell with promising results achieving energy densities up to 124 Wh/kg. It expands the possibilities of introducing nontoxic, high-conductivity, and dimensionally stable aqueous electrolytes, which enables the development of environmentally friendly, nickel-, cobalt-, and fluorine-free LIBs. (60) Khan et al. (61) explored fluorine-free electrolytes derived from biomass such as lithium furan-2-carboxylate dissolved in tetra(n-butyl)phosphonium furan-2-carboxylate. Examination of the physicochemical properties showed high thermal stability, acceptable ionic conductivities, and wide electrochemical stability. (61)
The electrolyte company E-Lyte has announced a collaboration with Nanoramic, which entails the development of a customized PFAS-free electrolyte for their alternative cathode technology. (62) Currently no information is available regarding the alternative chemistries they intend to use, and it is likely that this will remain a trade secret, even after development. Electrolyte formulations are often customized and developed with a high degree of confidentiality by the electrolyte supplier depending on the needs of the battery manufacturer, who may be unaware of the precise composition. Therefore, the electrolyte suppliers could seemingly have the flexibility to adapt to developments of PFAS-free or even fluorine-free alternative electrolytes, depending on the favored alternative cathode chemistry. This could be the case if providing PFAS-free electrolytes results in a competitive advantage, as battery manufacturers would begin to request these formulations. But it seems that LiPF6 will still remain in the picture as the leading main salt due to its performance abilities. A study by Nam et al. (63) developed a battery system using nonfluorinated alternatives such as an aromatic polyamid (APA) binder and lithium perchlorate (LC) electrolyte, which deliver comparable performance to traditional fluorinated components. This study shows a promising direction for developing fluorine-free battery systems.
In conclusion, most LIB systems can function with LiPF6 and a nonfluorinated solvent, but it is uncertain if this alone provides a sufficient level of performance and safety for all LIB applications. We have not been able to fully evaluate all the trade-offs between PFAS-containing and PFAS-free options in electrolytes, and this is an important activity for future research. A summary for the above-mentioned alternative binders and electrolytes are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of PFAS Used in the Cathode and Electrolyte and Their Potential Alternatives
battery partfluorinated substancefunctionpossible alternativeavailability of alternative
CathodePVDFBinder• Water-soluble polymersCommercially available
• 3D nanocarbon binding structure (Neocarbonix at the Core)
PTFEBinder• Binder-free electrode (SemiSolid)
ElectrolyteSalt additives and electrolyte components, e.g. LiTFSICommonly additives, less often as main electrolyte componentsNonfluorinated alternativesDepending on overall cell chemistry electrolyte can be customized accordingly
Solvents, e.g. FECAdditiveNonfluorinated alternativesDepending on overall cell chemistry electrolyte can be customized accordingly

Solid-State Batteries

Solid-state batteries, which use different kinds of solid-phase electrolytes, are widely considered to be the next generation of batteries close to market implementation. (64,65) However, it is expected that a number of technical challenges must be overcome before solid-state batteries can be commercialized. (66) RECHARGE claim that uses of PFAS, including PVDF and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), will be even more important in solid-state batteries. (1) As outlined in the review of Ahniyaz et al., (66) solid-phase electrolytes can be solid polymeric electrolytes, solid inorganic electrolytes, or intermediates between the two. There are also intermediates between solid and liquid electrolytes, which are the liquid-like gel polymer electrolytes. Among the multitude of material options reviewed in Ahniyaz et al., (66) both PFAS-free and PFAS-containing materials are under consideration for use in gel polymer and solid-phase electrolytes. Among the gel polymer electrolytes, PVDF-based materials are among the most widely used, but PFAS-free gel polymer electrolytes are also being developed. (66) The majority of solid-phase polymer electrolytes in development are based on (PFAS-free) poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), but fluoropolymer-based solid-phase electrolytes are also under consideration. (66) For example, a PVDF-based solid-phase electrolyte was proposed by Zhang at al., (67) and a PVDF-HFP-based solid-phase electrolyte was proposed by Du et al. (68) With regards to materials used in the electrodes of solid-state batteries, conducting polymer-based binders were suggested to provide excellent performance and nonfluorinated options are available (see review of Nguyen and Kuss). (27)
We conclude that the future is uncertain regarding the likelihood of innovating toward high-performing PFAS-free solid-state batteries. It is also clear that state-of-the-art LIBs will dominate the battery market for the foreseeable future. (38)

Alternative Battery Chemistries

At present, many different Li alternatives are under investigation, including those based on K, Ca, Al, Zn, Mg, or Na. Among these alternatives, sodium-ion battery (SIB) systems are the most promising group and are already undergoing field tests for large-scale application for electric vehicles. (69) For the cathode, there are three main types of materials suitable for commercializing SIBs, comprising layered transition metal oxides (LTMO), polyanionic materials and Prussian blue analogs. (70,71) The current state of research regarding these technologies implies the use of fluorochemicals in electrodes and electrolytes, similar to LIBs. Zheng et al. (72) describe the broad similarities between LIBs and SIBs in terms of fluorinated substances added to electrolytes. Among others, the authors mention the use of TFSI-salts (PFAS) as electrolyte additives in SIBs, which give similar effects of thermal stability, higher ionic conductivity, and solubility. Similarly, FEC (not a PFAS) is recommended as an additive for the electrolyte also for SIBs in small amounts of up to 5 wt % for, among other benefits, its gas evolution suppression and ability to create stable SEI layer. (72,73) Furthermore, Hernandez et al. (58) discuss the increased ability to passivate the anode by adding fluorinated species to either LIBs or SIBs.
The company Altris has developed a SIB that uses Prussian white (Na2Fe[Fe(CN)6]·zH2O) for the cathode and sodium bis(oxalate)borate (NaBOB) as an electrolyte salt, achieving an energy density that can compete with common lithium-ion chemistry. (74) Prussian white offers cost-effectiveness, sustainability, and good electrochemical performance. (75) Meanwhile, NaBOB demonstrates durability over extended cycles and exhibits a high decomposition temperature. (76)
The similarity between the two battery chemistries and the proven benefits from fluorinated electrolyte chemistries in LIBs point to the possible use of PFAS also within the emerging alternative technology of SIBs. Mapping of PFAS within SIBs should be performed, as was previously done for LIBs, (10) for a full understanding of the potential risks associated with these alternative battery chemistries.

Implications for the Recycling of Batteries

The EU Batteries Regulation states that its main goal is to ensure increased sustainability, circularity and safer batteries on the European market. (77) Furthermore, it mandates that a recycling efficiency of 65% by average weight of lithium-based batteries must be achieved by 2025, and 70% by 2030. (77) The recovery rates for lithium are expected to be 50% by 2027 and 80% by 2031. (78) It is therefore crucial to minimize the use of toxic substances within LIB materials in order to improve recyclability and reduce the number of process steps.
The occurrence of fluorine as well as PFAS in LIBs pose numerous challenges during the recycling process. (79) In addition to requiring more steps for removal (and by extension, additional cost and lower yields), the generation of corrosive HF can damage equipment (80) and represents a significant occupational health risk. Moreover, inorganic and organic fluorinated byproducts formed during recycling (e.g., PFAS) (10) may be released in recycling waste streams, and are problematic for the environment. (80,81) Our view, based on research on incineration of PFAS, (82) is that although pyrometallurgical recycling is energy-intensive, these processes (utilizing temperatures of up to 1600 °C) will be sufficient to mineralize PFAS (e.g., PVDF or PTFE used in electrode binders but also LiTFSI). (83) During the recycling process, various fluorinated compounds, both inorganic (e.g., lithium fluoride, silicon tetrafluoride, phosphorus pentafluoride) and organic fluorinated species (e.g., perfluoroalkyl chains and fluorinated aromatic compounds), could be generated. (10) These high temperatures facilitate the breakdown of fluorinated compounds into their mineral forms (i.e., carbon dioxide and fluoride), significantly reducing the likelihood of harmful PFAS emissions. On the contrary, the now-preferred hydrometallurgy process (without pyrometallurgical preprocessing) that operates at lower temperatures, involves a mechanical preprocessing step, and generates higher yields of the metals could inadvertently lead to increased PFAS emissions. When it comes to the recycling goals as stated in the EU Batteries Regulation, they might be only achievable using hydrometallurgy. Alternatively, closed loop recycling, which involves direct regeneration of the cathode materials, (84) shows promise but is challenged by the necessary binder removal a challenge. (85) This technology remains the subject of ongoing research. In any case, the recycling processes need optimization in order to close the gap between generating sufficient yields of the metals and reducing or avoiding potential PFAS emissions.
In conclusion, it would be beneficial to reduce the fluorinated substance content in batteries, in order to gain more purified recycled materials for battery manufacturing but also to keep the environmental impact low from these processes as well as to maintain a safe work environment. With this in mind, it is also pertinent to note that the alternative cathode technologies described above are more suitable for recycling compared to PFAS-containing materials in the electrode and electrolyte. Still, comprehensive technological and environmental lifecycle assessments might be needed for a quantitative comparison considering the full life cycle of a battery.

Finding the Balance between Performance and Sustainability in the Transition to PFAS-Free Battery Technologies

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Given the regulatory pressure on the entire class of PFAS, the battery industry will need to find a viable commercial alternative for PVDF in the cathode. Even though there are potentially suitable alternatives on the market in limited applications, adoption of these alternatives more widely may or may not reduce the performance of LIBs in certain applications. LiPF6 will probably continue to account for the majority of the electrolytes in LIBs in the near future. Although the addition of PFAS salts is not essential to the functioning of batteries, their presence may contribute to increased performance and safety. The requirements for battery materials are high as they need to be electrochemically stable and cope with high-voltage cycling. We also recognize that LIB performance requirements vary widely depending on their applications. However, there is the potential to have PFAS-free batteries in the future (with an estimated transition time of 7–10 years), according to the experts we consulted. Lastly, we acknowledge that the costs of the transition remain unclear and are something that requires further investigation.
In deciding on the favored technology options for the development of batteries, a balance needs to struck between the performance of future batteries and the sustainability of materials used (e.g., considerations of the lifecycle impact of materials and chemical components). It is not a trivial problem to balance these two issues because it requires detailed knowledge from multiple experts of different fields. We also realize the importance of batteries in the so-called “Green Energy Transition” and understand that innovation in this area should not be impeded. However, we should be cautious of giving actors in the renewable energy sector too much freedom in order to avoid the risk of “problem shifting”, i.e., replacing one environmental problem (e.g., climate change) with another (irreversible chemical pollution). Chemical pollution is considered by many to be a lesser environmental problem compared with climate change. This may well be true, but compared to climate change, the sources, impacts, and solutions of chemical pollution are less studied and understood. We should therefore not be complacent given the threats chemical pollution has to human health and biodiversity loss.
We find it surprising that companies providing green energy technologies are now arguing strongly and publicly to continue using hazardous chemicals such as PFAS in their products rather than focusing their efforts on possible alternatives. We would hope that green energy storage providers, which enjoy a green profile with many in the public, should also have pollution control as one of their core corporate principles. The PFAS restriction can be an opportunity for the European battery industry to become the frontrunner in revolutionizing energy storage systems toward true sustainability to benefit the environment as well as occupational safety, along with securing the energy and materials supply within Europe.
In addition, to ensure that sustainable materials and chemicals are used in the manufacture of batteries, it is also important to have functioning recycling processes. The service life of LIBs is in the range of 5–15 years depending on application, but it may take up to 20 years before end-of-life batteries are recycled. This means that even if PFAS-free batteries dominate the market in the future, there will be a need to recycle PFAS-containing batteries currently on the market, or entering the market, many years into the future. We call again for research to be conducted on the release of PFAS during battery recycling. In our view, the battery manufacturing industry, which is rapidly expanding, has the responsibility to fund and support such research. This should be accompanied by related national and international research calls to support the development of suitable innovative recycling processes on an industrial scale.
To provide a roadmap for effectively managing this issue going forward, we suggest the following three steps. Step 1 is the investigation of potential emissions from battery manufacturing and recycling. While some studies have detected PFAS used in LIBs in the environment, it remains unclear what emissions are directly linked to battery manufacturing and recycling. Step 2 focuses on identifying which specific PFAS are being emitted during manufacturing and recycling, the quantities of these PFAS being emitted, and assessing the associated risks. Finally, in Step 3, if unacceptable risks are identified, measures should be taken to adapt manufacturing and recycling processes to mitigate emissions, including exploring PFAS substitution as an “upstream” solution and treatment solutions as a “downstream” solution (i.e., capture and destruction technologies) for battery recycling processes and already contaminated sites.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Authors
  • Authors
    • Amanda Rensmo - Stockholm University, Department of Environmental Science, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
    • Jonathan P. Benskin - Stockholm University, Department of Environmental Science, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-5940-637X
    • Steffen Schellenberger - RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Environment and Sustainable Chemistry Unit, SE-114 28 Stockholm, Sweden;  Orcidhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8001-6851
    • Xianfeng Hu - SWERIM AB, Aronstorpsvägen 1, SE-974 37 Luleå, Sweden
    • Marcel Weil - Helmholtz Institute Ulm for Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), 89081 Ulm, Germany;  Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis (ITAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Biographies

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Eleni Savvidou is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Environmental Science at Stockholm University in Sweden. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Chemistry from Ulm University, Germany (2018) and a Master’s in Environmental Science with a focus on Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry from Stockholm University (2021). Her research centers on detecting PFAS in various consumer products and other applications through the mass balance approach and other analytical methods, with an additional focus on exploring alternatives to uses of PFAS.

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Ian Cousins is an environmental chemist based at the Department of Environmental Science at Stockholm University in Sweden. He holds a Ph.D. from Lancaster University in the UK (1999) and a professorship from Stockholm University (since 2012). Ian has 33 years of experience working as an environmental chemist in academia and industry in England, Canada and Sweden. In his research group, he strives to develop an understanding of the sources, uses, transport and fate behavior, and exposure pathways of hazardous chemicals. Ian’s research has recently focused on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

Acknowledgments

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Funding for this work was provided by the Swedish Energy Agency (SCOPE-LIBs project 48208-1), the Swedish Research Council FORMAS (grant number 2020-01978), XPRES (Initiative for Excellence in Production Research) and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No 101036756; the ZeroPM project). M.W. acknowledges the financial support by the German Research Foundation (DFG) under Project ID 390874152 (PoLiS Cluster of Excellence, EXC 2154). We want to thank Willem Vriesendorp and Flora Wallace (#SustainablePublicAffairs) for their support with this work. Furthermore, we want to thank the companies and researchers that talked to us and gave us their insights: Hilmi Buqa (Leclanché), Christian Dietrich and Eric Kish (Nanoramic), Frank Harley and Bill Ho (GRST), Guiomar Hernández (Uppsala University), Fabian Jeschull (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology), Stefano Passerini (Helmholtz Institute Ulm/Karlsruhe Institute of Technology/Austrian Institute of Technology), Gabriel Quintans (Northvolt), Faiz Ullah Shah (Luleå University of Technology), Ralf Wagner (E-Lyte), and Margret Wohlfahrt-Mehrens (Zentrum für Sonnenenergie- und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden-Württemberg). This article represents the opinions of the authors, and is the product of professional research. It is not meant to represent the position or opinions of their institutions.

References

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This article references 85 other publications.

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    Abstr.: In the field of lithium-based batteries, there is often a substantial divide between academic research and industrial market needs. This is in part driven by a lack of peer-reviewed publications from industry. Here we present a non-academic view on applied research in lithium-based batteries to sharpen the focus and help bridge the gap between academic and industrial research. We focus our discussion on key metrics and challenges to be considered when developing new technologies in this industry. We also explore the need to consider various performance aspects in unison when developing a new material/technol. Moreover, we also investigate the suitability of supply chains, sustainability of materials and the impact on system-level cost as factors that need to be accounted for when working on new technologies. With these considerations in mind, we then assess the latest developments in the lithium-based battery industry, providing our views on the challenges and prospects of various technologies.
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    Abstr.: The increasing demand for high-performance rechargeable batteries, particularly in energy storage applications such as elec. vehicles, has driven the development of advanced battery technologies with improved energy d., safety and cycling stability. Fluorine has emerged as a crucial element in achieving these goals, owing to its hydrophobicity, robust bond strength and stability, exceptional dielec. properties and strong electronegativity and polarization. These attributes provide fluorinated battery components with high thermal and oxidative stability, chem. inertness and non-flammability. Importantly, fluorinated materials also facilitate the formation of a thin, protective film of corrosion products at the metal-electrolyte interface, which serves as a barrier against further chem. reactions with the electrolyte. Fluorinated species are now used in a wide range of battery components, including solid and liq. electrolytes, electrolyte additives, solvents, binders and protective layers for electrodes. This Review explores the design and utilization of fluorine-contg. species in advanced batteries, focusing on the relationship between the chem. structure of the species and its impact on battery performance. Addnl., given the regulatory landscape surrounding the use of fluorinated compds., we discuss the current challenges and future directions related to the responsible reuse and recycling of fluorinated materials in battery-related components.
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    Wang, Y.; Li, Z.; Hou, Y.; Hao, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Ni, Y.; Lu, Y.; Yan, Z.; Zhang, K.; Zhao, Q.; Li, F.; Chen, J. Emerging electrolytes with fluorinated solvents for rechargeable lithium-based batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2023, 52, 2713– 2763,  DOI: 10.1039/D2CS00873D
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    Emerging electrolytes with fluorinated solvents for rechargeable lithium-based batteries
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    A review. Electrolytes that can ensure the movement of ions and regulate interfacial chemistries for fast mass and charge transfer are essential in many types of electrochem. energy storage devices. However, in the emerging energy-dense lithium-based batteries, the uncontrollable side-reactions and consumption of the electrolyte result in poor electrochem. performances and severe safety concerns. In this case, fluorination has been demonstrated to be one of the most effective strategies to overcome the above-mentioned issues without significantly contributing to engineering and tech. difficulties. Herein, we present a comprehensive overview of the fluorinated solvents that can be employed in lithium-based batteries. Firstly, the basic parameters that dictate the properties of solvents/electrolytes are elaborated, including phys. properties, solvation structure, interface chem., and safety. Specifically, we focus on the advances and scientific challenges assocd. with different solvents and the enhancement in their performance after fluorination. Secondly, we discuss the synthetic methods for new fluorinated solvents and their reaction mechanisms in depth. Thirdly, the progress, structure-performance relationship, and applications of fluorinated solvents are reviewed. Subsequently, we provide suggestions on the solvent selection for different battery chemistries. Finally, the existing challenges and further efforts on fluorinated solvents are summarized. The combination of advanced synthesis and characterization approaches with the assistance of machine learning will enable the design of new fluorinated solvents for advanced lithium-based batteries.
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    Ionic-Liquid-Based Polymer Electrolytes for Battery Applications
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    A review. The advent of solid-state polymer electrolytes for application in lithium batteries took place more than four decades ago when the ability of polyethylene oxide (PEO) to dissolve suitable lithium salts was demonstrated. Since then, many modifications of this basic system were proposed and tested, involving the addn. of conventional, carbonate-based electrolytes, low mol. wt. polymers, ceramic fillers, and others. This Review focuses on ternary polymer electrolytes, i.e., ion-conducting systems consisting of a polymer incorporating two salts, one bearing the lithium cation and the other introducing addnl. anions capable of plasticizing the polymer chains. Assessing the state of the research field of solid-state, ternary polymer electrolytes, while giving background on the whole field of polymer electrolytes, this Review is expected to stimulate new thoughts and ideas on the challenges and opportunities of lithium-metal batteries.
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    Suo, L.; Borodin, O.; Gao, T.; Olguin, M.; Ho, J.; Fan, X.; Luo, C.; Wang, C.; Xu, K. Water-in-salt” electrolyte enables high-voltage aqueous lithium-ion chemistries. Science 2015, 350, 938– 943,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aab1595
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    "Water-in-salt" electrolyte enables high-voltage aqueous lithium-ion chemistries
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    Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2015), 350 (6263), 938-943CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
    Lithium-ion batteries raise safety, environmental, and cost concerns, which mostly arise from their nonaq. electrolytes. The use of aq. alternatives is limited by their narrow electrochem. stability window (1.23 V), which sets an intrinsic limit on the practical voltage and energy output. We report a highly concd. aq. electrolyte whose window was expanded to ∼3.0 V with the formation of an electrode-electrolyte interphase. A full lithium-ion battery of 2.3 V using such an aq. electrolyte was demonstrated to cycle up to 1000 times, with nearly 100% coulombic efficiency at both low (0.15 C) and high (4.5 coulombs) discharge and charge rates.
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    Matsumoto, K.; Inoue, K.; Nakahara, K.; Yuge, R.; Noguchi, T.; Utsugi, K. Suppression of aluminum corrosion by using high concentration LiTFSI electrolyte. J. Power Sources 2013, 231, 234– 238,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.028
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    Suppression of aluminum corrosion by using high concentration LiTFSI electrolyte
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    Journal of Power Sources (2013), 231 (), 234-238CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Although lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl imide) (LiTFSI) has a high thermal stability and fine tolerance to water and is an outstanding candidate as an electrolyte, there is an urgent need to control aluminum corrosion. Here, the suppression is shown of aluminum corrosion by controlling the LiTFSI concn. SEM observations and XPS depth profiles of the electrode at high LiTFSI electrolyte concns. showed that stable passivation film composed of LiF was formed on an aluminum electrode, which prevented the continuous decompn. reaction of the LiTFSI electrolyte. As a result, a lithium-ion battery with LiTFSI demonstrated excellent properties for several cycles without aluminum corrosion, which should accelerate progress in its applications to industry.
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    Neuwald, I. J.; Zahn, D.; Knepper, T. P. Are (fluorinated) ionic liquids relevant environmental contaminants? High-resolution mass spectrometric screening for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in environmental water samples led to the detection of a fluorinated ionic liquid. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2020, 412, 4881– 4892,  DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02606-8
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    Are (fluorinated) ionic liquids relevant environmental contaminants? High-resolution mass spectrometric screening for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in environmental water samples led to detection of fluorinated ionic liquid
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    Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2020), 412 (20), 4881-4892CODEN: ABCNBP; ISSN:1618-2642. (Springer)
    Fragmentation flagging (FF), a high-resoln. mass spectrometric screening variant that utilizes intentionally produced indicative in-source fragments, was used to screen for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in surface waters. Besides expected legacy PFAS, FF enabled the detection of some rarely investigated representatives, such as trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TFMSA). Addnl., a novel PFAS was detected and identified as tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate (FAP) via MS/MS expts. and confirmed with a ref. std. The first monitoring of FAP in 20 different surface waters revealed a localized contamination affecting three connected rivers with peak concns. of up to 3.4μg/L. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time FAP has been detected in environmental water samples. The detection of FAP, which is exclusively used as a constituent of ionic liqs. (ILs), raises questions about the environmental relevance of ILs in general and particularly fluorinated ILs. A following comprehensive literature search revealed that ILs have already been intensely discussed as potential environmental contaminants, but findings reporting ILs in environmental (water) samples are almost non-existent. Furthermore, we address the relevance of ILs in the context of persistent, mobile, and toxic chems., which are at present gaining increasing scientific and regulatory interest, and as part of the PFAS "dark matter" that represents the gap between the amt. of fluorine originating from known PFAS and the total adsorbable organically bound fluorine.
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    Zahn, D.; Frömel, T.; Knepper, T. P. Halogenated methanesulfonic acids: A new class of organic micropollutants in the water cycle. Water Res. 2016, 101, 292– 299,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.082
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    Halogenated methanesulfonic acids: A new class of organic micropollutants in the water cycle
    Zahn, Daniel; Froemel, Tobias; Knepper, Thomas P.
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    Mobile and persistent org. micropollutants may impact raw and drinking waters and are thus of concern for human health. To identify such possible substances of concern nineteen water samples from five European countries (France, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Spain and Germany) and different compartments of the water cycle (urban effluent, surface water, ground water and drinking water) were enriched with mixed-mode solid phase extn. Hydrophilic interaction liq. chromatog. - high resoln. mass spectrometry non-target screening of these samples led to the detection and structural elucidation of seven novel org. micropollutants. One structure could already be confirmed by a ref. std. (trifluoromethanesulfonic acid) and six were tentatively identified based on exptl. evidence (chloromethanesulfonic acid, dichloromethanesulfonic acid, trichloromethanesulfonic acid, bromomethanesulfonic acid, dibromomethanesulfonic acid and bromochloromethanesulfonic acid). Approximated concns. for these substances show that trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, a chem. registered under the European Union regulation REACH with a prodn. vol. of more than 100 t/a, is able to spread along the water cycle and may be present in concns. up to the μg/L range. Chlorinated and brominated methanesulfonic acids were predominantly detected together which indicates a common source and first exptl. evidence points towards water disinfection as a potential origin. Halogenated methanesulfonic acids were detected in drinking waters and thus may be new substances of concern.
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    Jiao, E.; Larsson, P.; Wang, Q.; Zhu, Z.; Yin, D.; Kärrman, A.; van Hees, P.; Karlsson, P.; Qiu, Y.; Yeung, L. W. Y. Further Insight into Extractable (Organo)fluorine Mass Balance Analysis of Tap Water from Shanghai, China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023, 57, 14330,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c02718
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    Yamazaki, S.; Tatara, R.; Mizuta, H.; Kawano, K.; Yasuno, S.; Komaba, S. Consumption of Fluoroethylene Carbonate Electrolyte-Additive at the Si–Graphite Negative Electrode in Li and Li-Ion Cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 2023, 127, 14030– 14040,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c00843
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    Hernández, G.; Mogensen, R.; Younesi, R.; Mindemark, J. Fluorine-Free Electrolytes for Lithium and Sodium Batteries. Batteries Supercaps 2022, 5, e202100373,  DOI: 10.1002/batt.202100373
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    Fluorine-Free Electrolytes for Lithium and Sodium Batteries
    Hernandez, Guiomar; Mogensen, Ronnie; Younesi, Reza; Mindemark, Jonas
    Batteries & Supercaps (2022), 5 (6), e202100373CODEN: BSAUBU; ISSN:2566-6223. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
    A review. Fluorinated components in the form of salts, solvents and/or additives are a staple of electrolytes for high-performance Li- and Na-ion batteries, but this comes at a cost. Issues like potential toxicity, corrosivity and environmental concerns have sparked interest in fluorine-free alternatives. Of course, these electrolytes should be able to deliver performance that is on par with the electrolytes being in use today in com. batteries. This begs the question: Are we there yet. This review outlines why fluorine is regarded as an essential component in battery electrolytes, along with the numerous problems it causes and possible strategies to eliminate it from Li- and Na-ion battery electrolytes. The examples provided demonstrate the possibilities of creating fully fluorine-free electrolytes with similar performance as their fluorinated counterparts, but also that there is still a lot of room for improvement, not least in terms of optimizing the fluorine-free systems independently of their fluorinated predecessors.
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    Hernández, G.; Naylor, A. J.; Chien, Y.-C.; Brandell, D.; Mindemark, J.; Edström, K. Elimination of Fluorination: The Influence of Fluorine-Free Electrolytes on the Performance of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2/Silicon–Graphite Li-Ion Battery Cells. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 10041– 10052,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c01733
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    Elimination of Fluorination: The Influence of Fluorine-Free Electrolytes on the Performance of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2/Silicon-Graphite Li-Ion Battery Cells
    Hernandez, Guiomar; Naylor, Andrew J.; Chien, Yu-Chuan; Brandell, Daniel; Mindemark, Jonas; Edstroem, Kristina
    ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2020), 8 (27), 10041-10052CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
    In the quest for environmentally friendly and safe batteries, moving from fluorinated electrolytes that are toxic and release corrosive compds., such as HF, is a necessary step. Here, the effects of electrolyte fluorination are investigated for full cells combining silicon-graphite composite electrodes with LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) cathodes, a viable cell chem. for a range of potential battery applications, by means of electrochem. testing and postmortem surface anal. A fluorine-free electrolyte based on lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB) and vinylene carbonate (VC) is able to provide higher discharge capacity (147 mAh gNMC-1) and longer cycle life at C/10 (84.4% capacity retention after 200 cycles) than a cell with a highly fluorinated electrolyte contg. LiPF6, fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) and VC. The cell with the fluorine-free electrolyte is able to form a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, has low overpotential, and shows a slow increase in cell resistance that leads to improved electrochem. performance. Although the power capability is limiting the performance of the fluorine-free electrolyte due to higher interfacial resistance, it is still able to provide long cycle life at C/2 and outperforms the highly fluorinated electrolyte at 40°C. XPS results showed a F-rich SEI with the highly fluorinated electrolyte, while the fluorine-free electrolyte formed an O-rich SEI. Although their compn. is different, the electrochem. results show that both the highly fluorinated and fluorine-free electrolytes are able to stabilize the silicon-based anode and support stable cycling in full cells. While these results demonstrate the possibility to use a nonfluorinated electrolyte in high-energy-d. full cells, they also address new challenges toward environmentally friendly and nontoxic electrolytes. LiPF6-based electrolytes decomp. easily, releasing toxic compds. (HF). Alternative fluorine-free electrolytes feature comparable electrochem. performance while being more environmentally friendly.
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    He, X.; Yan, B.; Zhang, X.; Liu, Z.; Bresser, D.; Wang, J.; Wang, R.; Cao, X.; Su, Y.; Jia, H. Fluorine-free water-in-ionomer electrolytes for sustainable lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 5320,  DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07331-6
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    Fluorine-free water-in-ionomer electrolytes for sustainable lithium-ion batteries
    He, Xin; Yan, Bo; Zhang, Xin; Liu, Zigeng; Bresser, Dominic; Wang, Jun; Wang, Rui; Cao, Xia; Su, Yixi; Jia, Hao; Grey, Clare P.; Frielinghaus, Henrich; Truhlar, Donald G.; Winter, Martin; Li, Jie; Paillard, Elie
    Nature Communications (2018), 9 (1), 5320CODEN: NCAOBW; ISSN:2041-1723. (Nature Research)
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Schematic structure of a lithium-ion battery cell highlighting the components where PFAS (and other fluorinated substances) are used to the largest extent (with given example structures) and alternatives are needed. Adapted from ref (10) under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 License. Copyright 2023 The Authors.

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    Eleni K. Savvidou

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    Eleni Savvidou is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Environmental Science at Stockholm University in Sweden. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in Chemistry from Ulm University, Germany (2018) and a Master’s in Environmental Science with a focus on Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry from Stockholm University (2021). Her research centers on detecting PFAS in various consumer products and other applications through the mass balance approach and other analytical methods, with an additional focus on exploring alternatives to uses of PFAS.

    Ian T. Cousins

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    Ian Cousins is an environmental chemist based at the Department of Environmental Science at Stockholm University in Sweden. He holds a Ph.D. from Lancaster University in the UK (1999) and a professorship from Stockholm University (since 2012). Ian has 33 years of experience working as an environmental chemist in academia and industry in England, Canada and Sweden. In his research group, he strives to develop an understanding of the sources, uses, transport and fate behavior, and exposure pathways of hazardous chemicals. Ian’s research has recently focused on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

  • References

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      Xing, C.; Zhao, M.; Zhao, L.; You, J.; Cao, X.; Li, Y. Ionic liquid modified poly(vinylidene fluoride): crystalline structures, miscibility, and physical properties. Polym. Chem. 2013, 4, 5726– 5734,  DOI: 10.1039/c3py00466j
      15
      Ionic liquid modified poly(vinylidene fluoride): crystalline structures, miscibility, and physical properties
      Xing, Chenyang; Zhao, Mengmeng; Zhao, Liping; You, Jichun; Cao, Xiaojun; Li, Yongjin
      Polymer Chemistry (2013), 4 (24), 5726-5734CODEN: PCOHC2; ISSN:1759-9962. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      A room temp. ionic liq. (IL), 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate [BMIM][PF6], has been used to modify poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF). The cryst. structures, miscibility, and phys. properties of PVDF/IL blends were investigated systematically. It was found that the incorporation of IL into the PVDF leads to drastically increased γ crystal forms of PVDF by the interaction between the >CF2 and cationic ions. Moreover, IL is fully miscible with PVDF with the interaction parameter (χ12) of -2.84 calcd. by the revised Nishi-Wang equation due to the drastic equil. melting temp. depression. Dynamic mech. anal. (DMA) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) results indicate that the IL mols. are inserted into the gallery of PVDF lamellae. A small amt. of IL induces the appearance of the crystal-amorphous interface relaxation of PVDF, originating from the enrichment of IL distribution near the crystal-amorphous interface. The obtained PVDF/IL blends exhibit excellent mech. performance with significantly increased ductility and good optical transmittance. In addn., the incorporation of IL into PVDF enhances the elec. cond. of PVDF films greatly. Therefore, novel PVDF films with high transparency, excellent antistatic properties, and a highly polar crystal form fraction were successfully achieved.
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    16. 16
      Lohmann, R.; Cousins, I. T.; DeWitt, J. C.; Glüge, J.; Goldenman, G.; Herzke, D.; Lindstrom, A. B.; Miller, M. F.; Ng, C. A.; Patton, S.; Scheringer, M.; Trier, X.; Wang, Z. Are Fluoropolymers Really of Low Concern for Human and Environmental Health and Separate from Other PFAS?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 12820– 12828,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03244
      16
      Are Fluoropolymers Really of Low Concern for Human and Environmental Health and Separate from Other PFAS?
      Lohmann, Rainer; Cousins, Ian T.; DeWitt, Jamie C.; Gluge, Juliane; Goldenman, Gretta; Herzke, Dorte; Lindstrom, Andrew B.; Miller, Mark F.; Ng, Carla A.; Patton, Sharyle; Scheringer, Martin; Trier, Xenia; Wang, Zhanyun
      Environmental Science & Technology (2020), 54 (20), 12820-12828CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. Fluoropolymers are a group of polymers within the class of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). The objective of this anal. is to evaluate the evidence regarding the environmental and human health impacts of fluoropolymers throughout their life cycle(s). Prodn. of some fluoropolymers is intimately linked to the use and emissions of legacy and novel PFAS as polymer processing aids. There are serious concerns regarding the toxicity and adverse effects of fluorinated processing aids on humans and the environment. A variety of other PFAS, including monomers and oligomers, are emitted during the prodn., processing, use, and end-of-life treatment of fluoropolymers. There are further concerns regarding the safe disposal of fluoropolymers and their assocd. products and articles at the end of their life cycle. While recycling and reuse of fluoropolymers is performed on some industrial waste, there are only limited options for their recycling from consumer articles. The evidence reviewed in this anal. does not find a scientific rationale for concluding that fluoropolymers are of low concern for environmental and human health. Given fluoropolymers' extreme persistence; emissions assocd. with their prodn., use, and disposal; and a high likelihood for human exposure to PFAS, their prodn. and uses should be curtailed except in cases of essential uses.
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    17. 17
      Henry, B. J.; Carlin, J. P.; Hammerschmidt, J. A.; Buck, R. C.; Buxton, L. W.; Fiedler, H.; Seed, J.; Hernandez, O. A critical review of the application of polymer of low concern and regulatory criteria to fluoropolymers. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management 2018, 14, 316– 334,  DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4035
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    18. 18
      Dalmijn, J.; Glüge, J.; Scheringer, M.; Cousins, I. T. Emission inventory of PFASs and other fluorinated organic substances for the fluoropolymer production industry in Europe. Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts 2024, 26, 269,  DOI: 10.1039/D3EM00426K
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    19. 19
      Améduri, B.; Hori, H. Recycling and the end of life assessment of fluoropolymers: recent developments, challenges and future trends. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2023, 52, 4208– 4247,  DOI: 10.1039/D2CS00763K
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    20. 20
      Huber, S.; Moe, M. K.; Schmidbauer, N.; Hansen, G. H.; Herzke, D. Emissions from incineration of Fluoropolymer Materials; report OR 12/2009; Norsk Institutt for Luftforskning, 2009.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    21. 21
      Ameduri, B.; Sales, J.; Schlipf, M. Developments in Fluoropolymer Manufacturing Technology to Remove Intentional Use of PFAS as Polymerization Aids. Int. Chem. Regulatory Rev. 2023, 6, 18– 28
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    22. 22
      Bach, C.; Dauchy, X.; Boiteux, V.; Colin, A.; Hemard, J.; Sagres, V.; Rosin, C.; Munoz, J.-F. The impact of two fluoropolymer manufacturing facilities on downstream contamination of a river and drinking water resources with per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. Environ. Sci. Pollut Res. 2017, 24, 4916– 4925,  DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-8243-3
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    23. 23
      Björklund, S.; Weidemann, E.; Jansson, S. Emission of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from a Waste-to-Energy Plant─Occurrence in Ashes, Treated Process Water, and First Observation in Flue Gas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023, 57, 10089– 10095,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08960
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    24. 24
      Bresser, D.; Buchholz, D.; Moretti, A.; Varzi, A.; Passerini, S. Alternative binders for sustainable electrochemical energy storage – the transition to aqueous electrode processing and bio-derived polymers. Energy Environ. Sci. 2018, 11, 3096– 3127,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EE00640G
      24
      Alternative binders for sustainable electrochemical energy storage - the transition to aqueous electrode processing and bio-derived polymers
      Bresser, Dominic; Buchholz, Daniel; Moretti, Arianna; Varzi, Alberto; Passerini, Stefano
      Energy & Environmental Science (2018), 11 (11), 3096-3127CODEN: EESNBY; ISSN:1754-5706. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      In this review, we discuss the most recent developments in the field of green binders for batteries and supercapacitors and explain how they could decrease cost and environmental impact, and yet improve the performance of electrochem. energy devices. The different classes of green binders reported to date in the literature are firstly classified according to their processability (the solvent required for electrode manufg.), chem. compn. (F-free), and natural availability (synthetic or bio-derived). The benefits originating from their employment are analyzed for different devices. The most popular lithium-ion batteries are thoroughly discussed both from the anode and the cathode side. While high capacity Si-based anodes benefit from enhanced cyclability due to the interaction between the active particles' surface and the functional groups of, e.g., polysaccharides such as CM-cellulose and alginate, the transition to water-processable cathodes is certainly more challenging. In particular, strategies to suppress the aluminum corrosion affecting most lithiated transition metal oxides are discussed. Despite the much more limited literature available, the role of the binder is increasingly recognized in the emerging field of lithium-sulfur and sodium-ion batteries, and electrochem. double layer capacitors and, therefore, here discussed as well.
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    25. 25
      Zhao, L.; Sun, Z.; Zhang, H.; Li, Y.; Mo, Y.; Yu, F.; Chen, Y. An environment-friendly crosslinked binder endowing LiFePO 4 electrode with structural integrity and long cycle life performance. RSC Adv. 2020, 10, 29362– 29372,  DOI: 10.1039/D0RA05095D
      25
      An environment-friendly crosslinked binder endowing LiFePO4 electrode with structural integrity and long cycle life performance
      Zhao, Lingzhu; Sun, Zhipeng; Zhang, Hongbing; Li, Yuli; Mo, Yan; Yu, Feng; Chen, Yong
      RSC Advances (2020), 10 (49), 29362-29372CODEN: RSCACL; ISSN:2046-2069. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) is one of the most widely used cathode materials of lithium ion batteries. However, its com. binder polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is costly, less environmental-friendly and unstable during the long cycling process because of the weak van der Waals forces between the PVDF binder and electrode materials. Herein, an aq. binder was designed using methacrylate-modified gelatin through UV photo-crosslinking. The crosslinked network and specific functional groups (carboxyl and amino) of the gelatin binder are superior in stabilizing the LiFePO4 electrode structure during long cycles by mitigating the formation of cracks and suppressing the detachment of electrode materials from the Al current collector. The LiFePO4 electrode with gelatin binder displays a high capacity of 140.3 mA h g-1 with 90.1% retention after 300 cycles at 0.5C, which are both superior to that of the PVDF binder (only 114.4 mA h g-1 and 74.8%). This work provides a promising binder to replace the com. PVDF binder for practical application in energy storage systems.
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    26. 26
      Rynne, O.; Lepage, D.; Aymé-Perrot, D.; Rochefort, D.; Dollé, M. Application of a Commercially-Available Fluorine-Free Thermoplastic Elastomer as a Binder for High-Power Li-Ion Battery Electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2019, 166, A1140,  DOI: 10.1149/2.0611906jes
      26
      Application of a commercially-available fluorine-free thermoplastic elastomer as a binder for high-power Li-ion battery electrodes
      Rynne, Olivier; Lepage, David; Ayme-Perrot, David; Rochefort, Dominic; Dolle, Mickael
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2019), 166 (6), A1140-A1146CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:0013-4651. (Electrochemical Society)
      Lotader 5500, a com.-available polyethylene-co-Et acrylate-co-maleic anhydride thermoplastic elastomer, is investigated as a new binder for Li-ion battery composite electrodes with LiFePO4 and Li4Ti5O12. This binder was chosen to enhance the cohesion and adhesion properties of the composite electrode it binds through its reactive functional groups; moreover, the absence of fluorine in its compn. renders it more suitable than polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) in the battery recycling process, which often relies on pyrolysis. Lotader 5500's insoly. in a carbonate electrolyte is demonstrated, as well as its similar electrochem. behavior to PVDF in the 50 mV to 4.2 V range vs. Li+/Li. After demonstrating the high-rate performance of the half-cells, full cells were assembled, and cycled 1,000 times (charged at a const. voltage of 2.4 V and discharged at 10D), and all exhibit a final capacity of approx. 70 mAh.g-1.
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    27. 27
      Nguyen, V. A.; Kuss, C. Review─Conducting Polymer-Based Binders for Lithium-Ion Batteries and Beyond. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2020, 167, 065501  DOI: 10.1149/1945-7111/ab856b
      27
      Review-conducting polymer-based binders for lithium-ion batteries and beyond
      Nguyen, Van At; Kuss, Christian
      Journal of the Electrochemical Society (2020), 167 (6), 065501CODEN: JESOAN; ISSN:1945-7111. (IOP Publishing Ltd.)
      A review. In the search for active Lithium-ion battery materials with ever-increasing energy d., the limits of conventional auxiliary materials, such as binders and conducting additives are being tested. Binders adhere to active substances and current collectors, yielding an interconnected electrode structure that ensures mech. integrity during the (de-)lithiation process. Even though the battery binder only accounts for a fraction of battery wt. and cost, it is a bottleneck technol. in the deployment of high energy d. active materials that experience significant vol. variation and side-reactions. This review paper discusses research on alternative binders derived from conducting polymers (CPs). The use of CPs in binders enables mech. flexible electronic contacts with the active material with the goal of accommodating larger vol. changes within the electrode. Following a summary of the reasoning behind the use of CP-based binders, their rational design is reviewed, including novel composite syntheses and chem. modifications. A new class of multifunctional CP-based binders exhibits promising properties such as high electronic cond., the ability for aq. processing, and efficient binding that tackle the limiting features of traditional binders. The practical application of these binders in Li-ion batteries and beyond is summarized, yielding an outline of current achievements, and a discussion of remaining knowledge gaps and possible future development of such binders.
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    28. 28
      Dobryden, I.; Montanari, C.; Bhattacharjya, D.; Aydin, J.; Ahniyaz, A. Bio-Based Binder Development for Lithium-Ion Batteries. Materials 2023, 16, 5553,  DOI: 10.3390/ma16165553
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    29. 29
      Trivedi, S.; Pamidi, V.; Fichtner, M.; Anji Reddy, M. Ionically conducting inorganic binders: a paradigm shift in electrochemical energy storage. Green Chem. 2022, 24, 5620– 5631,  DOI: 10.1039/D2GC01389D
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    30. 30
      Frith, J. T.; Lacey, M. J.; Ulissi, U. A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 420,  DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-35933-2
      30
      A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries
      Frith, James T.; Lacey, Matthew J.; Ulissi, Ulderico
      Nature Communications (2023), 14 (1), 420CODEN: NCAOBW; ISSN:2041-1723. (Nature Portfolio)
      Abstr.: In the field of lithium-based batteries, there is often a substantial divide between academic research and industrial market needs. This is in part driven by a lack of peer-reviewed publications from industry. Here we present a non-academic view on applied research in lithium-based batteries to sharpen the focus and help bridge the gap between academic and industrial research. We focus our discussion on key metrics and challenges to be considered when developing new technologies in this industry. We also explore the need to consider various performance aspects in unison when developing a new material/technol. Moreover, we also investigate the suitability of supply chains, sustainability of materials and the impact on system-level cost as factors that need to be accounted for when working on new technologies. With these considerations in mind, we then assess the latest developments in the lithium-based battery industry, providing our views on the challenges and prospects of various technologies.
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    31. 31
      Leclanché. Leclanché Achieves Breakthrough in Environmentally Friendly Production of High-Performance Lithium-Ion Batteries, https://www.leclanche.com/12322/ (accessed 13 July 2023).
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      Leclanché. Leclanché Energy Storage Solutions, Press Release, Leclanché achieves breakthrough in environmentally friendly production of high-performance lithium-ion batteries, https://www.leclanche.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/20221217-PI-Leclanche-New-NMCA-cells-on-water-based-binder-technology_ENG-.pdf (accessed 18 September 2023).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    33. 33
      Leclanché. Leclanché ready to overcome PFAS restrictions in Europe thanks to its water-based cell production, https://www.leclanche.com/leclanche-ready-to-overcome-pfas-restrictions-in-europe-thanks-to-its-water-based-cell-production/ (accessed 17 June 2024).
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      GRST. https://grst.com/ (accessed 18 September 2023).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      ZSW. ZSW produces water-based electrodes and cells on a pilot scale. https://hiu-batteries.de/en/news_and_events/zsw-produces-water-based-electrodes-and-cells-on-a-pilot-scale/ (accessed 3 August 2023).
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    36. 36
      Radloff, S.; Carbonari, G.; Scurtu, R.-G.; Hölzle, M.; Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, M. Fluorine-free water-based Ni-rich positive electrodes and their performance in pouch- and 21700-type cells. J. Power Sources 2023, 553, 232253,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2022.232253
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      Mao, G.; Luo, J.; Zhou, Q.; Xiao, F.; Tang, R.; Li, J.; Zeng, L.; Wang, Y. Improved cycling stability of high nickel cathode material for lithium ion battery through Al- and Ti-based dual modification. Nanoscale 2021, 13, 18741– 18753,  DOI: 10.1039/D1NR06005H
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      Degen, F.; Winter, M.; Bendig, D.; Tübke, J. Energy consumption of current and future production of lithium-ion and post lithium-ion battery cells. Nat. Energy 2023, 8, 1284– 1295,  DOI: 10.1038/s41560-023-01355-z
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      Nanoramic. https://www.nanoramic.com/ (accessed 1 June 2023).
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      Nanoramic. Technology. https://www.nanoramic.com/technology (accessed 18 September 2023).
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      24M Technologies. https://24-m.com/ (accessed 18 September 2023).
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      FREYR Battery. Technology and Product Management. https://www.freyrbattery.com/ (accessed 18 September 2023).
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      Bauer, C.; Burkhardt, S.; Dasgupta, N. P.; Ellingsen, L. A.-W.; Gaines, L. L.; Hao, H.; Hischier, R.; Hu, L.; Huang, Y.; Janek, J.; Liang, C.; Li, H.; Li, J.; Li, Y.; Lu, Y.-C.; Luo, W.; Nazar, L. F.; Olivetti, E. A.; Peters, J. F.; Rupp, J. L. M.; Weil, M.; Whitacre, J. F.; Xu, S. Charging sustainable batteries. Nat. Sustain 2022, 5, 176– 178,  DOI: 10.1038/s41893-022-00864-1
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    44. 44
      Wang, Y.; Wu, Z.; Azad, F. M.; Zhu, Y.; Wang, L.; Hawker, C. J.; Whittaker, A. K.; Forsyth, M.; Zhang, C. Fluorination in advanced battery design. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2024, 9, 119– 133,  DOI: 10.1038/s41578-023-00623-4
      44
      Fluorination in advanced battery design
      Wang, Yiqing; Wu, Zhenzhen; Azad, Faezeh Makhlooghi; Zhu, Yutong; Wang, Lianzhou; Hawker, Craig J.; Whittaker, Andrew K.; Forsyth, Maria; Zhang, Cheng
      Nature Reviews Materials (2024), 9 (2), 119-133CODEN: NRMADL; ISSN:2058-8437. (Nature Portfolio)
      Abstr.: The increasing demand for high-performance rechargeable batteries, particularly in energy storage applications such as elec. vehicles, has driven the development of advanced battery technologies with improved energy d., safety and cycling stability. Fluorine has emerged as a crucial element in achieving these goals, owing to its hydrophobicity, robust bond strength and stability, exceptional dielec. properties and strong electronegativity and polarization. These attributes provide fluorinated battery components with high thermal and oxidative stability, chem. inertness and non-flammability. Importantly, fluorinated materials also facilitate the formation of a thin, protective film of corrosion products at the metal-electrolyte interface, which serves as a barrier against further chem. reactions with the electrolyte. Fluorinated species are now used in a wide range of battery components, including solid and liq. electrolytes, electrolyte additives, solvents, binders and protective layers for electrodes. This Review explores the design and utilization of fluorine-contg. species in advanced batteries, focusing on the relationship between the chem. structure of the species and its impact on battery performance. Addnl., given the regulatory landscape surrounding the use of fluorinated compds., we discuss the current challenges and future directions related to the responsible reuse and recycling of fluorinated materials in battery-related components.
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    45. 45
      Wang, Y.; Li, Z.; Hou, Y.; Hao, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Ni, Y.; Lu, Y.; Yan, Z.; Zhang, K.; Zhao, Q.; Li, F.; Chen, J. Emerging electrolytes with fluorinated solvents for rechargeable lithium-based batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2023, 52, 2713– 2763,  DOI: 10.1039/D2CS00873D
      45
      Emerging electrolytes with fluorinated solvents for rechargeable lithium-based batteries
      Wang, Yuankun; Li, Zhiming; Hou, Yunpeng; Hao, Zhimeng; Zhang, Qiu; Ni, Youxuan; Lu, Yong; Yan, Zhenhua; Zhang, Kai; Zhao, Qing; Li, Fujun; Chen, Jun
      Chemical Society Reviews (2023), 52 (8), 2713-2763CODEN: CSRVBR; ISSN:0306-0012. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      A review. Electrolytes that can ensure the movement of ions and regulate interfacial chemistries for fast mass and charge transfer are essential in many types of electrochem. energy storage devices. However, in the emerging energy-dense lithium-based batteries, the uncontrollable side-reactions and consumption of the electrolyte result in poor electrochem. performances and severe safety concerns. In this case, fluorination has been demonstrated to be one of the most effective strategies to overcome the above-mentioned issues without significantly contributing to engineering and tech. difficulties. Herein, we present a comprehensive overview of the fluorinated solvents that can be employed in lithium-based batteries. Firstly, the basic parameters that dictate the properties of solvents/electrolytes are elaborated, including phys. properties, solvation structure, interface chem., and safety. Specifically, we focus on the advances and scientific challenges assocd. with different solvents and the enhancement in their performance after fluorination. Secondly, we discuss the synthetic methods for new fluorinated solvents and their reaction mechanisms in depth. Thirdly, the progress, structure-performance relationship, and applications of fluorinated solvents are reviewed. Subsequently, we provide suggestions on the solvent selection for different battery chemistries. Finally, the existing challenges and further efforts on fluorinated solvents are summarized. The combination of advanced synthesis and characterization approaches with the assistance of machine learning will enable the design of new fluorinated solvents for advanced lithium-based batteries.
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    46. 46
      Yu, Z.; Yu, W.; Chen, Y.; Mondonico, L.; Xiao, X.; Zheng, Y.; Liu, F.; Hung, S. T.; Cui, Y.; Bao, Z. Tuning Fluorination of Linear Carbonate for Lithium-Ion Batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2022, 169, 040555  DOI: 10.1149/1945-7111/ac67f5
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    47. 47
      Solvay. High Performance Materials for Batteries, 2018. https://www.solvay.com/sites/g/files/srpend221/files/2018-10/High-Performance-Materials-for-Batteries_EN-v1.7_0_0.pdf (accessed 22 October 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    48. 48
      Osada, I.; de Vries, H.; Scrosati, B.; Passerini, S. Ionic-Liquid-Based Polymer Electrolytes for Battery Applications. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2016, 55, 500– 513,  DOI: 10.1002/anie.201504971
      48
      Ionic-Liquid-Based Polymer Electrolytes for Battery Applications
      Osada, Irene; de Vries, Henrik; Scrosati, Bruno; Passerini, Stefano
      Angewandte Chemie, International Edition (2016), 55 (2), 500-513CODEN: ACIEF5; ISSN:1433-7851. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      A review. The advent of solid-state polymer electrolytes for application in lithium batteries took place more than four decades ago when the ability of polyethylene oxide (PEO) to dissolve suitable lithium salts was demonstrated. Since then, many modifications of this basic system were proposed and tested, involving the addn. of conventional, carbonate-based electrolytes, low mol. wt. polymers, ceramic fillers, and others. This Review focuses on ternary polymer electrolytes, i.e., ion-conducting systems consisting of a polymer incorporating two salts, one bearing the lithium cation and the other introducing addnl. anions capable of plasticizing the polymer chains. Assessing the state of the research field of solid-state, ternary polymer electrolytes, while giving background on the whole field of polymer electrolytes, this Review is expected to stimulate new thoughts and ideas on the challenges and opportunities of lithium-metal batteries.
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    49. 49
      Suo, L.; Borodin, O.; Gao, T.; Olguin, M.; Ho, J.; Fan, X.; Luo, C.; Wang, C.; Xu, K. Water-in-salt” electrolyte enables high-voltage aqueous lithium-ion chemistries. Science 2015, 350, 938– 943,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aab1595
      49
      "Water-in-salt" electrolyte enables high-voltage aqueous lithium-ion chemistries
      Suo, Liumin; Borodin, Oleg; Gao, Tao; Olguin, Marco; Ho, Janet; Fan, Xiulin; Luo, Chao; Wang, Chunsheng; Xu, Kang
      Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2015), 350 (6263), 938-943CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
      Lithium-ion batteries raise safety, environmental, and cost concerns, which mostly arise from their nonaq. electrolytes. The use of aq. alternatives is limited by their narrow electrochem. stability window (1.23 V), which sets an intrinsic limit on the practical voltage and energy output. We report a highly concd. aq. electrolyte whose window was expanded to ∼3.0 V with the formation of an electrode-electrolyte interphase. A full lithium-ion battery of 2.3 V using such an aq. electrolyte was demonstrated to cycle up to 1000 times, with nearly 100% coulombic efficiency at both low (0.15 C) and high (4.5 coulombs) discharge and charge rates.
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    50. 50
      Matsumoto, K.; Inoue, K.; Nakahara, K.; Yuge, R.; Noguchi, T.; Utsugi, K. Suppression of aluminum corrosion by using high concentration LiTFSI electrolyte. J. Power Sources 2013, 231, 234– 238,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.028
      50
      Suppression of aluminum corrosion by using high concentration LiTFSI electrolyte
      Matsumoto, Kazuaki; Inoue, Kazuhiko; Nakahara, Kentaro; Yuge, Ryota; Noguchi, Takehiro; Utsugi, Koji
      Journal of Power Sources (2013), 231 (), 234-238CODEN: JPSODZ; ISSN:0378-7753. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Although lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl imide) (LiTFSI) has a high thermal stability and fine tolerance to water and is an outstanding candidate as an electrolyte, there is an urgent need to control aluminum corrosion. Here, the suppression is shown of aluminum corrosion by controlling the LiTFSI concn. SEM observations and XPS depth profiles of the electrode at high LiTFSI electrolyte concns. showed that stable passivation film composed of LiF was formed on an aluminum electrode, which prevented the continuous decompn. reaction of the LiTFSI electrolyte. As a result, a lithium-ion battery with LiTFSI demonstrated excellent properties for several cycles without aluminum corrosion, which should accelerate progress in its applications to industry.
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    51. 51
      Guelfo, J. L.; Ferguson, P. L.; Beck, J.; Chernick, M.; Doria-Manzur, A.; Faught, P. W.; Flug, T.; Gray, E. P.; Jayasundara, N.; Knappe, D. R. U.; Joyce, A. S.; Meng, P.; Shojaei, M. Lithium-ion battery components are at the nexus of sustainable energy and environmental release of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15 (1), 5548,  DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49753-5
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    52. 52
      3M. Anstistatic Additives. https://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/1180156O/3m-antistatic-additives-overview-presentation.pdf (accessed 3 May 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    53. 53
      Neuwald, I. J.; Zahn, D.; Knepper, T. P. Are (fluorinated) ionic liquids relevant environmental contaminants? High-resolution mass spectrometric screening for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in environmental water samples led to the detection of a fluorinated ionic liquid. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2020, 412, 4881– 4892,  DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02606-8
      53
      Are (fluorinated) ionic liquids relevant environmental contaminants? High-resolution mass spectrometric screening for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in environmental water samples led to detection of fluorinated ionic liquid
      Neuwald, Isabelle J.; Zahn, Daniel; Knepper, Thomas P.
      Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2020), 412 (20), 4881-4892CODEN: ABCNBP; ISSN:1618-2642. (Springer)
      Fragmentation flagging (FF), a high-resoln. mass spectrometric screening variant that utilizes intentionally produced indicative in-source fragments, was used to screen for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in surface waters. Besides expected legacy PFAS, FF enabled the detection of some rarely investigated representatives, such as trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TFMSA). Addnl., a novel PFAS was detected and identified as tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate (FAP) via MS/MS expts. and confirmed with a ref. std. The first monitoring of FAP in 20 different surface waters revealed a localized contamination affecting three connected rivers with peak concns. of up to 3.4μg/L. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time FAP has been detected in environmental water samples. The detection of FAP, which is exclusively used as a constituent of ionic liqs. (ILs), raises questions about the environmental relevance of ILs in general and particularly fluorinated ILs. A following comprehensive literature search revealed that ILs have already been intensely discussed as potential environmental contaminants, but findings reporting ILs in environmental (water) samples are almost non-existent. Furthermore, we address the relevance of ILs in the context of persistent, mobile, and toxic chems., which are at present gaining increasing scientific and regulatory interest, and as part of the PFAS "dark matter" that represents the gap between the amt. of fluorine originating from known PFAS and the total adsorbable organically bound fluorine.
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    54. 54
      Zahn, D.; Frömel, T.; Knepper, T. P. Halogenated methanesulfonic acids: A new class of organic micropollutants in the water cycle. Water Res. 2016, 101, 292– 299,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.082
      54
      Halogenated methanesulfonic acids: A new class of organic micropollutants in the water cycle
      Zahn, Daniel; Froemel, Tobias; Knepper, Thomas P.
      Water Research (2016), 101 (), 292-299CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Mobile and persistent org. micropollutants may impact raw and drinking waters and are thus of concern for human health. To identify such possible substances of concern nineteen water samples from five European countries (France, Switzerland, The Netherlands, Spain and Germany) and different compartments of the water cycle (urban effluent, surface water, ground water and drinking water) were enriched with mixed-mode solid phase extn. Hydrophilic interaction liq. chromatog. - high resoln. mass spectrometry non-target screening of these samples led to the detection and structural elucidation of seven novel org. micropollutants. One structure could already be confirmed by a ref. std. (trifluoromethanesulfonic acid) and six were tentatively identified based on exptl. evidence (chloromethanesulfonic acid, dichloromethanesulfonic acid, trichloromethanesulfonic acid, bromomethanesulfonic acid, dibromomethanesulfonic acid and bromochloromethanesulfonic acid). Approximated concns. for these substances show that trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, a chem. registered under the European Union regulation REACH with a prodn. vol. of more than 100 t/a, is able to spread along the water cycle and may be present in concns. up to the μg/L range. Chlorinated and brominated methanesulfonic acids were predominantly detected together which indicates a common source and first exptl. evidence points towards water disinfection as a potential origin. Halogenated methanesulfonic acids were detected in drinking waters and thus may be new substances of concern.
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    55. 55
      Jiao, E.; Larsson, P.; Wang, Q.; Zhu, Z.; Yin, D.; Kärrman, A.; van Hees, P.; Karlsson, P.; Qiu, Y.; Yeung, L. W. Y. Further Insight into Extractable (Organo)fluorine Mass Balance Analysis of Tap Water from Shanghai, China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023, 57, 14330,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c02718
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    56. 56
      Son, J. E.; Yim, J.-H.; Lee, J.-W. Fluorination of SiOx as an effective strategy to enhance the cycling stability of lithium-ion batteries. Electrochem. Commun. 2023, 152, 107517,  DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2023.107517
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    57. 57
      Yamazaki, S.; Tatara, R.; Mizuta, H.; Kawano, K.; Yasuno, S.; Komaba, S. Consumption of Fluoroethylene Carbonate Electrolyte-Additive at the Si–Graphite Negative Electrode in Li and Li-Ion Cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 2023, 127, 14030– 14040,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.3c00843
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    58. 58
      Hernández, G.; Mogensen, R.; Younesi, R.; Mindemark, J. Fluorine-Free Electrolytes for Lithium and Sodium Batteries. Batteries Supercaps 2022, 5, e202100373,  DOI: 10.1002/batt.202100373
      58
      Fluorine-Free Electrolytes for Lithium and Sodium Batteries
      Hernandez, Guiomar; Mogensen, Ronnie; Younesi, Reza; Mindemark, Jonas
      Batteries & Supercaps (2022), 5 (6), e202100373CODEN: BSAUBU; ISSN:2566-6223. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      A review. Fluorinated components in the form of salts, solvents and/or additives are a staple of electrolytes for high-performance Li- and Na-ion batteries, but this comes at a cost. Issues like potential toxicity, corrosivity and environmental concerns have sparked interest in fluorine-free alternatives. Of course, these electrolytes should be able to deliver performance that is on par with the electrolytes being in use today in com. batteries. This begs the question: Are we there yet. This review outlines why fluorine is regarded as an essential component in battery electrolytes, along with the numerous problems it causes and possible strategies to eliminate it from Li- and Na-ion battery electrolytes. The examples provided demonstrate the possibilities of creating fully fluorine-free electrolytes with similar performance as their fluorinated counterparts, but also that there is still a lot of room for improvement, not least in terms of optimizing the fluorine-free systems independently of their fluorinated predecessors.
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    59. 59
      Hernández, G.; Naylor, A. J.; Chien, Y.-C.; Brandell, D.; Mindemark, J.; Edström, K. Elimination of Fluorination: The Influence of Fluorine-Free Electrolytes on the Performance of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2/Silicon–Graphite Li-Ion Battery Cells. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 10041– 10052,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.0c01733
      59
      Elimination of Fluorination: The Influence of Fluorine-Free Electrolytes on the Performance of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2/Silicon-Graphite Li-Ion Battery Cells
      Hernandez, Guiomar; Naylor, Andrew J.; Chien, Yu-Chuan; Brandell, Daniel; Mindemark, Jonas; Edstroem, Kristina
      ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2020), 8 (27), 10041-10052CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
      In the quest for environmentally friendly and safe batteries, moving from fluorinated electrolytes that are toxic and release corrosive compds., such as HF, is a necessary step. Here, the effects of electrolyte fluorination are investigated for full cells combining silicon-graphite composite electrodes with LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111) cathodes, a viable cell chem. for a range of potential battery applications, by means of electrochem. testing and postmortem surface anal. A fluorine-free electrolyte based on lithium bis(oxalato)borate (LiBOB) and vinylene carbonate (VC) is able to provide higher discharge capacity (147 mAh gNMC-1) and longer cycle life at C/10 (84.4% capacity retention after 200 cycles) than a cell with a highly fluorinated electrolyte contg. LiPF6, fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) and VC. The cell with the fluorine-free electrolyte is able to form a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer, has low overpotential, and shows a slow increase in cell resistance that leads to improved electrochem. performance. Although the power capability is limiting the performance of the fluorine-free electrolyte due to higher interfacial resistance, it is still able to provide long cycle life at C/2 and outperforms the highly fluorinated electrolyte at 40°C. XPS results showed a F-rich SEI with the highly fluorinated electrolyte, while the fluorine-free electrolyte formed an O-rich SEI. Although their compn. is different, the electrochem. results show that both the highly fluorinated and fluorine-free electrolytes are able to stabilize the silicon-based anode and support stable cycling in full cells. While these results demonstrate the possibility to use a nonfluorinated electrolyte in high-energy-d. full cells, they also address new challenges toward environmentally friendly and nontoxic electrolytes. LiPF6-based electrolytes decomp. easily, releasing toxic compds. (HF). Alternative fluorine-free electrolytes feature comparable electrochem. performance while being more environmentally friendly.
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    60. 60
      He, X.; Yan, B.; Zhang, X.; Liu, Z.; Bresser, D.; Wang, J.; Wang, R.; Cao, X.; Su, Y.; Jia, H. Fluorine-free water-in-ionomer electrolytes for sustainable lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Commun. 2018, 9, 5320,  DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-07331-6
      60
      Fluorine-free water-in-ionomer electrolytes for sustainable lithium-ion batteries
      He, Xin; Yan, Bo; Zhang, Xin; Liu, Zigeng; Bresser, Dominic; Wang, Jun; Wang, Rui; Cao, Xia; Su, Yixi; Jia, Hao; Grey, Clare P.; Frielinghaus, Henrich; Truhlar, Donald G.; Winter, Martin; Li, Jie; Paillard, Elie
      Nature Communications (2018), 9 (1), 5320CODEN: NCAOBW; ISSN:2041-1723. (Nature Research)
      The continuously increasing no. and size of lithium-based batteries developed for large-scale applications raise serious environmental concerns. Herein, we address the issues related to electrolyte toxicity and safety by proposing a "water-in-ionomer" type of electrolyte which replaces org. solvents by water and expensive and toxic fluorinated lithium salts by a non-fluorinated, inexpensive and non-toxic superabsorbing ionomer, lithium polyacrylate. Interestingly, the electrochem. stability window of this electrolyte is extended greatly, even for high water contents. Particularly, the gel with 50 wt% ionomer exhibits an electrochem. stability window of 2.6 V vs. platinum and a cond. of 6.5 mS cm-1 at 20°C. Structural investigations suggest that the electrolytes locally self-organize and most likely switch local structures with the change of water content, leading to a 50% gel with good cond. and elastic properties. A LiTi2(PO4)3/LiMn2O4 lithium-ion cell incorporating this electrolyte provided an av. discharge voltage > 1.5 V and a specific energy of 77 Wh kg-1, while for an alternative cell chem., i.e., TiO2/LiMn2O4, a further enhanced av. output voltage of 2.1 V and an initial specific energy of 124.2 Wh kg-1 are achieved.
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    61. 61
      Khan, I. A.; Gnezdilov, O. I.; Filippov, A.; Shah, F. U. Ion Transport and Electrochemical Properties of Fluorine-Free Lithium-Ion Battery Electrolytes Derived from Biomass. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 7769– 7780,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c00939
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    62. 62
      Press release | E-Lyte and Nanoramic® Announce Strategic R&D Partnership. https://e-lyte.de/company/news/e-lyte-and-nanoramic-announce-strategic-rd-partnership/ (accessed 3 May 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    63. 63
      Nam, S.; Seong, H.; Kim, Y.; Kim, K.; Kim, C.; Kwon, S.; Park, S. All fluorine-free lithium-ion batteries with high-rate capability. Chemical Engineering Journal 2024, 497, 154790,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2024.154790
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    64. 64
      Toyota. Toyota has lots of new innovations coming down the line. https://www.toyota.ie/company/news/2021/solid-state-batteries (accessed 3 June 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    65. 65
      Dobberstein, L. Toyota, Samsung accelerate toward better EV batteries. https://www.theregister.com/2024/03/07/toyota_battery_buyout/ (accessed 3 June 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    66. 66
      Ahniyaz, A.; de Meatza, I.; Kvasha, A.; Garcia-Calvo, O.; Ahmed, I.; Sgroi, M. F.; Giuliano, M.; Dotoli, M.; Dumitrescu, M.-A.; Jahn, M.; Zhang, N. Progress in solid-state high voltage lithium-ion battery electrolytes. Advances in Applied Energy 2021, 4, 100070,  DOI: 10.1016/j.adapen.2021.100070
      66
      Progress in solid-state high voltage lithium-ion battery electrolytes
      Ahniyaz, Anwar; de Meatza, Iratxe; Kvasha, Andriy; Garcia-Calvo, Oihane; Ahmed, Istaq; Sgroi, Mauro Francesco; Giuliano, Mattia; Dotoli, Matteo; Dumitrescu, Mihaela-Aneta; Jahn, Marcus; Zhang, Ningxin
      Advances in Applied Energy (2021), 4 (), 100070CODEN: AAEDCX; ISSN:2666-7924. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Developing high specific energy Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries is of vital importance to boost the prodn. of efficient elec. vehicles able to meet the customers' expectation related to the elec. range of the vehicle. One possible pathway to high specific energy is to increase the operating voltage of the Li-ion cell. Cathode materials enabling operation above 4.2 V are available. The stability of the pos. electrode-electrolyte interface is still the main bottleneck to develop high voltage cells. Moreover, important research efforts are devoted to the substitution of graphite anodes with Li metal: this would improve the energy d. of the cell dramatically. The use of metallic lithium is prevented by the dendrite growth during charge, with consequent safety problems. To suppress the formation of dendrites solid-state electrolytes are considered the most promising approach. For these reasons the present review summarizes the most recent research efforts in the field of high voltage solid-state electrolytes for high energy d. Li-ion cells.
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    67. 67
      Zhang, X.; Wang, S.; Xue, C.; Xin, C.; Lin, Y.; Shen, Y.; Li, L.; Nan, C.-W. Self-Suppression of Lithium Dendrite in All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries with Poly(vinylidene difluoride)-Based Solid Electrolytes. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1806082,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.201806082
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    68. 68
      Du, S.-Y.; Ren, G.-X.; Zhang, N.; Liu, X.-S. High-Performance Poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene)-Based Composite Electrolytes with Excellent Interfacial Compatibility for Room-Temperature All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 19631– 19639,  DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c01338
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    69. 69
      Kang, L. Hina Battery becomes 1st battery maker to put sodium-ion batteries in EVs in China. https://cnevpost.com/2023/02/23/hina-battery-puts-sodium-ion-batteries-in-sehol-e10x/ (accessed 3 June 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    70. 70
      Fraunhofer. Umfeldbericht zu Natrium-Ionen-Batterien 2023: STatus Quo und Perspektiven entlang einer zukünftigen Wertschöpfungskette, September 2023. https://www.ffb.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ipt/forschungsfertigung-batteriezelle/Dokumente/231009_FFB_TP1_AP1_DV13_Umfeldbericht-SIB.pdf (accessed 3 June 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    71. 71
      V. M. Reports. Sodium Ion Battery Cathode Materials Market Size, Global Trends | Forecast 2023–2030. https://www.verifiedmarketreports.com/product/sodium-ion-battery-cathode-materials-market/ (accessed 3 June 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    72. 72
      Zheng, X.; Huang, L.; Ye, X.; Zhang, J.; Min, F.; Luo, W.; Huang, Y. Critical effects of electrolyte recipes for Li and Na metal batteries. Chem. 2021, 7, 2312– 2346,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2021.02.025
      72
      Critical effects of electrolyte recipes for Li and Na metal batteries
      Zheng, Xueying; Huang, Liqiang; Ye, Xiaolu; Zhang, Junxi; Min, Fengyuan; Luo, Wei; Huang, Yunhui
      Chem (2021), 7 (9), 2312-2346CODEN: CHEMVE; ISSN:2451-9294. (Cell Press)
      A review. The pursuit of rechargeable batteries with high energy d. has triggered enormous efforts in developing Li/Na metal batteries considering the extremely high specific capacity of Li/Na metal anodes. As is typical for a new battery system, electrolyte design should immediately keep up with the specific electrode chem. This is esp. true since Li/Na metal anodes face the problems of dendritic growth, hyper-reactivity, and an intrinsic safety concern, but the conventional electrolytes used for Li/Na-ion batteries fall short in sustaining their stable cyclability. Here, we intend to identify and elucidate the crit. effects brought by the electrolyte recipes in stabilizing Li/Na metal batteries. In addn., the working mechanism of fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) and the controversial role of LiF were ed. Based on a thorough discussion on these effects, we propose strategies that should be taken further. Finally, the remaining open questions and potential research directions for future development have been emphasized.
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    73. 73
      Chen, L.; Fiore, M.; Wang, J. E.; Ruffo, R.; Kim, D.-K.; Longoni, G. Readiness Level of Sodium-Ion Battery Technology: A Materials Review. Adv. Sustainable Syst. 2018, 2, 1700153,  DOI: 10.1002/adsu.201700153
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    74. 74
      Altris. Altris Technology - Sodium-Ion Batteries | Performance, Safety, Sustainability. https://www.altris.se/technology (accessed 9 April 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    75. 75
      Nielsen, I.; Dzodan, D.; Ojwang, D. O.; Henry, P. F.; Ulander, A.; Ek, G.; Häggström, L.; Ericsson, T.; Boström, H. L. B.; Brant, W. R. Water driven phase transitions in Prussian white cathode materials. J. Phys. Energy 2022, 4, 044012  DOI: 10.1088/2515-7655/ac9808
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    76. 76
      Aram Hall, C.; Colbin, L. O. S.; Buckel, A.; Younesi, R. Revisiting Amides as Cosolvents for Flame Resistant Sodium Bis(oxalato)borate in Triethyl Phosphate Electrolyte. Batteries Supercaps 2024, 7, e202300338,  DOI: 10.1002/batt.202300338
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    77. 77
      European Commission. EU agrees new law on more sustainable and circular batteries. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_22_7588 (accessed 10 August 2023).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    78. 78
      The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Regulation (EU) 2023/of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 July 2023 concerning batteries and waste batteries, amending Directive 2008/98/EC and Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and repealing Directive 2006/66/EC. Off. J. Eur. Communities, L 191, 28.7.2023.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    79. 79
      Golmohammadzadeh, R.; Dimachki, Z.; Bryant, W.; Zhang, J.; Biniaz, P.; Banaszak Holl, M. M.; Pozo-Gonzalo, C.; Chakraborty Banerjee, P. Removal of polyvinylidene fluoride binder and other organics for enhancing the leaching efficiency of lithium and cobalt from black mass. Journal of Environmental Management 2023, 343, 118205,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118205
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    80. 80
      Wang, M.; Liu, K.; Yu, J.; Zhang, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Valix, M.; Tsang, D. C. W. Challenges in Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Spotlight on Polyvinylidene Fluoride Removal. Glob Chall 2023, 7, 2200237,  DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202200237
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    81. 81
      Huang, H.; Liu, C.; Sun, Z. In-situ pyrolysis based on alkaline medium removes fluorine-containing contaminants from spent lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2023, 457, 131782,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131782
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    82. 82
      Bakker, J.; Bokkers, B.; Broekman, M. Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances in Waste Incinerator Flue Gases; RIVM report 2021-0143; Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu, 2021. DOI: 10.21945/RIVM-2021-0143.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    83. 83
      Blotevogel, J.; Lu, W.; Rappé, A. K. Thermal Destruction Pathways and Kinetics for NTf2 and Longer-Chain Bis(perfluoroalkanesulfonyl)imides (Bis-FASIs). Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2024, 11, 1254,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.4c00793
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    84. 84
      Yang, T.; Luo, D.; Yu, A.; Chen, Z. Enabling Future Closed-Loop Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Direct Cathode Regeneration. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2203218,  DOI: 10.1002/adma.202203218
      84
      Enabling Future Closed-Loop Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries: Direct Cathode Regeneration
      Yang, Tingzhou; Luo, Dan; Yu, Aiping; Chen, Zhongwei
      Advanced Materials (Weinheim, Germany) (2023), 35 (36), 2203218CODEN: ADVMEW; ISSN:0935-9648. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      A review. The rapid proliferation of elec. vehicles equipped with lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) presents serious waste management challenges and environmental hazards for recyclers after scrap. Closed-loop recycling contributes to the sustainable development of batteries and plays an important role in mitigating raw material shortages and supply chain risks. Herein, current direct cathode regeneration methods for industrialized recycling are outlined and evaluated. Different regeneration methods for spent cathode materials are summarized, which provide a new perspective for realizing closed-loop recycling of LIBs. A ref. recycling route for retrofitting existing cathode prodn. lines is proposed and minimizes the costs. In addn. to promoting the industrialization of direct cathode recycling, the environmental, economic, and political benefits of battery recycling are also highlighted.
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    85. 85
      Roy, J. J.; Phuong, D. M.; Verma, V.; Chaudhary, R.; Carboni, M.; Meyer, D.; Cao, B.; Srinivasan, M. Direct recycling of Li-ion batteries from cell to pack level: Challenges and prospects on technology, scalability, sustainability, and economics. Carbon Energy 2024, 6, e492,  DOI: 10.1002/cey2.492
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.