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ArticleSeptember 14, 2016

Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and Hydrology
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 19, 10377–10385

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https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02917

Published September 14, 2016

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Abstract

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Plastic debris is a growing contaminant of concern in freshwater environments, yet sources, transport, and fate remain unclear. This study characterized the quantity and morphology of floating micro- and macroplastics in 29 Great Lakes tributaries in six states under different land covers, wastewater effluent contributions, population densities, and hydrologic conditions. Tributaries were sampled three or four times each using a 333 μm mesh neuston net. Plastic particles were sorted by size, counted, and categorized as fibers/lines, pellets/beads, foams, films, and fragments. Plastics were found in all 107 samples, with a maximum concentration of 32 particles/m³ and a median of 1.9 particles/m³. Ninety-eight percent of sampled plastic particles were less than 4.75 mm in diameter and therefore considered microplastics. Fragments, films, foams, and pellets/beads were positively correlated with urban-related watershed attributes and were found at greater concentrations during runoff-event conditions. Fibers, the most frequently detected particle type, were not associated with urban-related watershed attributes, wastewater effluent contribution, or hydrologic condition. Results from this study add to the body of information currently available on microplastics in different environmental compartments, including unique contributions to quantify their occurrence and variability in rivers with a wide variety of different land-use characteristics while highlighting differences between surface samples from rivers compared with lakes.

Subjects

Introduction

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There has been growing concern in recent years surrounding plastics, and especially microplastics, in aquatic environments. Defined as plastic particles less than 5 mm in diameter, microplastics enter aquatic environments in a number of ways. One source is photodegradation and/or mechanical breakdown of larger items, such as Styrofoam, plastic bags, bottles, wrappers, cigarette butts, and tires. (1-3) Spillage of preproduction pellets and powders, beadblasting media, and atmospheric deposition are other potential sources. (4-6) Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent has also been cited as a source: abrasive microbeads in toilet cleaners, face and hand scrubs, and toothpastes—often made from positively buoyant polyethylene—may pass through WWTPs and into receiving waters. (1, 7) Other more dense particles, such as polyester fibers, are largely captured in WWTP sludge, (8, 9) which may subsequently be applied over land (10, 11) and remobilized to receiving waters via runoff.

Marine organisms, including mammals, birds, fish, turtles, and invertebrates, have been shown to ingest microplastics. (12-15) Physical hazards of ingestion can include obstruction of the digestive system, (13) clogging of feeding appendages, (16) oxidative stress, (17) impaired reproduction, (18) and death. (19, 20) In addition, ingestion of microplastics can result in uptake and bioaccumulation of harmful chemicals. (14, 19, 21) Additives in plastics such as phthalates, brominated flame retardants, nonylphenol, and antimicrobials have been associated with cancer and endocrine disruption. (1, 19) The high sorption capacity of plastics enables the accumulation of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and organochlorine pesticides, with concentrations 10⁵–10⁶ times higher than in the surrounding water column. (4, 21) Trace metals (14, 22) and pathogens (23) have also been shown to accumulate on microplastics.

Recent studies on microplastics in lakes and rivers have reported microplastic concentrations to be as high, or higher, than in oceanic gyres. (24-29) The first study of microplastics in the surface waters of the Great Lakes (30) reported a median surface concentration of 5350 microplastic particles/km², with a maximum of greater than 466 000 particles/km². Fragments were the most common microplastic particle type in the Great Lakes samples, making up 52% of particles in each sample on average. (30) Pellets/beads made up an average of 16% of particles in each sample, although 97% of all pellets/beads were in only two samples. (30) The least-occurring particle type in the Great Lakes study was fibers/lines, which made up only 2% of the sampled particles on average. (30)

The objectives of this study were (1) to determine the occurrence and concentrations of micro- and macroplastics in Great Lakes tributaries, (2) to determine the relations between plastics and watershed attributes such as land cover, population density, and wastewater effluent contribution, and (3) to explore the role of hydrology in the occurrence of plastics.

The number and diversity of sampling locations, the regional scale, and the incorporation of varying hydrologic conditions provide a multifaceted study that begins to explore the many factors that may influence the prevalence of plastic debris in rivers. The results will provide a baseline for future studies and will advance our currently limited understanding of the sources, transport, and fate of plastics in fluvial systems.

Materials and Methods

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Sample Collection

Samples were collected from April 2014 to April 2015 at 29 Great Lakes tributaries in six states (Figure 1 and SI Table 1). The watershed drainage areas of the tributaries varied from 101 to 16 400 km², with mean annual discharges from 5 to 185 m³/s (2014). Together, these 29 tributaries account for approximately 22% of the total tributary contribution to the Great Lakes (on the basis of a total runoff inflow of 5930 m³/s (31)). The watersheds spanned a broad range of land covers and degrees of urban influence, with 2.9–92% urban land cover (SI Table 1). Likewise, WWTP influence varied considerably, from watersheds with no wastewater effluent discharges to those with up to 122 discharges with various WWTP treatment levels. Wastewater effluent as a percentage of streamflow ranged from 0 to 89%.

Figure 1. Sampling locations, watershed boundaries, and watershed land uses.

Each tributary was sampled three or four times, capturing low-flow and runoff-event conditions. Runoff-event conditions were defined as increased streamflow resulting from rainfall or snowmelt. Runoff-event samples were triggered by observation of rainfall and snowmelt patterns in each watershed and verified by examination of the hydrographs (streamflow data from ref 32). All samples were collected during daylight hours. Samples from each tributary were collected at least 1 week apart, and typically more than a month apart, to minimize serial correlation. The sampling methods and equipment were consistent with those previously used in the Great Lakes, (30) with some modifications for the river setting. Samples were collected using a 1.5 m long neuston net with an opening 100 cm wide by 40 cm high (Sea-Gear Corp., Miami, FL, USA). The net mesh size was 333 μm, a commonly used size in microplastic studies. (2, 23, 24, 27, 30) The net skimmed the surface and upper 20–35 cm; a portion of the net opening was kept above water. The amount of net submerged was monitored and recorded, and an effort was made to maintain a consistent submersion depth throughout the sample duration. Sampling duration ranged from 5 to 82 min (median 15 min) and was dependent on the velocity of water entering the net and how quickly the net began to clog with organic material, especially algae. Velocity was measured using a Sea-Gear Corp. flow meter, SonTek FlowTracker, or other method. (33) The total volume of water filtered through the net was computed from the width and height of the submerged portion of the net, the sampling duration, and the average velocity.

Samples were collected by boat, from a bridge (Figure 2A), or by wading (Figure 2B), depending on the river depth, velocity, and access at each location. For boat-collected samples, the net was towed alongside the boat and held out beyond the bow wake using a fixed metal pole. For bridge-collected samples, the net was suspended using a crane. For wading-collected samples, the net was held between and upstream of two people standing in the river, allowing the river current to flow through the net. Care was taken not to stand upstream of the net to minimize potential contamination from waders or disrupted sediment. Bridge and wading samples were collected from a fixed location at the center of the channel.

Figure 2. (A, B) Sample collection (A) using a bridge crane and (B) by wading. (C) Washing of particles from the net into the cod end using a backpack sprayer. (D, E) Microscopic images of assorted microplastic particles.

Following sample collection, the net was hung and sprayed from the outside using a pressurized backpack sprayer (Figure 2C) with 8–15 L of tap water or streamwater filtered through a 333 μm mesh. Spraying the outside of the net washed the sampled material—plastics, organic debris, fine sediment, and other items—down into the detachable mesh cod end at the bottom of the net. The sample was then transferred to a glass jar using a stainless steel spoon and squirt bottle with tap water and preserved with isopropyl alcohol.

Three samples were omitted from the results because a flow meter malfunction precluded computation of the sampled water volume. An additional three samples were broken in transit or spilled during processing. One hundred and seven samples were successfully collected and analyzed.

Sample Analysis

Because the study of microplastics in the environment is a relatively new field, studies have employed a number of analytical methods for isolation and identification of microplastic particles in environmental samples. In this study, samples were analyzed using a method developed and supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (34) that has been used in numerous published studies in the past few years (see, e.g., refs 14 and 35−43). Briefly, each sample was filtered through a series of 8 in. diameter Tyler sieves of 4.75, 1.00, and 0.355 mm stainless steel mesh, separating the solid material into three size classifications (0.355–0.999 mm, 1.00–4.749 mm, and ≥4.75 mm). The solids in each size class were subjected to a wet peroxide oxidation (WPO), which digests labile organic material but not plastics, using 30% hydrogen peroxide in the presence of an iron(II) catalyst. (34) After processing, samples were filtered using a 125 μm mesh sieve. With a 40× dissection microscope, all of the microplastic particles were removed, enumerated, and categorized according to morphology as fragments (broken-down pieces of larger debris such as plastic bottles), pellets/beads (preproduction pellets, microbeads from personal care products and bead blasting, and other spheroids), lines/fibers (particles of fishing line and nets and fibers from synthetic textiles), films (plastic bags and wrappers), or foams (foam cups, take-out containers, packaging) (Figure 2D,E). These categories were morphology-based rather than source-based because, with only limited information about each particle, attributing a source would be somewhat subjective. For example, while most microbeads from personal care products are <100 μm, they occur in sizes up to >2000 μm, (44) overlapping with sizes of preproduction pellets and spheroids from other sources. Therefore, to avoid making incorrect assumptions, all spheroids were grouped together in the pellets/beads category. Likewise, the lines/fibers category contains two end members (straight, thick lines and curly, thinner fibers) but also more ambiguous particles that fall between those two end members and cannot confidently be attributed to a specific source. The method of visual identification and categorization of plastics employed here has been used in numerous recent studies (see, e.g., refs 14, 30, 35−43, and 45), though it has been shown to underestimate some particle types and overestimate others compared with spectroscopic methods such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, (46) which, by identifying the polymer composition, provide an additional level of verification.

Throughout the sample analysis process, precautions were taken to minimize potential contamination from within the laboratory: airborne particles were removed from laboratory air using an air filtration system, samples were processed in a fume hood and remained covered, and cotton laboratory coats and clothing were worn by all individuals.

Data Analysis

Plastic particle concentrations are reported in particles per cubic meter (p/m³). Spearman correlation analysis was used to assess possible relations between plastic concentrations and different watershed attributes. Concentration differences between nonurban low-flow, nonurban runoff-event, urban low-flow, and urban runoff-event samples were evaluated using the Kruskal–Wallis multiple comparisons test, with urban samples defined as those from watersheds with greater than 15% urban land cover. Spearman and Kruskal–Wallis tests were performed in R, (-47, 48) with statistical significance reported at p = 0.05.

Methods used to determine watershed boundaries, land cover, percent impervious cover (defined as ground with low permeability, such as roads, parking lots, and buildings), population density, and wastewater effluent contribution are described in the Supporting Information.

Quality Assurance and Quality Control

Five field blank samples were collected to assess the potential of the nets as sources of cross-contamination from one sample to another. Cleaned nets were hung, and the outsides of the nets were thoroughly sprayed with tap water from either a water hose or pressurized backpack sprayer, as was done with environmental samples (as described above in Sample Collection). Microplastic particles remaining in the net from previous environmental samples were washed down and captured in the detachable mesh cod end. The particles were then transferred to a glass jar, preserved, and analyzed using the same laboratory method as environmental samples. A mean of 17 plastic particles on average (range 2–30, median 22) were recovered from the five blank samples. On average, 78% of the plastic particles in the blank samples were in the 0.355–0.999 mm size range, and 73% were fibers/lines. For comparison, the 107 environmental samples averaged 368 plastic particles (range 4–4464, median 170). The potential for cross-contamination from sample to sample was therefore relatively low, given the numbers of plastic particles in most environmental samples (SI Figure 1).

Eleven laboratory blanks were collected and analyzed alongside the environmental samples to assess potential contamination from laboratory containers or air. Laboratory blanks consisted of deionized water stored in open sample containers for periods of 1–14 days. None were found to have any plastic particles, indicating a low potential of contamination from within the laboratory.

In 19% of the samples (n = 20), the particles were counted and categorized twice, by two different analysts, to verify consistency. The total counts of plastics were very consistent between analysts (<5% variation), though the exact categorization within the smallest size class did show variations of up to 10% due to subjectivity of the classifications.

Results

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Plastic particles were found in all 107 samples analyzed (complete sample results were published previously (33)). Sample concentrations ranged from 0.05 to 32 p/m³ (median 1.9 p/m³, mean 4.2 p/m³; SI Table 2). Ninety-eight percent of the sampled plastic particles were in the microplastic size range; of those, 72% were in the smallest size range sampled (0.355–0.99 mm), and 26% were in the 1.0–4.75 mm size range. Only 2% of sampled plastic particles were larger than 4.75 mm. The most frequently occurring plastic particle type was fibers/lines, making up on average 71% of each sample. The majority of plastic particles categorized as fibers/lines were fibers rather than lines. Fragments were the second most abundant plastic particle type, making up on average 17% of each sample, followed by foams, films, and pellets/beads (8%, 3%, and 2%, respectively).

The concentrations of fragments, foams, pellets/beads, and films were significantly positively correlated with the percentage of the watershed in urban land use (Figure 3), watershed population density, and (films excepted) percent impervious cover (Table 1). Hydrology also affected the concentrations of these particle types: in urban and nonurban watersheds, the concentrations of fragments, foams, films, and pellets/beads were higher during runoff events than during low-flow conditions, though this relationship was not significant (Figure 4).

Figure 3. (A–F) Average concentrations of plastic particles and (G) watershed land cover at sampled Great Lakes tributaries (2014–15).

Figure 4. Plastic concentrations in nonurban low-flow (n = 40), nonurban runoff (n = 35), urban low-flow (n = 17), and urban runoff (n = 15) samples. Urban watersheds are those with greater than 15% urban land cover. Boxplot labels A, B, and C indicate which groups of samples are statistically similar (those sharing a common letter) and statistically different (those not sharing a common letter) using the Kruskal–Wallis multiple comparisons test (p < 0.05). Legend: boxes, 25th to 75th percentiles; dark lines, medians; whiskers, 1.5 × the interquartile range (IQR); circles, values outside 1.5 × the IQR; ND, not detected.

Table 1. Spearman Correlation Coefficients between Plastic Concentrations and Watershed Attributes

watershed characteristic	all plastic types	fragments	foams	pellets/beads	films	fibers/lines
urban (%)	0.32^a	0.40^a	0.33^a	0.27^a	0.19^a	0.11
agriculture: pasture, hay (%)	–0.11	–0.04	–0.03	–0.03	0.03	–0.06
agriculture: crops (%)	–0.22^a	–0.21^a	–0.33^a	–0.15	–0.09	–0.14
agriculture: total (%)	–0.24^a	–0.25^a	–0.32^a	–0.16	–0.08	–0.14
forest (%)	0.04	–0.08	–0.17	–0.16	–0.09	0.17
water, wetland (%)	–0.11	–0.05	–0.07	–0.03	–0.05	–0.12
impervious (%)	0.30^a	0.42^a	0.37^a	0.30^a	0.19	0.08
population density	0.37^a	0.45^a	0.38^a	0.29^a	0.21^a	0.16
WWTP^b effluent contribution (%)	–0.07	–0.07	0.02	0.08	–0.05	–0.17

Significant at p < 0.05.

WWTP = wastewater treatment plant.

Fibers/lines were ubiquitous across all land-use types (Figure 3). The concentrations of fibers/lines were not correlated with any of the tested watershed attributes (Table 1), nor were they affected by hydrology (Figure 4). None of the plastic types were significantly correlated with the contribution of wastewater effluent to streamflow (Table 1 and SI Figure 2).

Discussion

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Relations with Watershed Attributes and Hydrology

Litter-related plastics (fragments, foams, and films) were found at higher concentrations in samples from more urban watersheds and during runoff-event conditions. Plastic litter is not only more prevalent in urban watersheds than in areas with other land covers, but it is also more mobile because impervious surfaces and storm sewers facilitate conveyance of plastics to receiving water bodies during runoff-event conditions. Previous research has also reported a correlation between microplastic concentrations (predominantly fragments and films) and urban-related attributes (population density and urban/suburban development). (24)

Pellets/beads were not significantly related to the wastewater effluent contribution to streamflow but were associated with other urban-related watershed attributes (i.e., urban land cover, imperviousness, and population density). Because many personal care product-related beads are smaller than the 333 μm mesh size used, (7, 44) it is likely that the majority of the sampled particles in this category were from industrial sources (e.g., preproduction pellets and bead blasting), which may explain the poor relation between pellets/beads and wastewater effluent contribution. A finer mesh size capable of capturing personal care product-related beads may have yielded better relations with wastewater effluent contribution. However, a study of eight WWTPs in Southern California found that tertiary wastewater effluent was not a significant source of pellets/beads, or any other type of microplastic, to receiving waters. (9)

Like pellets/beads, the concentrations of fibers/lines were not related to wastewater effluent contribution. The role of wastewater effluent as a source of fibers remains unclear; some studies (23, 49) have shown wastewater effluent to be a source of fibers, while others (8, 9) have shown that most if not all fibers settle out and are captured in sludge.

Previous studies have shown that some microplastic fibers in environmental samples can come from atmospheric contamination in the laboratory, (23, 50, 51) with contributions of up to 10 fibers per sample. (50) A number of precautions were taken in this study to prevent laboratory contamination, and laboratory control samples did not show contamination. Atmospheric deposition may be one important source of fibers in streams, with fibers accumulating on the landscape and washing off during runoff-event conditions. A study of atmospheric deposition of fibers in Paris reported deposition rates of up to >100 synthetic fibers m^–2 day^–1, with rates in an urban area approximately double those of a suburban area. (6) Rainfall seemed to be an important factor as well, with higher deposition rates during rainfall periods compared with dry-weather periods. However, the current study found similar fiber concentrations in urban and nonurban areas and in low-flow and runoff-event samples.

Land application of WWTP sludge may be a significant source of fibers in agricultural areas, as fibers are known to accumulate in sludge (8, 9) and have been shown to be good indicators of sludge application on fields. (10, 52) However, if this were the case, higher concentrations would be expected during runoff-event conditions, which were not observed. The lack of correlation between fiber concentrations and hydrologic conditions and between fiber concentrations and watershed attributes highlights the need for further work to better understand the sources of fibers in streams.

Comparisons to Other Studies

Size Distributions

Plastic concentrations were inversely related to particle size in the current study: 72% of the plastic particles were in the smallest size fraction sampled (0.35–0.99 mm). This inverse relationship between concentration and size has also been observed in other studies in fluvial, lacustrine, and marine environments. (30, 53-55) This has potentially led to an underrepresentation of the true microplastic concentrations due to an artifact of the mesh size chosen for sampling. One study found up to 100 000 times more microplastic particles using an 80 μm mesh compared with a 450 μm mesh, (54) indicating that the 333 μm mesh used in the current study captured only a small fraction of the actual microplastic particles present. High concentrations of particles smaller than 100 μm may have important implications for aquatic organisms, as those particles can be taken up into cells and can translocate from the gut into the circulatory system. (56, 57) Smaller particles also have larger surface to volume ratios, increasing their potential as vectors for sorbed contaminants.

Concentrations

The plastic concentrations measured in Great Lakes tributaries (0.05–32 p/m³, mean 4.2 p/m³) are comparable to or greater than those reported in other river studies, although there are few other river studies with which to compare. In Chicago’s highly urbanized North Shore Channel, the mean concentrations were 1.9 and 17.9 p/m³ upstream and downstream of a WWTP, respectively. (23) Concentrations in the Seine River upstream and downstream of Paris were 0.28–0.47 p/m³. (8) A mean concentration of 0.32 p/m³ was reported for the Danube, but that study used a larger mesh size (500 μm) and did not include fibers. (25) A study of floating plastics in four Chilean rivers reported concentrations similar to those in the current study using a 1000 μm mesh size. (58)

Particle Types

The observed dominance of fibers (71% of the particles on average) and, to a lesser extent, fragments (17% on average) in tributary samples is in agreement with results from other fluvial studies, such as Chicago’s North Shore Channel (23) and the Seine River in Paris, (8) but contrasts with that reported for the Rhine, where fibers made up only 2.5% of the sampled particles. (28) The Rhine was instead dominated by fragments and, in downstream reaches, spherules of 300–1000 μm diameter, thought to originate from plastic manufacturers or other industry in the area.

Comparison of plastic particle types in tributary samples with those from the surface of the Great Lakes and other lacustrine environments reveals striking differences. Unlike in tributary samples, fibers/lines were rare in Great Lakes samples, making up only 2% of the plastic particles on average (30) (Figure 5). In a large, remote lake in Mongolia, fibers/lines made up 20% of the particles on average, (27) which is higher than in the Great Lakes but still considerably lower than in Great Lakes tributaries. Pellets/beads, which made up a large portion of the plastic particles in some of the Great Lakes samples (especially those from Lake Erie), were rare in tributary samples.

Figure 5. Mean relative abundances of different plastic particle types in the Great Lakes compared with tributaries. Great Lakes data are from Eriksen et al. (30)

The discrepancy in plastic particle types between the Great Lakes and their tributaries (Figure 5) is likely due, in part, to analytical methods but also to the physical properties of different plastics and the hydraulics of the different water bodies. Although the tributary and Great Lakes samples were collected using the same methods and equipment and analyzed by the same laboratory, the laboratory modified their analytical method in 2013, after analyzing the Great Lakes samples and prior to analyzing the tributary samples. Specifically, the laboratory switched from isolating plastic particles using salt water flotation to using WPO. The WPO method is thought to be more effective at capturing dense particles. Samples from Lake Michigan analyzed using the WPO method contained 14% fibers on average, (45) compared with <2% fibers using the salt water floatation method. Therefore, the average relative abundance of fibers in the samples from the Great Lakes published in 2013 (30) was likely artificially low. Even so, the average relative abundance of fibers in tributary samples (71%) was considerably higher.

Hydraulics within the river systems compared with the Great Lakes and the physical properties of the plastics may explain this difference in abundance of fibers. Negatively buoyant fibers made of polymers such as polyester, rayon, nylon, and cellulose acetate may remain in suspension in the turbulent flow of a river (allowing them to be captured by surface sampling) but likely settle out upon reaching the more quiescent lakes. In contrast, many foams, films, and pellets/beads are made of positively buoyant polymers such as polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene, which likely remain afloat in the lakes for some time, until biofouling or adsorption of minerals increases their density and causes them to sink. (59) It would be expected, then, that surface samples from the Great Lakes would have lower abundances of fibers relative to samples from the tributaries. The fibers enter the lakes but likely settle and accumulate in the lakebed sediments rather than at the surface. A recent study of nearshore sediments in Lake Ontario supports this hypothesis, reporting an average of 980 microplastics/kg dry weight (predominantly fibers and fragments). (59) This accumulation of microplastics in lakebed sediments may have important effects on benthic organisms as well as organisms at higher trophic levels that are reliant on benthic organisms.

Results from this study add greatly to the current body of information on this topic given the very few previous studies that have focused on microplastics in the riverine environment. This is notable given that tributaries are presumably a substantial source of the overall microplastics burden in large water bodies such as the Great Lakes or marine environments. The difference in results from the tributaries compared with the Great Lakes provides insight into the fate and transport of different microplastics types. These differences could be influential when considering the potential effect that microplastics of different morphology may have on aquatic organisms. In addition, this study provides unique information on the prevalence of different types of microplastics in relation to land cover within watersheds. Collectively, this study has helped to improve our understanding of the sources, transport, and fate of microplastics in freshwater environments. While the implications of microplastics on ecological and human health are poorly understood, the increase in plastic production, stability of plastics in the environment, and long residence time in the Great Lakes ensure that these contaminants will continue to be of concern as they accumulate in the Great Lakes well into the future.

Supporting Information

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The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02917. All of the sample results have been published separately online. (33)

Site characteristics, GIS methods, field blank sample results, site-specific result summaries, and relations between plastic concentrations and wastewater contribution (PDF)
SI Table 1 (XLSX)

Terms & Conditions

Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

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Corresponding Author
- Austin K. Baldwin - U.S. Geological Survey, 8505 Research Way, Middleton, Wisconsin 53562, United States; Email: [email protected]
Authors
- Steven R. Corsi - U.S. Geological Survey, 8505 Research Way, Middleton, Wisconsin 53562, United States
- Sherri A. Mason - Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, State University of New York at Fredonia, 280 Central Avenue, Science Complex 340, Fredonia, New York 14063, United States
Author Contributions
The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript.
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgment

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The authors gratefully acknowledge the many individuals at the USGS involved in sample collection: Peter Lenaker, Paul Reneau, Nic Buer, Ben Siebers, Troy Rutter, Rebecca Carvin, Ben Torrison, Joe Schuler, Molly Breitmün, Kyle Raimer, Joe Duris, Cyndi Rachol, Rick Jodoin, Julia Giesen, Cheryl Silcox, Ed Dobrowolski, Eric Looper, Andy Gorman, Howard Mills, Stephanie Kula, Stephanie Janosy, Chad Toussant, Brian Mailot, Brett Hayhurst, Ben Fisher, Josh Larson, Russ Buesing, and Jeff Copa. We thank Michelle Lutz for her GIS expertise. We also thank SUNY Fredonia students Rachel Ricotta, Joylyn Kovachev, Katie Donnelly, and Evan Miller for the many hours spent analyzing these samples in the laboratory. Special thanks are extended to Ben Siebers for assistance with the abstract graphic. Support for this project was provided by the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Great Lakes National Program Office. Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

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Mato, Yukie; Isobe, Tomohiko; Takada, Hideshige; Kanehiro, Haruyuki; Ohtake, Chiyoko; Kaminuma, Tsuguchika
Environmental Science and Technology (2001), 35 (2), 318-324CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Plastic resin pellets (small granules 0.1-0.5 cm diam.) are widely distributed in the ocean worldwide. They are an industrial raw material for the plastic industry and are unintentionally released to the environment during manufg. and transport. They are sometimes ingested by seabirds and other marine organisms; their adverse effects on organisms are a concern. In this, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), DDE, and nonylphenols (NP) were detected in polypropylene (PP) resin pellets collected from 4 Japanese coasts. Concns. of PCB (4-117 ng/g), DDE (0.16-3.1 ng/g), and NP (0.13-16 μg/g) varied among sample site. Concns. were comparable to those for suspended particles and bottom sediment collected from the same area as the pellets. Field adsorption expts. using PP virgin pellets demonstrated a significant, steady increase in PCB and DDE concns. throughout a 6-day expt., indicating the source of PCB and DDE is ambient seawater and that adsorption to pellet surfaces is the mechanism of enrichment. The major source of NP in the marine PP resin pellets was thought to be plastic additives and/or their degrdn. products. Comparison of PCB and DDE concns. in marine PP resin pellets with those in seawater suggested their high degree of accumulation (apparent adsorption coeff.: 105-106). The high accumulation potential suggested that plastic resin pellets serve as a transport medium and a potential source of toxic chems. in the marine environment.
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Gregory, M. R. Plastic scrubbers’ in hand cleansers: A further (and minor) source for marine pollution identified Mar. Pollut. Bull. 1996, 32 (12) 867– 871 DOI: 10.1016/S0025-326X(96)00047-1
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Dris, R.; Gasperi, J.; Saad, M.; Mirande, C.; Tassin, B. Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 104, 290– 293 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.006
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Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment?
Dris, Rachid; Gasperi, Johnny; Saad, Mohamed; Mirande, Cecile; Tassin, Bruno
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 104 (1-2), 290-293CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Sources, pathways and reservoirs of microplastics, plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, remain poorly documented in an urban context. While some studies pointed out wastewater treatment plants as a potential pathway of microplastics, none have focused on the atm. compartment. In this work, the atm. fallout of microplastics was investigated in two different urban and sub-urban sites. Microplastics were collected continuously with a stainless steel funnel. Samples were then filtered and obsd. with a stereomicroscope. Fibers accounted for almost all the microplastics collected. An atm. fallout between 2 and 355 particles/m2/day was highlighted. Registered fluxes were systematically higher at the urban than at the sub-urban site. Chem. characterization allowed to est. at 29% the proportion of these fibers being all synthetic (made with petrochems.), or a mixt. of natural and synthetic material. Extrapolation using wt. and vol. ests. of the collected fibers, allowed a rough estn. showing that between 3 and 10 tons of fibers are deposited by atm. fallout at the scale of the Parisian agglomeration every year (2500 km2). These results could serve the scientific community working on the different sources of microplastic in both continental and marine environments.
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Fendall, L. S.; Sewell, M. A. Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2009, 58 (8) 1225– 1228 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025
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Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers
Fendall, Lisa S.; Sewell, Mary A.
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2009), 58 (8), 1225-1228CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier B.V.)
Plastics pollution in the ocean is an area of growing concern, with research efforts focusing on both the macroplastic (>5 mm) and microplastic (<5 mm) fractions. In the 1990s it was recognized that a minor source of microplastic pollution was derived from liq. hand-cleansers that would have been rarely used by the av. consumer. In 2009, however, the av. consumer is likely to be using microplastic-contg. products on a daily basis, as the majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene microplastics which are not captured by wastewater plants and will enter the oceans. Four microplastic-contg. facial cleansers available in New Zealand supermarkets were used to quantify the size of the polythelene fragments. Three-quarters of the brands had a modal size of <100 μ and could be immediately ingested by planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain. Over time the microplastics will be subject to UV-degrdn. and absorb hydrophobic materials such as PCBs, making them smaller and more toxic in the long-term. Marine scientists need to educate the public to the dangers of using products that pose an immediate and long-term threat to the health of the oceans and the food we eat.
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Dris, R.; Gasperi, J.; Rocher, V.; Saad, M.; Renault, N.; Tassin, B. Microplastic contamination in an urban area: a case study in Greater Paris Environ. Chem. 2015, 12 (5) 592– 599 DOI: 10.1071/EN14167
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Microplastic contamination in an urban area: a case study in Greater Paris
Dris, Rachid; Gasperi, Johnny; Rocher, Vincent; Saad, Mohamed; Renault, Nicolas; Tassin, Bruno
Environmental Chemistry (2015), 12 (5), 592-599CODEN: ECNHAA; ISSN:1449-8979. (CSIRO Publishing)
Environmental context Plastics prodn. has increased considerably in recent years, leading to pollution by plastics, including microplastics (comprising particles smaller than 5mm). This work addresses the issue of microplastics from urban sources and in receiving waters in Greater Paris. Microplastics were found in all urban compartments investigated, namely atm. fallout, waste- and treated water, and surface water. Abstr. This study investigates the microplastic contamination of both urban compartments (wastewater and total atm. fallout) and surface water in a continental environment. These first investigations on an urban environment confirm the presence of microplastics in sewage, fresh water and total atm. fallout and provide knowledge on the type and size distribution of microplastics in the 100-5000-μm range. For the first time, the presence of microplastics, mostly fibers, is highlighted in total atm. fallout (29-280particlesm-2day-1). High levels of fibers were found in wastewater (260-320×103particlesm-3). In treated effluent, the contamination significantly decreased to 14-50×103particlesm-3. In the River Seine, two sampling devices were used to collect both large and small microplastic particles: (i) a plankton net (80-μm mesh), and (ii) a manta trawl (330-μm mesh). Sampling with the plankton net showed a predominance of fibers, with concns. ranging from 3 to 108particlesm-3. A greater diversity of both microplastic shapes and types was found during manta trawl sampling but at much lower concns. (0.28-0.47particlesm-3). This combined approach could be relevant and implemented in future studies to provide an accurate overview of microplastic distribution in freshwater.
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Carr, S. A.; Liu, J.; Tesoro, A. G. Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants Water Res. 2016, 91, 174– 182 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.01.002
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Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants
Carr, Steve A.; Liu, Jin; Tesoro, Arnold G.
Water Research (2016), 91 (), 174-182CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are frequently suspected as significant point sources or conduits of microplastics to the environment. To directly investigate these suspicions, effluent discharges from seven tertiary plants and one secondary plant in Southern California were studied. The study also looked at influent loads, particle size/type, conveyance, and removal at these wastewater treatment facilities. Over 0.189 million liters of effluent at each of the seven tertiary plants were filtered using an assembled stack of sieves with mesh sizes between 400 and 45 μm. Addnl., the surface of 28.4 million liters of final effluent at three tertiary plants was skimmed using a 125 μm filtering assembly. The results suggest that tertiary effluent is not a significant source of microplastics and that these plastic pollutants are effectively removed during the skimming and settling treatment processes. However, at a downstream secondary plant, an av. of one micro-particle in every 1.14 thousand liters of final effluent was counted. The majority of microplastics identified in this study had a profile (color, shape, and size) similar to the blue polyethylene particles present in toothpaste formulations. Existing treatment processes were detd. to be very effective for removal of microplastic contaminants entering typical municipal WWTPs.
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Zubris, K. A. V.; Richards, B. K. Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge Environ. Pollut. 2005, 138 (2) 201– 211 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.013
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Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge
Zubris, Kimberly Ann V.; Richards, Brian K.
Environmental Pollution (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2005), 138 (2), 201-211CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier B.V.)
Synthetic fabric fibers have been proposed as indicators of past spreading of wastewater sludge. Synthetic fiber detectability was examd. in sludges (dewatered, pelletized, composted, alk.-stabilized) and in soils from exptl. columns and field sites applied with those sludge products. Fibers (isolated by water extn. and examd. using polarized light microscopy) were detectable in sludge products and in soil columns over 5 years after application, retaining characteristics obsd. in the applied sludge. Concns. mirrored (within a factor of 2) predictions based on soil diln. Fibers were detectable in field site soils up to 15 years after application, again retaining the characteristics seen in sludge products. Concns. correlated with residual sludge metal concn. gradients in a well-characterized field site. Fibers found along preferential flow paths and/or in horizons largely below the mixed layer suggest some potential for translocation. Synthetic fibers were shown to be rapid and semi-quant. indicators of past sludge application. Synthetic fabric fibers present in wastewater sludge are a semi-quant. long-term indicator of past sludge application in soils.
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Dorn, C. R.; Reddy, C. S.; Lamphere, D. N.; Gaeuman, J. V.; Lanese, R. Municipal sewage sludge application on Ohio farms: health effects Environ. Res. 1985, 38 (2) 332– 359 DOI: 10.1016/0013-9351(85)90097-0
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Thompson, R. C.; Olson, Y.; Mitchell, R. P.; Davis, A.; Rowland, S. J.; John, A. W. G.; McGonigle, D.; Russell, A. E. Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic? Science 2004, 304 (5672) 838 DOI: 10.1126/science.1094559
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Brevia: Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic?
Thompson, Richard C.; Olsen, Yiva; Mitchell, Richard P.; Davis, Anthony; Rowland, Steven J.; John, Anthony W. G.; McGonigle, Daniel; Russell, Andrea E.
Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2004), 304 (5672), 838CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
Microscopic plastic fragments and fibers are widespread in the world ocean, accumulating in the pelagic zone and sedimentary habitats. Fragments appear to have resulted from degrdn. of larger items. Plastics of this size are ingested by marine organisms, but environmental consequences of this contamination are unknown. Due to its resistance to biodegrdn. but susceptibility to mech. action, there is considerable potential for large-scale accumulation of microscopic plastic debris. To quantify the abundance of micro-plastics, sediment was collected from beaches and estuarine and sub-tidal sediment near Plymouth, UK. Nine polymers were conclusively identified: acrylic, alkyd, poly(ethylene:propylene), polyamide (nylon), polyester, polyethylene, polymethylacrylate, polypropylene, and poly vinyl alc. Given their wide range of uses, it is suggested the fragments resulted from larger item breakdown. To further assess the extent of contamination, another 17 beaches were examd. Similar fibers were obsd., demonstrating that microscopic plastics are common in sedimentary habitats. To assess long-term trends of abundance, plankton samples collected regularly since the 1960s between Aberdeen and the Shetland Islands and from Sule Skerry to Iceland, were analyzed. Plastic was archived among plankton in samples back to the 1960s, but with a significant increase in abundance over time. Similar types of polymer in the water column and sediment suggested polymer d. was not a major factor affecting distribution. Some fragments were granular, but most were fibrous, ∼20 μm in diam., and brightly colored. Results demonstrated the broad spatial extent and accumulation of this type of contamination. Given the rapid increase in plastic prodn., its longevity and disposable nature, this contamination is likely to increase.
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Tourinho, P. S.; Ivar do Sul, J. A.; Fillmann, G. Is marine debris ingestion still a problem for the coastal marine biota of southern Brazil? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2010, 60 (3) 396– 401 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.10.013
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Lavers, J. L.; Bond, A. L.; Hutton, I. Plastic ingestion by flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): Implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals Environ. Pollut. 2014, 187, 124– 129 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.12.020
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Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): Implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals
Lavers, Jennifer L.; Bond, Alexander L.; Hutton, Ian
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 187 (), 124-129CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
To provide much needed quant. data on the lethal and sublethal effects of plastic pollution on marine wildlife, we sampled breast feathers and stomach contents from Flesh-footed Shearwater (Puffinus carneipes) fledglings in eastern Australia. Birds with high levels of ingested plastic exhibited reduced body condition and increased contaminant load (p < 0.05). More than 60% of fledglings exceed international targets for plastic ingestion by seabirds, with 16% of fledglings failing these targets after a single feeding (range: 0.13-3.21 g of plastic/feeding). As top predators, seabirds are considered sentinels of the marine environment. The amt. of plastic ingested and corresponding damage to Flesh-footed Shearwater fledglings is the highest reported for any marine vertebrate, suggesting the condition of the Australian marine environment is poor. These findings help explain the ongoing decline of this species and are worrying in light of increasing levels of plastic pollution in our oceans.
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Setälä, O.; Fleming-Lehtinen, V.; Lehtiniemi, M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 77– 83 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013
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Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web
Setala, Outi; Fleming-Lehtinen, Vivi; Lehtiniemi, Maiju
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 185 (), 77-83CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Expts. were carried out with different Baltic Sea zooplankton taxa to scan their potential to ingest plastics. Mysid shrimps, copepods, cladocerans, rotifers, polychaete larvae and ciliates were exposed to 10 μm fluorescent polystyrene microspheres. These expts. showed ingestion of microspheres in all taxa studied. The highest percentage of individuals with ingested spheres was found in pelagic polychaete larvae, Marenzelleria spp. Expts. with the copepod Eurytemora affinis and the mysid shrimp Neomysis integer showed egestion of microspheres within 12 h. Food web transfer expts. were done by offering zooplankton labeled with ingested microspheres to mysid shrimps. Microscopy observations of mysid intestine showed the presence of zooplankton prey and microspheres after 3 h incubation. This study shows for the first time the potential of plastic microparticle transfer via planktonic organisms from one trophic level (mesozooplankton) to a higher level (macrozooplankton). The impacts of plastic transfer and possible accumulation in the food web need further investigations.
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Derraik, J. G. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2002, 44 (9) 842– 852 DOI: 10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5
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The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review
Derraik, Jose G. B.
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2002), 44 (9), 842-852CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
A review. The deleterious effects of plastic debris on the marine environment were reviewed by bringing together most of the literature published so far on the topic. A large no. of marine species is known to be harmed and/or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, esp. since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Other less known threats include the use of plastic debris by "invader" species and the absorption of polychlorinated biphenyls from ingested plastics. Less conspicuous forms, such as plastic pellets and "scrubbers" are also hazardous. To address the problem of plastic debris in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of approaches are urgently required. Some of the ways to mitigate the problem are discussed.
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Lu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Deng, Y.; Jiang, W.; Zhao, Y.; Geng, J.; Ding, L.; Ren, H. Uptake and Accumulation of Polystyrene Microplastics in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Toxic Effects in Liver Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (7) 4054– 4060 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b00183
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Uptake and Accumulation of Polystyrene Microplastics in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Toxic Effects in Liver
Lu, Yifeng; Zhang, Yan; Deng, Yongfeng; Jiang, Wei; Zhao, Yanping; Geng, Jinju; Ding, Lili; Ren, Hongqiang
Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (7), 4054-4060CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Microplastics have become emerging contaminants, causing widespread concern about their potential toxic effects. In this study, the uptake and tissue accumulation of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) in zebrafish were detected, and the toxic effects in liver were investigated. The results showed that after 7 days of exposure, 5 μm diam. MPs accumulated in fish gills, liver, and gut, while 20 μm diam. MPs accumulated only in fish gills and gut. Histopathol. anal. showed that both 5 μm and 70 nm PS-MPs caused inflammation and lipid accumulation in fish liver. PS-MPs also induced significantly increased activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, indicating that oxidative stress was induced after treatment with MPs. In addn., metabolomic anal. suggested that exposure to MPs induced alterations of metabolic profiles in fish liver and disturbed the lipid and energy metab. These findings provide new insights into the toxic effects of MPs on fish.
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Sussarellu, R.; Suquet, M.; Thomas, Y.; Lambert, C.; Fabioux, C.; Pernet, M. E. J.; Le Goïc, N.; Quillien, V.; Mingant, C.; Epelboin, Y. Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplastics Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (9) 2430– 2435 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519019113
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Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplastics
Sussarellu, Rossana; Suquet, Marc; Thomas, Yoann; Lambert, Christophe; Fabioux, Caroline; Pernet, Marie Eve Julie; Le Goic, Nelly; Quillien, Virgile; Mingant, Christian; Epelboin, Yanouk; Corporeau, Charlotte; Guyomarch, Julien; Robbens, Johan; Paul-Pont, Ika; Soudant, Philippe; Huvet, Arnaud
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (9), 2430-2435CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
Plastics are persistent synthetic polymers that accumulate as waste in the marine environment. Microplastic (MP) particles are derived from the breakdown of larger debris or can enter the environment as microscopic fragments. Because filter-feeder organisms ingest MP while feeding, they are likely to be impacted by MP pollution. To assess the impact of polystyrene microspheres (micro-PS) on the physiol. of the Pacific oyster, adult oysters were exptl. exposed to virgin micro-PS (2 and 6 μm in diam.; 0.023 mg·L-1) for 2 mo during a reproductive cycle. Effects were investigated on ecophysiol. parameters; cellular, transcriptomic, and proteomic responses; fecundity; and offspring development. Oysters preferentially ingested the 6-μm micro-PS over the 2-μm-diam. particles. Consumption of microalgae and absorption efficiency were significantly higher in exposed oysters, suggesting compensatory and phys. effects on both digestive parameters. After 2 mo, exposed oysters had significant decreases in oocyte no. (-38%), diam. (-5%), and sperm velocity (-23%). The D-larval yield and larval development of offspring derived from exposed parents decreased by 41% and 18%, resp., compared with control offspring. Dynamic energy budget modeling, supported by transcriptomic profiles, suggested a significant shift of energy allocation from reprodn. to structural growth, and elevated maintenance costs in exposed oysters, which is thought to be caused by interference with energy uptake. Mol. signatures of endocrine disruption were also revealed, but no endocrine disruptors were found in the biol. samples. This study provides evidence that micro-PS cause feeding modifications and reproductive disruption in oysters, with significant impacts on offspring.
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Teuten, E. L.; Saquing, J. M.; Knappe, D. R. U.; Barlaz, M. A.; Jonsson, S.; Björn, A.; Rowland, S. J.; Thompson, R. C.; Galloway, T. S.; Yamashita, R. Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 2009, 364 (1526) 2027– 2045 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0284
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Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife
Teuten, Emma L.; Saquing, Jovita M.; Knappe, Detlef R. U.; Barlaz, Morton A.; Jonsson, Susanne; Bjoern, Annika; Rowland, Steven J.; Thompson, Richard C.; Galloway, Tamara S.; Yamashita, Rei; Ochi, Daisuke; Watanuki, Yutaka; Moore, Charles; Viet, Pham Hung; Tana, Touch Seang; Prudente, Maricar; Boonyatumanond, Ruchaya; Zakaria, Mohamad P.; Akkhavong, Kongsap; Ogata, Yuko; Hirai, Hisashi; Iwasa, Satoru; Mizukawa, Kaoruko; Hagino, Yuki; Imamura, Ayako; Saha, Mahua; Takada, Hideshige
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences (2009), 364 (1526), 2027-2045CODEN: PTRBAE; ISSN:0962-8436. (Royal Society)
A review. Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain org. contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic arom. hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concns. from sub ng g-1 to μg g-1. Some of these compds. are added during plastics manuf., while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concns. of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calcns. and exptl. observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more org. contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a math. model using equil. partitioning and exptl. data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding expt. indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degrdn. of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chem. properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concns. in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub μg l-1 to mg l-1 and were correlated with the level of economic development.
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Wright, S. L.; Thompson, R. C.; Galloway, T. S. The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review Environ. Pollut. 2013, 178, 483– 492 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031
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The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: A review
Wright, Stephanie L.; Thompson, Richard C.; Galloway, Tamara S.
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2013), 178 (), 483-492CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
A review. Plastic debris at the micro-, and potentially also the nano-scale, are widespread in the environment. Microplastics have accumulated in oceans and sediments worldwide in recent years, with max. concns. reaching 100 000 particles m3. Due to their small size, microplastics may be ingested by low trophic fauna, with uncertain consequences for the health of the organism. This review focuses on marine invertebrates and their susceptibility to the phys. impacts of microplastic uptake. Some of the main points discussed are (1) an evaluation of the factors contributing to the bioavailability of microplastics including size and d.; (2) an assessment of the relative susceptibility of different feeding guilds; (3) an overview of the factors most likely to influence the phys. impacts of microplastics such as accumulation and translocation; and (4) the trophic transfer of microplastics. These findings are important in guiding future marine litter research and management strategies.
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Betts, K. Why small plastic particles may pose a big problem in the oceans Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (24) 8995 DOI: 10.1021/es802970v
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Nakashima, E.; Isobe, A.; Kako, S.; Itai, T.; Takahashi, S. Quantification of toxic metals derived from macroplastic litter on Ookushi Beach, Japan Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (18) 10099– 10105 DOI: 10.1021/es301362g
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McCormick, A.; Hoellein, T. J.; Mason, S. A.; Schluep, J.; Kelly, J. J. Microplastic is an abundant and distinct microbial habitat in an urban river Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (20) 11863– 11871 DOI: 10.1021/es503610r
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Microplastic is an Abundant and Distinct Microbial Habitat in an Urban River
McCormick, Amanda; Hoellein, Timothy J.; Mason, Sherri A.; Schluep, Joseph; Kelly, John J.
Environmental Science & Technology (2014), 48 (20), 11863-11871CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Recent research has documented microplastic particles (< 5 mm in diam.) in ocean habitats worldwide and in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Microplastic interacts with biota, including microorganisms, in these habitats, raising concerns about its ecol. effects. Rivers may transport microplastic to marine habitats and the Great Lakes, but data on microplastic in rivers is limited. In a highly urbanized river in Chicago, Illinois, USA, we measured concns. of microplastic that met or exceeded those measured in oceans and the Great Lakes, and we demonstrated that wastewater treatment plant effluent was a point source of microplastic. Results from high-throughput sequencing showed that bacterial assemblages colonizing microplastic within the river were less diverse and were significantly different in taxonomic compn. compared to those from the water column and suspended org. matter. Several taxa that include plastic decompg. organisms and pathogens were more abundant on microplastic. These results demonstrate that microplastic in rivers are a distinct microbial habitat and may be a novel vector for the downstream transport of unique bacterial assemblages. In addn., this study suggests that urban rivers are an overlooked and potentially significant component of the global microplastic life cycle.
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Yonkos, L. T.; Friedel, E. A.; Perez-Reyes, A. C.; Ghosal, S.; Arthur, C. D. Microplastics in Four Estuarine Rivers in the Chesapeake Bay, USA Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 14195– 14202 DOI: 10.1021/es5036317
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Microplastics in four estuarine rivers in the Chesapeake Bay, U.S.A.
Yonkos, Lance T.; Friedel, Elizabeth A.; Perez-Reyes, Ana C.; Ghosal, Sutapa; Arthur, Courtney D.
Environmental Science & Technology (2014), 48 (24), 14195-14202CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Once believed to degrade into simple compds., increasing evidence suggests plastics entering the environment are mech., photochem., and/or biol. degraded to the extent that they become imperceptible to the naked eye yet are not significantly reduced in total mass. Thus, more and smaller plastics particles, termed microplastics, reside in the environment and are now a contaminant category of concern. The current study tested the hypotheses that microplastics concn. would be higher in proximity to urban sources, and vary temporally in response to weather phenomena such as storm events. Triplicate surface water samples were collected approx. monthly between July and Dec. 2011 from four estuarine tributaries within the Chesapeake Bay, U.S.A. using a manta net to capture appropriately sized microplastics (operationally defined as 0.3-5.0 mm). Selected sites have watersheds with broadly divergent land use characteristics (e.g., proportion urban/suburban, agricultural and/or forested) and wide ranging population densities. Microplastics were found in all but one of 60 samples, with concns. ranging over 3 orders of magnitude (<1.0 to >560 g/km2). Concns. demonstrated statistically significant pos. correlations with population d. and proportion of urban/suburban development within watersheds. The greatest microplastics concns. also occurred at three of four sites shortly after major rain events.
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Lechner, A.; Keckeis, H.; Lumesberger-Loisl, F.; Zens, B.; Krusch, R.; Tritthart, M.; Glas, M.; Schludermann, E. The Danube so colourful: A potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe’s second largest river Environ. Pollut. 2014, 188, 177– 181 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.02.006
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The Danube so colourful: A potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe's second largest river
Lechner, Aaron; Keckeis, Hubert; Lumesberger-Loisl, Franz; Zens, Bernhard; Krusch, Reinhard; Tritthart, Michael; Glas, Martin; Schludermann, Elisabeth
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 188 (), 177-181CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Previous studies on plastic pollution of aquatic ecosystems focused on the world's oceans. Large rivers as major pathways for land-based plastic litter, has received less attention so far. Here we report on plastic quantities in the Austrian Danube. A two year survey (2010, 2012) using stationary driftnets detected mean plastic abundance (n = 17,349; mean ± S.D: 316.8 ± 4664.6 items per 1000 m-3) and mass (4.8 ± 24.2 g per 1000 m-3) in the river to be higher than those of drifting larval fish (n = 24,049; 275.3 ± 745.0 individuals. 1000 m-3 and 3.2 ± 8.6 g 1000 m-3). Industrial raw material (pellets, flakes and spherules) accounted for substantial parts (79.4%) of the plastic debris. The plastic input via the Danube into the Black Sea was estd. to 4.2 t per day.
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Castañeda, R. A.; Avlijas, S.; Simard, M. A.; Ricciardi, A. Microplastic pollution in st. lawrence river sediments Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2014, 71 (12) 1767– 1771 DOI: 10.1139/cjfas-2014-0281
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Microplastic pollution in St. Lawrence River sediments
Castaneda, Rowshyra A.; Avlijas, Suncica; Simard, M. Anouk; Ricciardi, Anthony
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (2014), 71 (12), 1767-1771CODEN: CJFSDX; ISSN:0706-652X. (Canadian Science Publishing)
Although widely detected in marine ecosystems, microplastic pollution has only recently been documented in freshwater environments, almost exclusively in surface waters. Here, we report microplastics (polyethylene microbeads, 0.40-2.16 mm diam.) in the sediments of the St.Lawrence River. We sampled 10 freshwater sites along a 320 km section from Lake St.Francis to Que´bec City by passing sediment collected from a benthic grab through a 500 μm sieve. Microbeads were discovered throughout this section, and their abundances varied by four orders of magnitude across sites. Median and mean (±1 SE) densities across sites were 52 microbeads·m-2 and 13 832 (±13 677) microbeads·m-2, resp. The highest site d. was 1.4 × 105 microbeads·m-2 (or 103 microbeads·L-1), which is similar in magnitude to microplastic concns. found in the world's most contaminated marine sediments. Mean diam. of microbeads was smaller at sites receiving municipal or industrial effluent (0.70 ± 0.01 mm) than at non-effluent sites (0.98 ± 0.01 mm), perhaps suggesting differential origins. Given the prevalence and locally high densities of microplastics in St.Lawrence River sediments, their ingestion by benthivorous fishes and macroinvertebrates warrants investigation.
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Free, C. M.; Jensen, O. P.; Mason, S. A.; Eriksen, M.; Williamson, N. J.; Boldgiv, B. High-levels of microplastic pollution in a large, remote, mountain lake Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 85 (1) 156– 163 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.001
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High-levels of microplastic pollution in a large, remote, mountain lake
Free, Christopher M.; Jensen, Olaf P.; Mason, Sherri A.; Eriksen, Marcus; Williamson, Nicholas J.; Boldgiv, Bazartseren
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2014), 85 (1), 156-163CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Despite the large and growing literature on microplastics in the ocean, little information exists on microplastics in freshwater systems. This study is the first to evaluate the abundance, distribution, and compn. of pelagic microplastic pollution in a large, remote, mountain lake. We quantified pelagic microplastics and shoreline anthropogenic debris in Lake Hovsgol, Mongolia. With an av. microplastic d. of 20,264 particles km-2, Lake Hovsgol is more heavily polluted with microplastics than the more developed Lakes Huron and Superior in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Fragments and films were the most abundant microplastic types; no plastic microbeads and few pellets were obsd. Household plastics dominated the shoreline debris and were comprised largely of plastic bottles, fishing gear, and bags. Microplastic d. decreased with distance from the southwestern shore, the most populated and accessible section of the park, and was distributed by the prevailing winds. These results demonstrate that without proper waste management, low-d. populations can heavily pollute freshwater systems with consumer plastics.
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Mani, T.; Hauk, A.; Walter, U.; Burkhardt-Holm, P. Microplastics profile along the Rhine River Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 17988 DOI: 10.1038/srep17988
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Microplastics profile along the Rhine River
Mani, Thomas; Hauk, Armin; Walter, Ulrich; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia
Scientific Reports (2015), 5 (), 17988CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
Microplastics result from fragmentation of plastic debris or are released to the environment as pre-prodn. pellets or components of consumer and industrial products. In the oceans, they contribute to the 'great garbage patches'. They are ingested by many organisms, from protozoa to baleen whales, and pose a threat to the aquatic fauna. Although as much as 80% of marine debris originates from land, little attention was given to the role of rivers as debris pathways to the sea. Worldwide, not a single great river has yet been studied for the surface microplastics load over its length. We report the abundance and compn. of microplastics at the surface of the Rhine, one of the largest European rivers. Measurements were made at 11 locations over a stretch of 820 km. Microplastics were found in all samples, with 892,777 particles km -2 on av. In the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area, a peak concn. of 3.9 million particles km -2 was measured. Microplastics concns. were diverse along and across the river, reflecting various sources and sinks such as waste water treatment plants, tributaries and weirs. Measures should be implemented to avoid and reduce the pollution with anthropogenic litter in aquatic ecosystems.
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Corcoran, P. L.; Norris, T.; Ceccanese, T.; Walzak, M. J.; Helm, P. A.; Marvin, C. H. Hidden plastics of Lake Ontario, Canada and their potential preservation in the sediment record Environ. Pollut. 2015, 204, 17– 25 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.04.009
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Hidden plastics of Lake Ontario, Canada and their potential preservation in the sediment record
Corcoran, Patricia L.; Norris, Todd; Ceccanese, Trevor; Walzak, Mary Jane; Helm, Paul A.; Marvin, Chris H.
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2015), 204 (), 17-25CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Microplastics are a source of environmental pollution resulting from degrdn. of plastic products and spillage of resin pellets. We report the amts. of microplastics from various sites of Lake Ontario and evaluate their potential for preservation in the sediment record. A total of 4635 pellets were sampled from the Humber Bay shoreline on three sampling dates. Pellet colors were similar to those from the Humber River bank, suggesting that the river is a pathway for plastics transport into Lake Ontario. Once in the lake, high d. microplastics, including mineral-polyethylene and mineral-polypropylene mixts., sink to the bottom. The minerals may be fillers that were combined with plastics during prodn., or may have adsorbed to the surfaces of the polymers in the water column or on the lake bottom. Based on sediment depths and accumulation rates, microplastics have accumulated in the offshore region for less than 38 years. Their burial increases the chance of microplastics preservation. Shoreline pellets may not be preserved because they are mingled with org. debris that is reworked during storm events.
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Eriksen, M.; Mason, S.; Wilson, S.; Box, C.; Zellers, A.; Edwards, W.; Farley, H.; Amato, S. Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2013, 77 (1–2) 177– 182 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.007
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Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes
Eriksen, Marcus; Mason, Sherri; Wilson, Stiv; Box, Carolyn; Zellers, Ann; Edwards, William; Farley, Hannah; Amato, Stephen
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2013), 77 (1-2), 177-182CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Neuston samples were collected at 21 stations during an ∼700 nautical mile (∼1300 km) expedition in July 2012 in the Laurentian Great Lakes of the United States using a 333 μm mesh manta trawl and analyzed for plastic debris. Although the av. abundance was approx. 43,000 microplastic particles/km2, station 20, downstream from two major cities, contained over 466,000 particles/km2, greater than all other stations combined. SEM anal. detd. nearly 20% of particles less than 1 mm, which were initially identified as microplastic by visual observation, were aluminum silicate from coal ash. Many microplastic particles were multi-colored spheres, which were compared to, and are suspected to be, microbeads from consumer products contg. microplastic particles of similar size, shape, texture and compn. The presence of microplastics and coal ash in these surface samples, which were most abundant where lake currents converge, are likely from nearby urban effluent and coal burning power plants.
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Neff, B. P.; Nicholas, J. R. Uncertainty in the Great Lakes Water Balance; Scientific Investigations Report, USGS Numbered Series 2004-5100; U.S. Geological Survey: Washington, DC, 2005.
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U.S. Geological Survey. USGS Surface-WaterDaily Data forthe Nation. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/dv/?referred_module=sw (accessed Feb 1, 2016) .
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Baldwin, A. K.; Corsi, S. R.; Mason, S. A. Microplastics in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries (2014–15). https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/5748a29be4b07e28b664dd62 (accessed May 31, 2016) .
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Masura, J.; Baker, J.; Foster, G.; Arthur, C. Laboratory Methods for the Analysis of Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Recommendations for Quantifying Synthetic Particles in Waters and Sediments; NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Silver Spring, MD, 2015.
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Bond, A. L.; Provencher, J. F.; Daoust, P.-Y.; Lucas, Z. N. Plastic ingestion by fulmars and shearwaters at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 87 (1–2) 68– 75 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.08.010
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Devriese, L. I.; van der Meulen, M. D.; Maes, T.; Bekaert, K.; Paul-Pont, I.; Frère, L.; Robbens, J.; Vethaak, A. D. Microplastic contamination in brown shrimp (Crangon crangon, Linnaeus 1758) from coastal waters of the Southern North Sea and Channel area Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 98 (1–2) 179– 187 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.06.051
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Rochman, C. M.; Tahir, A.; Williams, S. L.; Baxa, D. V.; Lam, R.; Miller, J. T.; Teh, F.-C.; Werorilangi, S.; Teh, S. J. Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and fibers from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human consumption Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 14340 DOI: 10.1038/srep14340
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Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and fibers from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human consumption
Rochman, Chelsea M.; Tahir, Akbar; Williams, Susan L.; Baxa, Dolores V.; Lam, Rosalyn; Miller, Jeffrey T.; Teh, Foo-Ching; Werorilangi, Shinta; Teh, Swee J.
Scientific Reports (2015), 5 (), 14340CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
The ubiquity of anthropogenic debris in hundreds of species of wildlife and the toxicity of chems. assocd. with it has begun to raise concerns regarding the presence of anthropogenic debris in seafood. We assessed the presence of anthropogenic debris in fishes and shellfish on sale for human consumption. We sampled from markets in Makassar, Indonesia, and from California, USA. All fish and shellfish were identified to species where possible. Anthropogenic debris was extd. from the digestive tracts of fish and whole shellfish using a 10% KOH soln. and quantified under a dissecting microscope. In Indonesia, anthropogenic debris was found in 28% of individual fish and in 55% of all species. Similarly, in the USA, anthropogenic debris was found in 25% of individual fish and in 67% of all species. Anthropogenic debris was also found in 33% of individual shellfish sampled. All of the anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in Indonesia was plastic, whereas anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in the USA was primarily fibers. Variations in debris types likely reflect different sources and waste management strategies between countries. We report some of the first findings of plastic debris in fishes directly sold for human consumption raising concerns regarding human health.
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Romeo, T.; Pietro, B.; Pedà, C.; Consoli, P.; Andaloro, F.; Fossi, M. C. First evidence of presence of plastic debris in stomach of large pelagic fish in the Mediterranean Sea Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 95 (1) 358– 361 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.048
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First evidence of presence of plastic debris in stomach of large pelagic fish in the Mediterranean Sea
Romeo, Teresa; Pietro, Battaglia; Peda, Cristina; Consoli, Pierpaolo; Andaloro, Franco; Fossi, Maria Cristina
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 95 (1), 358-361CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
This study focuses, for the first time, on the presence of plastic debris in the stomach contents of large pelagic fish (Xiphias gladius, Thunnus thynnus and Thunnus alalunga) caught in the Mediterranean Sea between 2012 and 2013. Results highlighted the ingestion of plastics in the 18.2% of samples. The plastics ingested were microplastics (<5 mm), mesoplastics (5-25 mm) and macroplastics (>25 mm).These preliminary results represent an important initial phase in exploring two main ecotoxicol. aspects: (a) the assessment of the presence and impact of plastic debris on these large pelagic fish, and (b) the potential effects related to the transfer of contaminants on human health.
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Fossi, M. C.; Marsili, L.; Baini, M.; Giannetti, M.; Coppola, D.; Guerranti, C.; Caliani, I.; Minutoli, R.; Lauriano, G.; Finoia, M. G. Fin whales and microplastics: The Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez scenarios Environ. Pollut. 2016, 209, 68– 78 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.022
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Fin whales and microplastics: The Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez scenarios
Fossi, Maria Cristina; Marsili, Letizia; Baini, Matteo; Giannetti, Matteo; Coppola, Daniele; Guerranti, Cristiana; Caliani, Ilaria; Minutoli, Roberta; Lauriano, Giancarlo; Finoia, Maria Grazia; Rubegni, Fabrizio; Panigada, Simone; Berube, Martine; Urban Ramirez, Jorge; Panti, Cristina
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 209 (), 68-78CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
The impact that microplastics have on baleen whales is a question that remains largely unexplored. This study examd. the interaction between free-ranging fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) and microplastics by comparing populations living in two semi-enclosed basins, the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California, Mexico). The results indicate that a considerable abundance of microplastics and plastic additives exists in the neustonic samples from Pelagos Sanctuary of the Mediterranean Sea, and that pelagic areas contg. high densities of microplastics overlap with whale feeding grounds, suggesting that whales are exposed to microplastics during foraging; this was confirmed by the observation of a temporal increase in toxicol. stress in whales. Given the abundance of microplastics in the Mediterranean environment, along with the high concns. of Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT) chems., plastic additives and biomarker responses detected in the biopsies of Mediterranean whales as compared to those in whales inhabiting the Sea of Cortez, we believe that exposure to microplastics because of direct ingestion and consumption of contaminated prey poses a major threat to the health of fin whales in the Mediterranean Sea.
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Hammer, S.; Nager, R. G.; Johnson, P. C. D.; Furness, R. W.; Provencher, J. F. Plastic debris in great skua (Stercorarius skua) pellets corresponds to seabird prey species Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 103 (1–2) 206– 210 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.018
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Miranda, D. de A.; de Carvalho-Souza, G. F. Are we eating plastic-ingesting fish? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 103 (1–2) 109– 114 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.035
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Are we eating plastic-ingesting fish?
Miranda, Daniele de A.; Freire de Carvalho-Souza, Gustavo
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 103 (1-2), 109-114CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Yes, we are eating plastic-ingesting fish. A baseline assessment of plastic pellet ingestion by two species of important edible fish caught along the eastern coast of Brazil is described. The rate of plastic ingestion by king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) was quite high (62.5%), followed by the Brazilian sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon lalandii, 33%). From 2 to 6 plastic resin pellets were encountered in the stomachs of each fish, with sizes of from 1 to 5 mm, and with colors ranging from clear to white and yellowish. Ecol. and health-related implications are discussed and the potential for transferring these materials through the food-chain are addressed. Further research will be needed of other species harvested for human consumption.
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Nicolau, L.; Marçalo, A.; Ferreira, M.; Sá, S.; Vingada, J.; Eira, C. Ingestion of marine litter by loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, in Portuguese continental waters Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 103 (1–2) 179– 185 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.021
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Peters, C. A.; Bratton, S. P. Urbanization is a major influence on microplastic ingestion by sunfish in the Brazos River Basin, Central Texas, USA Environ. Pollut. 2016, 210, 380– 387 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.018
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Urbanization is a major influence on microplastic ingestion by sunfish in the Brazos River Basin, Central Texas, USA
Peters, Colleen A.; Bratton, Susan P.
Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 210 (), 380-387CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Microplastics, degraded and weathered polymer-based particles, and manufd. products ranging between 50 and 5000 μm in size, are found within marine, freshwater, and estuarine environments. While numerous peer-reviewed papers have quantified the ingestion of microplastics by marine vertebrates, relatively few studies have focused on microplastic ingestion by freshwater organisms. This study documents microplastic and manufd. fiber ingestion by bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and longear (Lepomis megalotis) sunfish (Centrarchidae) from the Brazos River Basin, between Lake Whitney and Marlin, Texas, USA. Fourteen sample sites were studied and categorized into urban, downstream, and upstream areas. A total of 436 sunfish were collected, and 196 (45%) stomachs contained microplastics. Four percent (4%) of items sampled were debris on the macro size scale (i.e. >5 mm) and consisted of masses of plastic, metal, Styrofoam, or fishing material, while 96% of items sampled were in the form of microplastic threads. Fish length was statistically correlated to the no. of microplastics detected (p = 0.019). Fish collected from urban sites displayed the highest mean no. of microplastics ingested, followed by downstream and upstream sites. Microplastics were assocd. with the ingestion of other debris items (e.g. sand and wood) and correlated to the ingestion of fish eggs, earthworms, and mollusks, suggesting that sunfish incidentally ingest microplastics during their normal feeding methods. The high frequency of microplastic ingestion suggest that further research is needed to det. the residence time of microplastics within the stomach and gut, potential for food web transfer, and adverse effects on wildlife and ecosystemic health.
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Napper, I. E.; Bakir, A.; Rowland, S. J.; Thompson, R. C. Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of microplastics extracted from cosmetics Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 99 (1–2) 178– 185 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.029
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Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of microplastics extracted from cosmetics
Napper, Imogen E.; Bakir, Adil; Rowland, Steven J.; Thompson, Richard C.
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 99 (1-2), 178-185CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Cosmetic products, such as facial scrubs, have been identified as potentially important primary sources of microplastics to the marine environment. This study characterises, quantifies and then investigates the sorptive properties of plastic microbeads that are used as exfoliants in cosmetics. Polyethylene microbeads were extd. from several products, and shown to have a wide size range (mean diams. between 164 and 327 μm). We estd. that between 4594 and 94,500 microbeads could be released in a single use. To examine the potential for microbeads to accumulate and transport chems. they were exposed to a binary mixt. of 3H-phenanthrene and 14C-DDT in seawater. The potential for transport of sorbed chems. by microbeads was broadly similar to that of polythene (PE) particles used in previous sorption studies. In conclusion, cosmetic exfoliants are a potentially important, yet preventable source of microplastic contamination in the marine environment.
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Mason, S. A.; Kammin, L.; Eriksen, M.; Aleid, G.; Wilson, S.; Box, C.; Williamson, N.; Riley, A. Pelagic Plastic Pollution within the Surface Waters of Lake Michigan, USA J. Great Lakes Res. 2016, 42 (4) 753– 759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2016.05.009
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Pelagic plastic pollution within the surface waters of Lake Michigan, USA
Mason, Sherri A.; Kammin, Laura; Eriksen, Marcus; Aleid, Ghadah; Wilson, Stiv; Box, Carolyn; Williamson, Nick; Riley, Anjanette
Journal of Great Lakes Research (2016), 42 (4), 753-759CODEN: JGLRDE; ISSN:0380-1330. (Elsevier B.V.)
During the summer of 2013, a total of 59 surface water samples were collected across Lake Michigan making it the best surveyed for pelagic plastics of all the Laurentian Great Lakes. Consistent with other studies within the Great Lakes, Mantra-trawl samples were dominated by particles less than 1 mm in size. Enumeration of collected plastics under a microscope found fragments to be the most common anthropogenic particle type, followed by fibers, with more minor contributions from pellets, films and foams. The majority of these pelagic plastic particles were found to be polyethylene, with polypropylene being the second most common polymeric type, which is consistent with manufg. trends and beach survey results. The pelagic plastic was found to be fairly evenly distributed across the entire Lake Michigan surface, despite the formation of a seasonal gyre at the southern end of the lake. We found that an av. plastic abundance of ∼ 17,000 particles/km2, which when multiplied by the total surface area, gives on the order of 1 billion plastic particles floating on the surface of Lake Michigan. As the majority of these particles are extremely small, less than 1 mm in size, which allows for easy ingestion, these results highlight the need for addnl. studies with regard to the possible impacts upon aquatic organisms.
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Song, Y. K.; Hong, S. H.; Jang, M.; Han, G. M.; Rani, M.; Lee, J.; Shim, W. J. A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 93 (1–2) 202– 209 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.01.015
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A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples
Song, Young Kyoung; Hong, Sang Hee; Jang, Mi; Han, Gi Myung; Rani, Manviri; Lee, Jongmyoung; Shim, Won Joon
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 93 (1-2), 202-209CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
The anal. of microplastics in various environmental samples requires the identification of microplastics from natural materials. The identification technique lacks a standardized protocol. Herein, stereomicroscope and Fourier transform IR spectroscope (FT-IR) identification methods for microplastics (<1 mm) were compared using the same samples from the sea surface microlayer (SML) and beach sand. Fragmented microplastics were significantly (p < 0.05) underestimated and fiber was significantly overestimated using the stereomicroscope both in the SML and beach samples. The total abundance by FT-IR was higher than by microscope both in the SML and beach samples, but they were not significantly (p > 0.05) different. Depending on the no. of samples and the microplastic size range of interest, the appropriate identification method should be detd.; selecting a suitable identification method for microplastics is crucial for evaluating microplastic pollution.
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R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2015.
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Giraudoux, P.pgirmess: Data Analysis in Ecology, R package version 1.6.3; 2015.
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Browne, M. A.; Crump, P.; Niven, S. J.; Teuten, E.; Tonkin, A.; Galloway, T.; Thompson, R. Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: Sources and sinks Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45 (21) 9175– 9179 DOI: 10.1021/es201811s
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Accumulation of Microplastic on Shorelines Worldwide: Sources and Sinks
Browne, Mark Anthony; Crump, Phillip; Niven, Stewart J.; Teuten, Emma; Tonkin, Andrew; Galloway, Tamara; Thompson, Richard
Environmental Science & Technology (2011), 45 (21), 9175-9179CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. We show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing 6 continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relation between the abundance of microplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Expts. sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers/wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
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Woodall, L. C.; Gwinnett, C.; Packer, M.; Thompson, R. C.; Robinson, L. F.; Paterson, G. L. J. Using a forensic science approach to minimize environmental contamination and to identify microfibres in marine sediments Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 95 (1) 40– 46 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.044
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Using a forensic science approach to minimize environmental contamination and to identify microfibres in marine sediments
Woodall, Lucy C.; Gwinnett, Claire; Packer, Margaret; Thompson, Richard C.; Robinson, Laura F.; Paterson, Gordon L. J.
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 95 (1), 40-46CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
There is growing evidence of extensive pollution of the environment by microplastic, with microfibres representing a large proportion of the microplastics seen in marine sediments. Since microfibres are ubiquitous in the environment, present in the lab. air and water, evaluating microplastic pollution is difficult. Incidental contamination is highly likely unless strict control measures are employed. Here we describe methods developed to minimize the amt. of incidental post-sampling contamination when quantifying marine microfibre pollution. We show that our protocol, adapted from the field of forensic fiber examn., reduces fiber abundance by 90% and enables the quick screening of fiber populations. These methods therefore allow an accurate est. of microplastics polluting marine sediments. In a case study from a series of samples collected on a research vessel, we use these methods to highlight the prevalence of microfibres as marine microplastics.
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Foekema, E. M.; De Gruijter, C.; Mergia, M. T.; van Franeker, J. A.; Murk, A. J.; Koelmans, A. A. Plastic in North Sea Fish Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (15) 8818– 8824 DOI: 10.1021/es400931b
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Plastic in North Sea Fish
Foekema, Edwin M.; De Gruijter, Corine; Mergia, Mekuria T.; van Franeker, Jan Andries; Murk, AlberTinka J.; Koelmans, Albert A.
Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (15), 8818-8824CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
To quantify the occurrence of ingested plastic in fish species caught at different geog. positions in the North Sea, and to test whether the fish condition is affected by ingestion of plastics, 1203 individual fish of seven common North Sea species were investigated: herring, gray gurnard, whiting, horse mackerel, haddock, atlantic mackerel, and cod. Plastic particles were found in 2.6% of the examd. fish and in five of the seven species. No plastics were found in gray gurnard and mackerel. In most cases, only one particle was found per fish, ranging in size from 0.04 to 4.8 mm. Only particles larger than 0.2 mm, being the diam. of the sieve used, were considered for the data analyses, resulting in a median particle size of 0.8 mm. The frequency of fish with plastic was significantly higher (5.4%) in the southern North Sea, than in the northern North Sea above 55°N (1.2%). The highest frequency (>33%) was found in cod from the English Channel. In addn., small fibers were initially detected in most of the samples, but their abundance sharply decreased when working under special clean air conditions. Therefore, these fibers were considered to be artifacts related to air born contamination and were excluded from the analyses. No relationship was found between the condition factor (size-wt. relationship) of the fish and the presence of ingested plastic particles.
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Habib, D.; Locke, D. C.; Cannone, L. J. Synthetic fibers as indicators of municipal sewage sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1998, 103 (1–4) 1– 8 DOI: 10.1023/A:1004908110793
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Synthetic fibers as indicators of municipal sewage sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents
Habib, Daniel; Locke, David C.; Cannone, Leonard J.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution (1998), 103 (1-4), 1-8CODEN: WAPLAC; ISSN:0049-6979. (Kluwer Academic Publishers)
Because of concerns regarding health, safety, and aesthetics, a test that identifies the presence of sewage sludge or its products (biosolids) in com. materials such as soil conditioners and composts would be useful. This test could also trace the effluent plume from a sewage treatment plant. We have discovered that synthetic fibers serve as such an indicator. Synthetic fibers are abundant in sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents. The fibers evidently are introduced from clothes-washing machines and survive the sewage treatment process. Synthetic fibers were identified using polarized light microscopy, which provided a simple, rapid method for detg. the presence or absence of municipal sewage sludge or its products. False positives or false negatives have not occurred with any of the materials examd. so far. We also monitored synthetic fibers in surface sediments of Huntington Harbor, Long Island, NY, a harbor receiving the effluent from a trickling filter sewage treatment plant. Fibers generally decrease in size and abundance with distance from the source. In Oyster Bay Harbor, Long Island, an advanced sewage treatment plant is operated with a final microfiltration step. Synthetic fibers are less abundant in the sediments of this harbor.
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Klein, S.; Worch, E.; Knepper, T. P. Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in River Shore Sediments of the Rhine-Main Area in Germany Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (10) 6070– 6076 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00492
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Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in River Shore Sediments of the Rhine-Main Area in Germany
Klein, Sascha; Worch, Eckhard; Knepper, Thomas P.
Environmental Science & Technology (2015), 49 (10), 6070-6076CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Plastic debris is one of the most significant org. pollutants in the aquatic environment. Due to properties, e.g., buoyancy and extreme durability, synthetic polymers are present in rivers, lakes, and oceans and accumulate in sediment worldwide; however, freshwater sediment has attracted less attention than investigated marine ecosystem sediment. For this reason, shore sediment of Rhine and Main rivers in the Rhine-Main area (Germany) were analyzed. Sample sites comprised shore sediment of a large river (Rhine) and a river characterized by industrial influence (Main) in areas with varying population sizes and sites near nature reserves. All analyzed sediment contained micro-plastic particles (<5 mm), with mass fractions up to 1 g/kg or 4000 particles/kg. Plastic IR spectroscopy anal. showed a large abundance of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene, covering >75% of all polymer types identified in polluted sediment. The short plastic particle transport distance from tributaries to the main stream was confirmed by the identification of pellets sepd. from shore sediment samples of both rivers. This systematic study showed the emerging micro-plastic pollution of inland river sediment, underlining the importance of rivers as micro-plastic transport vectors to oceans.
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Zbyszewski, M.; Corcoran, P. L.; Hockin, A. Comparison of the distribution and degradation of plastic debris along shorelines of the Great Lakes, North America J. Great Lakes Res. 2014, 40 (2) 288– 299 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2014.02.012
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Comparison of the distribution and degradation of plastic debris along shorelines of the Great Lakes, North America
Zbyszewski, Maciej; Corcoran, Patricia L.; Hockin, Alexandra
Journal of Great Lakes Research (2014), 40 (2), 288-299CODEN: JGLRDE; ISSN:0380-1330. (Elsevier B.V.)
The distribution patterns, compns. and textures of plastic debris along the Lake Erie and St. Clair shorelines were studied in order to det. the roles of potential source locations, surface currents, and shoreline types in the accumulation of plastic litter. The results were compared with those previously detd. from Lake Huron, where abundant plastic pellets characterize the southeastern shoreline. Lake Erie and St.Clair shorelines contained some pellets, but were mainly characterized by plastic fragments and intact products, resp. The potential sources for the pellets include spillage within factories or during transport and off-loading; whereas intact products were derived from urban waste. Once entering the lake environment, low d. floating polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene were degraded by UVB radiation at either the water surface or once deposited on shorelines. Mech. degrdn. by wave action and/or sand abrasion fragmented intact products into cm-size particles. Certain textures identified on the surfaces of plastic particles could be related to the nature of the depositional environment. Plastics sampled from infrequently visited muddy, org.-rich shorelines were characterized by more adhering particles and less mech. pits than those from sandy shorelines. In terms of relative distribution, the Lake St. Clair shoreline contained the least amt. of plastic debris of the three lakes. This is a function of the breakwaters and retaining walls built along Lake St. Clair, which replace natural sandy or muddy sinks for floating polymers. This study represents the first detailed record of plastics distribution along multiple, but related fresh water shorelines.
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Browne, M. A.; Dissanayake, A.; Galloway, T. S.; Lowe, D. M.; Thompson, R. C. Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, Mytilus edulis (L) Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (13) 5026– 5031 DOI: 10.1021/es800249a
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Ingested Microscopic Plastic Translocates to the Circulatory System of the Mussel, Mytilus edulis (L.)
Browne, Mark A.; Dissanayake, Awantha; Galloway, Tamara S.; Lowe, David M.; Thompson, Richard C.
Environmental Science & Technology (2008), 42 (13), 5026-5031CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (<1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial expts. showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments contg. seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 μm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biol. effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biol. consequences of this debris.
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Von Moos, N.; Burkhardt-Holm, P.; Köhler, A. Uptake and effects of microplastics on cells and tissue of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an experimental exposure Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (20) 11327– 11335 DOI: 10.1021/es302332w
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Uptake and effects of microplastics on cells and tissue of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an experimental exposure
von Moos, Nadia; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia; Koehler, Angela
Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (20), 11327-11335CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
In this study, we investigated if industrial high-d. polyethylene (HDPE) particles, a model microplastic free of additives, ranging > 0-80 μm are ingested and taken up into the cells and tissue of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. The effects of exposure (up to 96 h) and plastic ingestion were obsd. at the cellular and subcellular level. Microplastic uptake into the gills and digestive gland was analyzed by a new method using polarized light microscopy. Mussel health status was investigated incorporating histol. assessment and cytochem. biomarkers of toxic effects and early warning. In addn. to being drawn into the gills, HDPE particles were taken up into the stomach and transported into the digestive gland where they accumulated in the lysosomal system after 3 h of exposure. Our results show notable histol. changes upon uptake and a strong inflammatory response demonstrated by the formation of granulocytomas after 6 h and lysosomal membrane destabilization, which significantly increased with longer exposure times. We provide proof of principle that microplastics are taken up into cells and cause significant effects on the tissue and cellular level, which can be assessed with std. cytochem. biomarkers and polarized light microscopy for microplastic tracking in tissue.
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Ballent, A.; Corcoran, P. L.; Madden, O.; Helm, P. A.; Longstaffe, F. J. Sources and sinks of microplastics in Canadian Lake Ontario nearshore, tributary and beach sediments Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 110 (1) 383– 395 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.037
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Sources and sinks of microplastics in Canadian Lake Ontario nearshore, tributary and beach sediments
Ballent, Anika; Corcoran, Patricia L.; Madden, Odile; Helm, Paul A.; Longstaffe, Fred J.
Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 110 (1), 383-395CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Microplastics contamination of Lake Ontario sediments is investigated with the aim of identifying distribution patterns and hotspots in nearshore, tributary and beach depositional environments. Microplastics are concd. in nearshore sediments in the vicinity of urban and industrial regions. In Humber Bay and Toronto Harbor microplastic concns. were consistently > 500 particles per kg dry sediment. Maximum concns. of ∼ 28,000 particles per kg dry sediment were detd. in Etobicoke Creek. The microplastic particles were primarily fibers and fragments < 2 mm in size. Both low- and high-d. plastics were identified using Raman spectroscopy. We provide a baseline for future monitoring and discuss potential sources of microplastics in terms of how and where to implement preventative measures to reduce the contaminant influx. Although the impacts of microplastics contamination on ecosystem health and functioning is uncertain, understanding, monitoring and preventing further microplastics contamination in Lake Ontario and the other Great Lakes is crucial.

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Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 19, 10377–10385

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Abstract
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Figure 1
Figure 1. Sampling locations, watershed boundaries, and watershed land uses.
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Figure 2
Figure 2. (A, B) Sample collection (A) using a bridge crane and (B) by wading. (C) Washing of particles from the net into the cod end using a backpack sprayer. (D, E) Microscopic images of assorted microplastic particles.
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Figure 3
Figure 3. (A–F) Average concentrations of plastic particles and (G) watershed land cover at sampled Great Lakes tributaries (2014–15).
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Figure 4
Figure 4. Plastic concentrations in nonurban low-flow (n = 40), nonurban runoff (n = 35), urban low-flow (n = 17), and urban runoff (n = 15) samples. Urban watersheds are those with greater than 15% urban land cover. Boxplot labels A, B, and C indicate which groups of samples are statistically similar (those sharing a common letter) and statistically different (those not sharing a common letter) using the Kruskal–Wallis multiple comparisons test (p < 0.05). Legend: boxes, 25th to 75th percentiles; dark lines, medians; whiskers, 1.5 × the interquartile range (IQR); circles, values outside 1.5 × the IQR; ND, not detected.
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Figure 5
Figure 5. Mean relative abundances of different plastic particle types in the Great Lakes compared with tributaries. Great Lakes data are from Eriksen et al. (30)
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References
This article references 59 other publications.
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  Plastic resin pellets (small granules 0.1-0.5 cm diam.) are widely distributed in the ocean worldwide. They are an industrial raw material for the plastic industry and are unintentionally released to the environment during manufg. and transport. They are sometimes ingested by seabirds and other marine organisms; their adverse effects on organisms are a concern. In this, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), DDE, and nonylphenols (NP) were detected in polypropylene (PP) resin pellets collected from 4 Japanese coasts. Concns. of PCB (4-117 ng/g), DDE (0.16-3.1 ng/g), and NP (0.13-16 μg/g) varied among sample site. Concns. were comparable to those for suspended particles and bottom sediment collected from the same area as the pellets. Field adsorption expts. using PP virgin pellets demonstrated a significant, steady increase in PCB and DDE concns. throughout a 6-day expt., indicating the source of PCB and DDE is ambient seawater and that adsorption to pellet surfaces is the mechanism of enrichment. The major source of NP in the marine PP resin pellets was thought to be plastic additives and/or their degrdn. products. Comparison of PCB and DDE concns. in marine PP resin pellets with those in seawater suggested their high degree of accumulation (apparent adsorption coeff.: 105-106). The high accumulation potential suggested that plastic resin pellets serve as a transport medium and a potential source of toxic chems. in the marine environment.
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  Environmental context Plastics prodn. has increased considerably in recent years, leading to pollution by plastics, including microplastics (comprising particles smaller than 5mm). This work addresses the issue of microplastics from urban sources and in receiving waters in Greater Paris. Microplastics were found in all urban compartments investigated, namely atm. fallout, waste- and treated water, and surface water. Abstr. This study investigates the microplastic contamination of both urban compartments (wastewater and total atm. fallout) and surface water in a continental environment. These first investigations on an urban environment confirm the presence of microplastics in sewage, fresh water and total atm. fallout and provide knowledge on the type and size distribution of microplastics in the 100-5000-μm range. For the first time, the presence of microplastics, mostly fibers, is highlighted in total atm. fallout (29-280particlesm-2day-1). High levels of fibers were found in wastewater (260-320×103particlesm-3). In treated effluent, the contamination significantly decreased to 14-50×103particlesm-3. In the River Seine, two sampling devices were used to collect both large and small microplastic particles: (i) a plankton net (80-μm mesh), and (ii) a manta trawl (330-μm mesh). Sampling with the plankton net showed a predominance of fibers, with concns. ranging from 3 to 108particlesm-3. A greater diversity of both microplastic shapes and types was found during manta trawl sampling but at much lower concns. (0.28-0.47particlesm-3). This combined approach could be relevant and implemented in future studies to provide an accurate overview of microplastic distribution in freshwater.
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  Transport and fate of microplastic particles in wastewater treatment plants
  Carr, Steve A.; Liu, Jin; Tesoro, Arnold G.
  Water Research (2016), 91 (), 174-182CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are frequently suspected as significant point sources or conduits of microplastics to the environment. To directly investigate these suspicions, effluent discharges from seven tertiary plants and one secondary plant in Southern California were studied. The study also looked at influent loads, particle size/type, conveyance, and removal at these wastewater treatment facilities. Over 0.189 million liters of effluent at each of the seven tertiary plants were filtered using an assembled stack of sieves with mesh sizes between 400 and 45 μm. Addnl., the surface of 28.4 million liters of final effluent at three tertiary plants was skimmed using a 125 μm filtering assembly. The results suggest that tertiary effluent is not a significant source of microplastics and that these plastic pollutants are effectively removed during the skimming and settling treatment processes. However, at a downstream secondary plant, an av. of one micro-particle in every 1.14 thousand liters of final effluent was counted. The majority of microplastics identified in this study had a profile (color, shape, and size) similar to the blue polyethylene particles present in toothpaste formulations. Existing treatment processes were detd. to be very effective for removal of microplastic contaminants entering typical municipal WWTPs.
10. 10
  Zubris, K. A. V.; Richards, B. K. Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge Environ. Pollut. 2005, 138 (2) 201– 211 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2005.04.013
  10
  Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge
  Zubris, Kimberly Ann V.; Richards, Brian K.
  Environmental Pollution (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2005), 138 (2), 201-211CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier B.V.)
  Synthetic fabric fibers have been proposed as indicators of past spreading of wastewater sludge. Synthetic fiber detectability was examd. in sludges (dewatered, pelletized, composted, alk.-stabilized) and in soils from exptl. columns and field sites applied with those sludge products. Fibers (isolated by water extn. and examd. using polarized light microscopy) were detectable in sludge products and in soil columns over 5 years after application, retaining characteristics obsd. in the applied sludge. Concns. mirrored (within a factor of 2) predictions based on soil diln. Fibers were detectable in field site soils up to 15 years after application, again retaining the characteristics seen in sludge products. Concns. correlated with residual sludge metal concn. gradients in a well-characterized field site. Fibers found along preferential flow paths and/or in horizons largely below the mixed layer suggest some potential for translocation. Synthetic fibers were shown to be rapid and semi-quant. indicators of past sludge application. Synthetic fabric fibers present in wastewater sludge are a semi-quant. long-term indicator of past sludge application in soils.
11. 11
  Dorn, C. R.; Reddy, C. S.; Lamphere, D. N.; Gaeuman, J. V.; Lanese, R. Municipal sewage sludge application on Ohio farms: health effects Environ. Res. 1985, 38 (2) 332– 359 DOI: 10.1016/0013-9351(85)90097-0
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
12. 12
  Thompson, R. C.; Olson, Y.; Mitchell, R. P.; Davis, A.; Rowland, S. J.; John, A. W. G.; McGonigle, D.; Russell, A. E. Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic? Science 2004, 304 (5672) 838 DOI: 10.1126/science.1094559
  12
  Brevia: Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic?
  Thompson, Richard C.; Olsen, Yiva; Mitchell, Richard P.; Davis, Anthony; Rowland, Steven J.; John, Anthony W. G.; McGonigle, Daniel; Russell, Andrea E.
  Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2004), 304 (5672), 838CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
  Microscopic plastic fragments and fibers are widespread in the world ocean, accumulating in the pelagic zone and sedimentary habitats. Fragments appear to have resulted from degrdn. of larger items. Plastics of this size are ingested by marine organisms, but environmental consequences of this contamination are unknown. Due to its resistance to biodegrdn. but susceptibility to mech. action, there is considerable potential for large-scale accumulation of microscopic plastic debris. To quantify the abundance of micro-plastics, sediment was collected from beaches and estuarine and sub-tidal sediment near Plymouth, UK. Nine polymers were conclusively identified: acrylic, alkyd, poly(ethylene:propylene), polyamide (nylon), polyester, polyethylene, polymethylacrylate, polypropylene, and poly vinyl alc. Given their wide range of uses, it is suggested the fragments resulted from larger item breakdown. To further assess the extent of contamination, another 17 beaches were examd. Similar fibers were obsd., demonstrating that microscopic plastics are common in sedimentary habitats. To assess long-term trends of abundance, plankton samples collected regularly since the 1960s between Aberdeen and the Shetland Islands and from Sule Skerry to Iceland, were analyzed. Plastic was archived among plankton in samples back to the 1960s, but with a significant increase in abundance over time. Similar types of polymer in the water column and sediment suggested polymer d. was not a major factor affecting distribution. Some fragments were granular, but most were fibrous, ∼20 μm in diam., and brightly colored. Results demonstrated the broad spatial extent and accumulation of this type of contamination. Given the rapid increase in plastic prodn., its longevity and disposable nature, this contamination is likely to increase.
13. 13
  Tourinho, P. S.; Ivar do Sul, J. A.; Fillmann, G. Is marine debris ingestion still a problem for the coastal marine biota of southern Brazil? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2010, 60 (3) 396– 401 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.10.013
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
14. 14
  Lavers, J. L.; Bond, A. L.; Hutton, I. Plastic ingestion by flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): Implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals Environ. Pollut. 2014, 187, 124– 129 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.12.020
  14
  Plastic ingestion by Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): Implications for fledgling body condition and the accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals
  Lavers, Jennifer L.; Bond, Alexander L.; Hutton, Ian
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 187 (), 124-129CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  To provide much needed quant. data on the lethal and sublethal effects of plastic pollution on marine wildlife, we sampled breast feathers and stomach contents from Flesh-footed Shearwater (Puffinus carneipes) fledglings in eastern Australia. Birds with high levels of ingested plastic exhibited reduced body condition and increased contaminant load (p < 0.05). More than 60% of fledglings exceed international targets for plastic ingestion by seabirds, with 16% of fledglings failing these targets after a single feeding (range: 0.13-3.21 g of plastic/feeding). As top predators, seabirds are considered sentinels of the marine environment. The amt. of plastic ingested and corresponding damage to Flesh-footed Shearwater fledglings is the highest reported for any marine vertebrate, suggesting the condition of the Australian marine environment is poor. These findings help explain the ongoing decline of this species and are worrying in light of increasing levels of plastic pollution in our oceans.
15. 15
  Setälä, O.; Fleming-Lehtinen, V.; Lehtiniemi, M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 77– 83 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013
  15
  Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web
  Setala, Outi; Fleming-Lehtinen, Vivi; Lehtiniemi, Maiju
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 185 (), 77-83CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Expts. were carried out with different Baltic Sea zooplankton taxa to scan their potential to ingest plastics. Mysid shrimps, copepods, cladocerans, rotifers, polychaete larvae and ciliates were exposed to 10 μm fluorescent polystyrene microspheres. These expts. showed ingestion of microspheres in all taxa studied. The highest percentage of individuals with ingested spheres was found in pelagic polychaete larvae, Marenzelleria spp. Expts. with the copepod Eurytemora affinis and the mysid shrimp Neomysis integer showed egestion of microspheres within 12 h. Food web transfer expts. were done by offering zooplankton labeled with ingested microspheres to mysid shrimps. Microscopy observations of mysid intestine showed the presence of zooplankton prey and microspheres after 3 h incubation. This study shows for the first time the potential of plastic microparticle transfer via planktonic organisms from one trophic level (mesozooplankton) to a higher level (macrozooplankton). The impacts of plastic transfer and possible accumulation in the food web need further investigations.
16. 16
  Derraik, J. G. The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2002, 44 (9) 842– 852 DOI: 10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5
  16
  The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review
  Derraik, Jose G. B.
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2002), 44 (9), 842-852CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
  A review. The deleterious effects of plastic debris on the marine environment were reviewed by bringing together most of the literature published so far on the topic. A large no. of marine species is known to be harmed and/or killed by plastic debris, which could jeopardize their survival, esp. since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. Marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. Other less known threats include the use of plastic debris by "invader" species and the absorption of polychlorinated biphenyls from ingested plastics. Less conspicuous forms, such as plastic pellets and "scrubbers" are also hazardous. To address the problem of plastic debris in the oceans is a difficult task, and a variety of approaches are urgently required. Some of the ways to mitigate the problem are discussed.
17. 17
  Lu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Deng, Y.; Jiang, W.; Zhao, Y.; Geng, J.; Ding, L.; Ren, H. Uptake and Accumulation of Polystyrene Microplastics in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Toxic Effects in Liver Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (7) 4054– 4060 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b00183
  17
  Uptake and Accumulation of Polystyrene Microplastics in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Toxic Effects in Liver
  Lu, Yifeng; Zhang, Yan; Deng, Yongfeng; Jiang, Wei; Zhao, Yanping; Geng, Jinju; Ding, Lili; Ren, Hongqiang
  Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (7), 4054-4060CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  Microplastics have become emerging contaminants, causing widespread concern about their potential toxic effects. In this study, the uptake and tissue accumulation of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) in zebrafish were detected, and the toxic effects in liver were investigated. The results showed that after 7 days of exposure, 5 μm diam. MPs accumulated in fish gills, liver, and gut, while 20 μm diam. MPs accumulated only in fish gills and gut. Histopathol. anal. showed that both 5 μm and 70 nm PS-MPs caused inflammation and lipid accumulation in fish liver. PS-MPs also induced significantly increased activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, indicating that oxidative stress was induced after treatment with MPs. In addn., metabolomic anal. suggested that exposure to MPs induced alterations of metabolic profiles in fish liver and disturbed the lipid and energy metab. These findings provide new insights into the toxic effects of MPs on fish.
18. 18
  Sussarellu, R.; Suquet, M.; Thomas, Y.; Lambert, C.; Fabioux, C.; Pernet, M. E. J.; Le Goïc, N.; Quillien, V.; Mingant, C.; Epelboin, Y. Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplastics Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (9) 2430– 2435 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519019113
  18
  Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplastics
  Sussarellu, Rossana; Suquet, Marc; Thomas, Yoann; Lambert, Christophe; Fabioux, Caroline; Pernet, Marie Eve Julie; Le Goic, Nelly; Quillien, Virgile; Mingant, Christian; Epelboin, Yanouk; Corporeau, Charlotte; Guyomarch, Julien; Robbens, Johan; Paul-Pont, Ika; Soudant, Philippe; Huvet, Arnaud
  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (9), 2430-2435CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
  Plastics are persistent synthetic polymers that accumulate as waste in the marine environment. Microplastic (MP) particles are derived from the breakdown of larger debris or can enter the environment as microscopic fragments. Because filter-feeder organisms ingest MP while feeding, they are likely to be impacted by MP pollution. To assess the impact of polystyrene microspheres (micro-PS) on the physiol. of the Pacific oyster, adult oysters were exptl. exposed to virgin micro-PS (2 and 6 μm in diam.; 0.023 mg·L-1) for 2 mo during a reproductive cycle. Effects were investigated on ecophysiol. parameters; cellular, transcriptomic, and proteomic responses; fecundity; and offspring development. Oysters preferentially ingested the 6-μm micro-PS over the 2-μm-diam. particles. Consumption of microalgae and absorption efficiency were significantly higher in exposed oysters, suggesting compensatory and phys. effects on both digestive parameters. After 2 mo, exposed oysters had significant decreases in oocyte no. (-38%), diam. (-5%), and sperm velocity (-23%). The D-larval yield and larval development of offspring derived from exposed parents decreased by 41% and 18%, resp., compared with control offspring. Dynamic energy budget modeling, supported by transcriptomic profiles, suggested a significant shift of energy allocation from reprodn. to structural growth, and elevated maintenance costs in exposed oysters, which is thought to be caused by interference with energy uptake. Mol. signatures of endocrine disruption were also revealed, but no endocrine disruptors were found in the biol. samples. This study provides evidence that micro-PS cause feeding modifications and reproductive disruption in oysters, with significant impacts on offspring.
19. 19
  Teuten, E. L.; Saquing, J. M.; Knappe, D. R. U.; Barlaz, M. A.; Jonsson, S.; Björn, A.; Rowland, S. J.; Thompson, R. C.; Galloway, T. S.; Yamashita, R. Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 2009, 364 (1526) 2027– 2045 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0284
  19
  Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife
  Teuten, Emma L.; Saquing, Jovita M.; Knappe, Detlef R. U.; Barlaz, Morton A.; Jonsson, Susanne; Bjoern, Annika; Rowland, Steven J.; Thompson, Richard C.; Galloway, Tamara S.; Yamashita, Rei; Ochi, Daisuke; Watanuki, Yutaka; Moore, Charles; Viet, Pham Hung; Tana, Touch Seang; Prudente, Maricar; Boonyatumanond, Ruchaya; Zakaria, Mohamad P.; Akkhavong, Kongsap; Ogata, Yuko; Hirai, Hisashi; Iwasa, Satoru; Mizukawa, Kaoruko; Hagino, Yuki; Imamura, Ayako; Saha, Mahua; Takada, Hideshige
  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences (2009), 364 (1526), 2027-2045CODEN: PTRBAE; ISSN:0962-8436. (Royal Society)
  A review. Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain org. contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic arom. hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concns. from sub ng g-1 to μg g-1. Some of these compds. are added during plastics manuf., while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concns. of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calcns. and exptl. observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more org. contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a math. model using equil. partitioning and exptl. data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding expt. indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degrdn. of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chem. properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concns. in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub μg l-1 to mg l-1 and were correlated with the level of economic development.
20. 20
  Wright, S. L.; Thompson, R. C.; Galloway, T. S. The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review Environ. Pollut. 2013, 178, 483– 492 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031
  20
  The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: A review
  Wright, Stephanie L.; Thompson, Richard C.; Galloway, Tamara S.
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2013), 178 (), 483-492CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  A review. Plastic debris at the micro-, and potentially also the nano-scale, are widespread in the environment. Microplastics have accumulated in oceans and sediments worldwide in recent years, with max. concns. reaching 100 000 particles m3. Due to their small size, microplastics may be ingested by low trophic fauna, with uncertain consequences for the health of the organism. This review focuses on marine invertebrates and their susceptibility to the phys. impacts of microplastic uptake. Some of the main points discussed are (1) an evaluation of the factors contributing to the bioavailability of microplastics including size and d.; (2) an assessment of the relative susceptibility of different feeding guilds; (3) an overview of the factors most likely to influence the phys. impacts of microplastics such as accumulation and translocation; and (4) the trophic transfer of microplastics. These findings are important in guiding future marine litter research and management strategies.
21. 21
  Betts, K. Why small plastic particles may pose a big problem in the oceans Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (24) 8995 DOI: 10.1021/es802970v
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
22. 22
  Nakashima, E.; Isobe, A.; Kako, S.; Itai, T.; Takahashi, S. Quantification of toxic metals derived from macroplastic litter on Ookushi Beach, Japan Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (18) 10099– 10105 DOI: 10.1021/es301362g
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
23. 23
  McCormick, A.; Hoellein, T. J.; Mason, S. A.; Schluep, J.; Kelly, J. J. Microplastic is an abundant and distinct microbial habitat in an urban river Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (20) 11863– 11871 DOI: 10.1021/es503610r
  23
  Microplastic is an Abundant and Distinct Microbial Habitat in an Urban River
  McCormick, Amanda; Hoellein, Timothy J.; Mason, Sherri A.; Schluep, Joseph; Kelly, John J.
  Environmental Science & Technology (2014), 48 (20), 11863-11871CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  Recent research has documented microplastic particles (< 5 mm in diam.) in ocean habitats worldwide and in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Microplastic interacts with biota, including microorganisms, in these habitats, raising concerns about its ecol. effects. Rivers may transport microplastic to marine habitats and the Great Lakes, but data on microplastic in rivers is limited. In a highly urbanized river in Chicago, Illinois, USA, we measured concns. of microplastic that met or exceeded those measured in oceans and the Great Lakes, and we demonstrated that wastewater treatment plant effluent was a point source of microplastic. Results from high-throughput sequencing showed that bacterial assemblages colonizing microplastic within the river were less diverse and were significantly different in taxonomic compn. compared to those from the water column and suspended org. matter. Several taxa that include plastic decompg. organisms and pathogens were more abundant on microplastic. These results demonstrate that microplastic in rivers are a distinct microbial habitat and may be a novel vector for the downstream transport of unique bacterial assemblages. In addn., this study suggests that urban rivers are an overlooked and potentially significant component of the global microplastic life cycle.
24. 24
  Yonkos, L. T.; Friedel, E. A.; Perez-Reyes, A. C.; Ghosal, S.; Arthur, C. D. Microplastics in Four Estuarine Rivers in the Chesapeake Bay, USA Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 14195– 14202 DOI: 10.1021/es5036317
  24
  Microplastics in four estuarine rivers in the Chesapeake Bay, U.S.A.
  Yonkos, Lance T.; Friedel, Elizabeth A.; Perez-Reyes, Ana C.; Ghosal, Sutapa; Arthur, Courtney D.
  Environmental Science & Technology (2014), 48 (24), 14195-14202CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  Once believed to degrade into simple compds., increasing evidence suggests plastics entering the environment are mech., photochem., and/or biol. degraded to the extent that they become imperceptible to the naked eye yet are not significantly reduced in total mass. Thus, more and smaller plastics particles, termed microplastics, reside in the environment and are now a contaminant category of concern. The current study tested the hypotheses that microplastics concn. would be higher in proximity to urban sources, and vary temporally in response to weather phenomena such as storm events. Triplicate surface water samples were collected approx. monthly between July and Dec. 2011 from four estuarine tributaries within the Chesapeake Bay, U.S.A. using a manta net to capture appropriately sized microplastics (operationally defined as 0.3-5.0 mm). Selected sites have watersheds with broadly divergent land use characteristics (e.g., proportion urban/suburban, agricultural and/or forested) and wide ranging population densities. Microplastics were found in all but one of 60 samples, with concns. ranging over 3 orders of magnitude (<1.0 to >560 g/km2). Concns. demonstrated statistically significant pos. correlations with population d. and proportion of urban/suburban development within watersheds. The greatest microplastics concns. also occurred at three of four sites shortly after major rain events.
25. 25
  Lechner, A.; Keckeis, H.; Lumesberger-Loisl, F.; Zens, B.; Krusch, R.; Tritthart, M.; Glas, M.; Schludermann, E. The Danube so colourful: A potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe’s second largest river Environ. Pollut. 2014, 188, 177– 181 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.02.006
  25
  The Danube so colourful: A potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe's second largest river
  Lechner, Aaron; Keckeis, Hubert; Lumesberger-Loisl, Franz; Zens, Bernhard; Krusch, Reinhard; Tritthart, Michael; Glas, Martin; Schludermann, Elisabeth
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 188 (), 177-181CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Previous studies on plastic pollution of aquatic ecosystems focused on the world's oceans. Large rivers as major pathways for land-based plastic litter, has received less attention so far. Here we report on plastic quantities in the Austrian Danube. A two year survey (2010, 2012) using stationary driftnets detected mean plastic abundance (n = 17,349; mean ± S.D: 316.8 ± 4664.6 items per 1000 m-3) and mass (4.8 ± 24.2 g per 1000 m-3) in the river to be higher than those of drifting larval fish (n = 24,049; 275.3 ± 745.0 individuals. 1000 m-3 and 3.2 ± 8.6 g 1000 m-3). Industrial raw material (pellets, flakes and spherules) accounted for substantial parts (79.4%) of the plastic debris. The plastic input via the Danube into the Black Sea was estd. to 4.2 t per day.
26. 26
  Castañeda, R. A.; Avlijas, S.; Simard, M. A.; Ricciardi, A. Microplastic pollution in st. lawrence river sediments Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2014, 71 (12) 1767– 1771 DOI: 10.1139/cjfas-2014-0281
  26
  Microplastic pollution in St. Lawrence River sediments
  Castaneda, Rowshyra A.; Avlijas, Suncica; Simard, M. Anouk; Ricciardi, Anthony
  Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (2014), 71 (12), 1767-1771CODEN: CJFSDX; ISSN:0706-652X. (Canadian Science Publishing)
  Although widely detected in marine ecosystems, microplastic pollution has only recently been documented in freshwater environments, almost exclusively in surface waters. Here, we report microplastics (polyethylene microbeads, 0.40-2.16 mm diam.) in the sediments of the St.Lawrence River. We sampled 10 freshwater sites along a 320 km section from Lake St.Francis to Que´bec City by passing sediment collected from a benthic grab through a 500 μm sieve. Microbeads were discovered throughout this section, and their abundances varied by four orders of magnitude across sites. Median and mean (±1 SE) densities across sites were 52 microbeads·m-2 and 13 832 (±13 677) microbeads·m-2, resp. The highest site d. was 1.4 × 105 microbeads·m-2 (or 103 microbeads·L-1), which is similar in magnitude to microplastic concns. found in the world's most contaminated marine sediments. Mean diam. of microbeads was smaller at sites receiving municipal or industrial effluent (0.70 ± 0.01 mm) than at non-effluent sites (0.98 ± 0.01 mm), perhaps suggesting differential origins. Given the prevalence and locally high densities of microplastics in St.Lawrence River sediments, their ingestion by benthivorous fishes and macroinvertebrates warrants investigation.
27. 27
  Free, C. M.; Jensen, O. P.; Mason, S. A.; Eriksen, M.; Williamson, N. J.; Boldgiv, B. High-levels of microplastic pollution in a large, remote, mountain lake Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 85 (1) 156– 163 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.001
  27
  High-levels of microplastic pollution in a large, remote, mountain lake
  Free, Christopher M.; Jensen, Olaf P.; Mason, Sherri A.; Eriksen, Marcus; Williamson, Nicholas J.; Boldgiv, Bazartseren
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2014), 85 (1), 156-163CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Despite the large and growing literature on microplastics in the ocean, little information exists on microplastics in freshwater systems. This study is the first to evaluate the abundance, distribution, and compn. of pelagic microplastic pollution in a large, remote, mountain lake. We quantified pelagic microplastics and shoreline anthropogenic debris in Lake Hovsgol, Mongolia. With an av. microplastic d. of 20,264 particles km-2, Lake Hovsgol is more heavily polluted with microplastics than the more developed Lakes Huron and Superior in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Fragments and films were the most abundant microplastic types; no plastic microbeads and few pellets were obsd. Household plastics dominated the shoreline debris and were comprised largely of plastic bottles, fishing gear, and bags. Microplastic d. decreased with distance from the southwestern shore, the most populated and accessible section of the park, and was distributed by the prevailing winds. These results demonstrate that without proper waste management, low-d. populations can heavily pollute freshwater systems with consumer plastics.
28. 28
  Mani, T.; Hauk, A.; Walter, U.; Burkhardt-Holm, P. Microplastics profile along the Rhine River Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 17988 DOI: 10.1038/srep17988
  28
  Microplastics profile along the Rhine River
  Mani, Thomas; Hauk, Armin; Walter, Ulrich; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia
  Scientific Reports (2015), 5 (), 17988CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
  Microplastics result from fragmentation of plastic debris or are released to the environment as pre-prodn. pellets or components of consumer and industrial products. In the oceans, they contribute to the 'great garbage patches'. They are ingested by many organisms, from protozoa to baleen whales, and pose a threat to the aquatic fauna. Although as much as 80% of marine debris originates from land, little attention was given to the role of rivers as debris pathways to the sea. Worldwide, not a single great river has yet been studied for the surface microplastics load over its length. We report the abundance and compn. of microplastics at the surface of the Rhine, one of the largest European rivers. Measurements were made at 11 locations over a stretch of 820 km. Microplastics were found in all samples, with 892,777 particles km -2 on av. In the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area, a peak concn. of 3.9 million particles km -2 was measured. Microplastics concns. were diverse along and across the river, reflecting various sources and sinks such as waste water treatment plants, tributaries and weirs. Measures should be implemented to avoid and reduce the pollution with anthropogenic litter in aquatic ecosystems.
29. 29
  Corcoran, P. L.; Norris, T.; Ceccanese, T.; Walzak, M. J.; Helm, P. A.; Marvin, C. H. Hidden plastics of Lake Ontario, Canada and their potential preservation in the sediment record Environ. Pollut. 2015, 204, 17– 25 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.04.009
  29
  Hidden plastics of Lake Ontario, Canada and their potential preservation in the sediment record
  Corcoran, Patricia L.; Norris, Todd; Ceccanese, Trevor; Walzak, Mary Jane; Helm, Paul A.; Marvin, Chris H.
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2015), 204 (), 17-25CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Microplastics are a source of environmental pollution resulting from degrdn. of plastic products and spillage of resin pellets. We report the amts. of microplastics from various sites of Lake Ontario and evaluate their potential for preservation in the sediment record. A total of 4635 pellets were sampled from the Humber Bay shoreline on three sampling dates. Pellet colors were similar to those from the Humber River bank, suggesting that the river is a pathway for plastics transport into Lake Ontario. Once in the lake, high d. microplastics, including mineral-polyethylene and mineral-polypropylene mixts., sink to the bottom. The minerals may be fillers that were combined with plastics during prodn., or may have adsorbed to the surfaces of the polymers in the water column or on the lake bottom. Based on sediment depths and accumulation rates, microplastics have accumulated in the offshore region for less than 38 years. Their burial increases the chance of microplastics preservation. Shoreline pellets may not be preserved because they are mingled with org. debris that is reworked during storm events.
30. 30
  Eriksen, M.; Mason, S.; Wilson, S.; Box, C.; Zellers, A.; Edwards, W.; Farley, H.; Amato, S. Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2013, 77 (1–2) 177– 182 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.10.007
  30
  Microplastic pollution in the surface waters of the Laurentian Great Lakes
  Eriksen, Marcus; Mason, Sherri; Wilson, Stiv; Box, Carolyn; Zellers, Ann; Edwards, William; Farley, Hannah; Amato, Stephen
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2013), 77 (1-2), 177-182CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Neuston samples were collected at 21 stations during an ∼700 nautical mile (∼1300 km) expedition in July 2012 in the Laurentian Great Lakes of the United States using a 333 μm mesh manta trawl and analyzed for plastic debris. Although the av. abundance was approx. 43,000 microplastic particles/km2, station 20, downstream from two major cities, contained over 466,000 particles/km2, greater than all other stations combined. SEM anal. detd. nearly 20% of particles less than 1 mm, which were initially identified as microplastic by visual observation, were aluminum silicate from coal ash. Many microplastic particles were multi-colored spheres, which were compared to, and are suspected to be, microbeads from consumer products contg. microplastic particles of similar size, shape, texture and compn. The presence of microplastics and coal ash in these surface samples, which were most abundant where lake currents converge, are likely from nearby urban effluent and coal burning power plants.
31. 31
  Neff, B. P.; Nicholas, J. R. Uncertainty in the Great Lakes Water Balance; Scientific Investigations Report, USGS Numbered Series 2004-5100; U.S. Geological Survey: Washington, DC, 2005.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
32. 32
  U.S. Geological Survey. USGS Surface-WaterDaily Data forthe Nation. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis/dv/?referred_module=sw (accessed Feb 1, 2016) .
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
33. 33
  Baldwin, A. K.; Corsi, S. R.; Mason, S. A. Microplastics in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries (2014–15). https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/5748a29be4b07e28b664dd62 (accessed May 31, 2016) .
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
34. 34
  Masura, J.; Baker, J.; Foster, G.; Arthur, C. Laboratory Methods for the Analysis of Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Recommendations for Quantifying Synthetic Particles in Waters and Sediments; NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-48; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Silver Spring, MD, 2015.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
35. 35
  Bond, A. L.; Provencher, J. F.; Daoust, P.-Y.; Lucas, Z. N. Plastic ingestion by fulmars and shearwaters at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 87 (1–2) 68– 75 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.08.010
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
36. 36
  Devriese, L. I.; van der Meulen, M. D.; Maes, T.; Bekaert, K.; Paul-Pont, I.; Frère, L.; Robbens, J.; Vethaak, A. D. Microplastic contamination in brown shrimp (Crangon crangon, Linnaeus 1758) from coastal waters of the Southern North Sea and Channel area Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 98 (1–2) 179– 187 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.06.051
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
37. 37
  Rochman, C. M.; Tahir, A.; Williams, S. L.; Baxa, D. V.; Lam, R.; Miller, J. T.; Teh, F.-C.; Werorilangi, S.; Teh, S. J. Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and fibers from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human consumption Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 14340 DOI: 10.1038/srep14340
  37
  Anthropogenic debris in seafood: Plastic debris and fibers from textiles in fish and bivalves sold for human consumption
  Rochman, Chelsea M.; Tahir, Akbar; Williams, Susan L.; Baxa, Dolores V.; Lam, Rosalyn; Miller, Jeffrey T.; Teh, Foo-Ching; Werorilangi, Shinta; Teh, Swee J.
  Scientific Reports (2015), 5 (), 14340CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
  The ubiquity of anthropogenic debris in hundreds of species of wildlife and the toxicity of chems. assocd. with it has begun to raise concerns regarding the presence of anthropogenic debris in seafood. We assessed the presence of anthropogenic debris in fishes and shellfish on sale for human consumption. We sampled from markets in Makassar, Indonesia, and from California, USA. All fish and shellfish were identified to species where possible. Anthropogenic debris was extd. from the digestive tracts of fish and whole shellfish using a 10% KOH soln. and quantified under a dissecting microscope. In Indonesia, anthropogenic debris was found in 28% of individual fish and in 55% of all species. Similarly, in the USA, anthropogenic debris was found in 25% of individual fish and in 67% of all species. Anthropogenic debris was also found in 33% of individual shellfish sampled. All of the anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in Indonesia was plastic, whereas anthropogenic debris recovered from fish in the USA was primarily fibers. Variations in debris types likely reflect different sources and waste management strategies between countries. We report some of the first findings of plastic debris in fishes directly sold for human consumption raising concerns regarding human health.
38. 38
  Romeo, T.; Pietro, B.; Pedà, C.; Consoli, P.; Andaloro, F.; Fossi, M. C. First evidence of presence of plastic debris in stomach of large pelagic fish in the Mediterranean Sea Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 95 (1) 358– 361 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.048
  38
  First evidence of presence of plastic debris in stomach of large pelagic fish in the Mediterranean Sea
  Romeo, Teresa; Pietro, Battaglia; Peda, Cristina; Consoli, Pierpaolo; Andaloro, Franco; Fossi, Maria Cristina
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 95 (1), 358-361CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  This study focuses, for the first time, on the presence of plastic debris in the stomach contents of large pelagic fish (Xiphias gladius, Thunnus thynnus and Thunnus alalunga) caught in the Mediterranean Sea between 2012 and 2013. Results highlighted the ingestion of plastics in the 18.2% of samples. The plastics ingested were microplastics (<5 mm), mesoplastics (5-25 mm) and macroplastics (>25 mm).These preliminary results represent an important initial phase in exploring two main ecotoxicol. aspects: (a) the assessment of the presence and impact of plastic debris on these large pelagic fish, and (b) the potential effects related to the transfer of contaminants on human health.
39. 39
  Fossi, M. C.; Marsili, L.; Baini, M.; Giannetti, M.; Coppola, D.; Guerranti, C.; Caliani, I.; Minutoli, R.; Lauriano, G.; Finoia, M. G. Fin whales and microplastics: The Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez scenarios Environ. Pollut. 2016, 209, 68– 78 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.022
  39
  Fin whales and microplastics: The Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez scenarios
  Fossi, Maria Cristina; Marsili, Letizia; Baini, Matteo; Giannetti, Matteo; Coppola, Daniele; Guerranti, Cristiana; Caliani, Ilaria; Minutoli, Roberta; Lauriano, Giancarlo; Finoia, Maria Grazia; Rubegni, Fabrizio; Panigada, Simone; Berube, Martine; Urban Ramirez, Jorge; Panti, Cristina
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 209 (), 68-78CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  The impact that microplastics have on baleen whales is a question that remains largely unexplored. This study examd. the interaction between free-ranging fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) and microplastics by comparing populations living in two semi-enclosed basins, the Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez (Gulf of California, Mexico). The results indicate that a considerable abundance of microplastics and plastic additives exists in the neustonic samples from Pelagos Sanctuary of the Mediterranean Sea, and that pelagic areas contg. high densities of microplastics overlap with whale feeding grounds, suggesting that whales are exposed to microplastics during foraging; this was confirmed by the observation of a temporal increase in toxicol. stress in whales. Given the abundance of microplastics in the Mediterranean environment, along with the high concns. of Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT) chems., plastic additives and biomarker responses detected in the biopsies of Mediterranean whales as compared to those in whales inhabiting the Sea of Cortez, we believe that exposure to microplastics because of direct ingestion and consumption of contaminated prey poses a major threat to the health of fin whales in the Mediterranean Sea.
40. 40
  Hammer, S.; Nager, R. G.; Johnson, P. C. D.; Furness, R. W.; Provencher, J. F. Plastic debris in great skua (Stercorarius skua) pellets corresponds to seabird prey species Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 103 (1–2) 206– 210 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.018
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
41. 41
  Miranda, D. de A.; de Carvalho-Souza, G. F. Are we eating plastic-ingesting fish? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 103 (1–2) 109– 114 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.035
  41
  Are we eating plastic-ingesting fish?
  Miranda, Daniele de A.; Freire de Carvalho-Souza, Gustavo
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 103 (1-2), 109-114CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Yes, we are eating plastic-ingesting fish. A baseline assessment of plastic pellet ingestion by two species of important edible fish caught along the eastern coast of Brazil is described. The rate of plastic ingestion by king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla) was quite high (62.5%), followed by the Brazilian sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon lalandii, 33%). From 2 to 6 plastic resin pellets were encountered in the stomachs of each fish, with sizes of from 1 to 5 mm, and with colors ranging from clear to white and yellowish. Ecol. and health-related implications are discussed and the potential for transferring these materials through the food-chain are addressed. Further research will be needed of other species harvested for human consumption.
42. 42
  Nicolau, L.; Marçalo, A.; Ferreira, M.; Sá, S.; Vingada, J.; Eira, C. Ingestion of marine litter by loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, in Portuguese continental waters Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 103 (1–2) 179– 185 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.021
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
43. 43
  Peters, C. A.; Bratton, S. P. Urbanization is a major influence on microplastic ingestion by sunfish in the Brazos River Basin, Central Texas, USA Environ. Pollut. 2016, 210, 380– 387 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.018
  43
  Urbanization is a major influence on microplastic ingestion by sunfish in the Brazos River Basin, Central Texas, USA
  Peters, Colleen A.; Bratton, Susan P.
  Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 210 (), 380-387CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Microplastics, degraded and weathered polymer-based particles, and manufd. products ranging between 50 and 5000 μm in size, are found within marine, freshwater, and estuarine environments. While numerous peer-reviewed papers have quantified the ingestion of microplastics by marine vertebrates, relatively few studies have focused on microplastic ingestion by freshwater organisms. This study documents microplastic and manufd. fiber ingestion by bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and longear (Lepomis megalotis) sunfish (Centrarchidae) from the Brazos River Basin, between Lake Whitney and Marlin, Texas, USA. Fourteen sample sites were studied and categorized into urban, downstream, and upstream areas. A total of 436 sunfish were collected, and 196 (45%) stomachs contained microplastics. Four percent (4%) of items sampled were debris on the macro size scale (i.e. >5 mm) and consisted of masses of plastic, metal, Styrofoam, or fishing material, while 96% of items sampled were in the form of microplastic threads. Fish length was statistically correlated to the no. of microplastics detected (p = 0.019). Fish collected from urban sites displayed the highest mean no. of microplastics ingested, followed by downstream and upstream sites. Microplastics were assocd. with the ingestion of other debris items (e.g. sand and wood) and correlated to the ingestion of fish eggs, earthworms, and mollusks, suggesting that sunfish incidentally ingest microplastics during their normal feeding methods. The high frequency of microplastic ingestion suggest that further research is needed to det. the residence time of microplastics within the stomach and gut, potential for food web transfer, and adverse effects on wildlife and ecosystemic health.
44. 44
  Napper, I. E.; Bakir, A.; Rowland, S. J.; Thompson, R. C. Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of microplastics extracted from cosmetics Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 99 (1–2) 178– 185 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.07.029
  44
  Characterisation, quantity and sorptive properties of microplastics extracted from cosmetics
  Napper, Imogen E.; Bakir, Adil; Rowland, Steven J.; Thompson, Richard C.
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 99 (1-2), 178-185CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Cosmetic products, such as facial scrubs, have been identified as potentially important primary sources of microplastics to the marine environment. This study characterises, quantifies and then investigates the sorptive properties of plastic microbeads that are used as exfoliants in cosmetics. Polyethylene microbeads were extd. from several products, and shown to have a wide size range (mean diams. between 164 and 327 μm). We estd. that between 4594 and 94,500 microbeads could be released in a single use. To examine the potential for microbeads to accumulate and transport chems. they were exposed to a binary mixt. of 3H-phenanthrene and 14C-DDT in seawater. The potential for transport of sorbed chems. by microbeads was broadly similar to that of polythene (PE) particles used in previous sorption studies. In conclusion, cosmetic exfoliants are a potentially important, yet preventable source of microplastic contamination in the marine environment.
45. 45
  Mason, S. A.; Kammin, L.; Eriksen, M.; Aleid, G.; Wilson, S.; Box, C.; Williamson, N.; Riley, A. Pelagic Plastic Pollution within the Surface Waters of Lake Michigan, USA J. Great Lakes Res. 2016, 42 (4) 753– 759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2016.05.009
  45
  Pelagic plastic pollution within the surface waters of Lake Michigan, USA
  Mason, Sherri A.; Kammin, Laura; Eriksen, Marcus; Aleid, Ghadah; Wilson, Stiv; Box, Carolyn; Williamson, Nick; Riley, Anjanette
  Journal of Great Lakes Research (2016), 42 (4), 753-759CODEN: JGLRDE; ISSN:0380-1330. (Elsevier B.V.)
  During the summer of 2013, a total of 59 surface water samples were collected across Lake Michigan making it the best surveyed for pelagic plastics of all the Laurentian Great Lakes. Consistent with other studies within the Great Lakes, Mantra-trawl samples were dominated by particles less than 1 mm in size. Enumeration of collected plastics under a microscope found fragments to be the most common anthropogenic particle type, followed by fibers, with more minor contributions from pellets, films and foams. The majority of these pelagic plastic particles were found to be polyethylene, with polypropylene being the second most common polymeric type, which is consistent with manufg. trends and beach survey results. The pelagic plastic was found to be fairly evenly distributed across the entire Lake Michigan surface, despite the formation of a seasonal gyre at the southern end of the lake. We found that an av. plastic abundance of ∼ 17,000 particles/km2, which when multiplied by the total surface area, gives on the order of 1 billion plastic particles floating on the surface of Lake Michigan. As the majority of these particles are extremely small, less than 1 mm in size, which allows for easy ingestion, these results highlight the need for addnl. studies with regard to the possible impacts upon aquatic organisms.
46. 46
  Song, Y. K.; Hong, S. H.; Jang, M.; Han, G. M.; Rani, M.; Lee, J.; Shim, W. J. A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 93 (1–2) 202– 209 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.01.015
  46
  A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples
  Song, Young Kyoung; Hong, Sang Hee; Jang, Mi; Han, Gi Myung; Rani, Manviri; Lee, Jongmyoung; Shim, Won Joon
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 93 (1-2), 202-209CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  The anal. of microplastics in various environmental samples requires the identification of microplastics from natural materials. The identification technique lacks a standardized protocol. Herein, stereomicroscope and Fourier transform IR spectroscope (FT-IR) identification methods for microplastics (<1 mm) were compared using the same samples from the sea surface microlayer (SML) and beach sand. Fragmented microplastics were significantly (p < 0.05) underestimated and fiber was significantly overestimated using the stereomicroscope both in the SML and beach samples. The total abundance by FT-IR was higher than by microscope both in the SML and beach samples, but they were not significantly (p > 0.05) different. Depending on the no. of samples and the microplastic size range of interest, the appropriate identification method should be detd.; selecting a suitable identification method for microplastics is crucial for evaluating microplastic pollution.
47. 47
  R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2015.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
48. 48
  Giraudoux, P.pgirmess: Data Analysis in Ecology, R package version 1.6.3; 2015.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
49. 49
  Browne, M. A.; Crump, P.; Niven, S. J.; Teuten, E.; Tonkin, A.; Galloway, T.; Thompson, R. Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: Sources and sinks Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45 (21) 9175– 9179 DOI: 10.1021/es201811s
  49
  Accumulation of Microplastic on Shorelines Worldwide: Sources and Sinks
  Browne, Mark Anthony; Crump, Phillip; Niven, Stewart J.; Teuten, Emma; Tonkin, Andrew; Galloway, Tamara; Thompson, Richard
  Environmental Science & Technology (2011), 45 (21), 9175-9179CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  Plastic debris <1 mm (defined here as microplastic) is accumulating in marine habitats. Ingestion of microplastic provides a potential pathway for the transfer of pollutants, monomers, and plastic-additives to organisms with uncertain consequences for their health. We show that microplastic contaminates the shorelines at 18 sites worldwide representing 6 continents from the poles to the equator, with more material in densely populated areas, but no clear relation between the abundance of microplastics and the mean size-distribution of natural particulates. An important source of microplastic appears to be through sewage contaminated by fibers from washing clothes. Forensic evaluation of microplastic from sediments showed that the proportions of polyester and acrylic fibers used in clothing resembled those found in habitats that receive sewage-discharges and sewage-effluent itself. Expts. sampling wastewater from domestic washing machines demonstrated that a single garment can produce >1900 fibers/wash. This suggests that a large proportion of microplastic fibers found in the marine environment may be derived from sewage as a consequence of washing of clothes. As the human population grows and people use more synthetic textiles, contamination of habitats and animals by microplastic is likely to increase.
50. 50
  Woodall, L. C.; Gwinnett, C.; Packer, M.; Thompson, R. C.; Robinson, L. F.; Paterson, G. L. J. Using a forensic science approach to minimize environmental contamination and to identify microfibres in marine sediments Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 95 (1) 40– 46 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.04.044
  50
  Using a forensic science approach to minimize environmental contamination and to identify microfibres in marine sediments
  Woodall, Lucy C.; Gwinnett, Claire; Packer, Margaret; Thompson, Richard C.; Robinson, Laura F.; Paterson, Gordon L. J.
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 95 (1), 40-46CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  There is growing evidence of extensive pollution of the environment by microplastic, with microfibres representing a large proportion of the microplastics seen in marine sediments. Since microfibres are ubiquitous in the environment, present in the lab. air and water, evaluating microplastic pollution is difficult. Incidental contamination is highly likely unless strict control measures are employed. Here we describe methods developed to minimize the amt. of incidental post-sampling contamination when quantifying marine microfibre pollution. We show that our protocol, adapted from the field of forensic fiber examn., reduces fiber abundance by 90% and enables the quick screening of fiber populations. These methods therefore allow an accurate est. of microplastics polluting marine sediments. In a case study from a series of samples collected on a research vessel, we use these methods to highlight the prevalence of microfibres as marine microplastics.
51. 51
  Foekema, E. M.; De Gruijter, C.; Mergia, M. T.; van Franeker, J. A.; Murk, A. J.; Koelmans, A. A. Plastic in North Sea Fish Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (15) 8818– 8824 DOI: 10.1021/es400931b
  51
  Plastic in North Sea Fish
  Foekema, Edwin M.; De Gruijter, Corine; Mergia, Mekuria T.; van Franeker, Jan Andries; Murk, AlberTinka J.; Koelmans, Albert A.
  Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (15), 8818-8824CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  To quantify the occurrence of ingested plastic in fish species caught at different geog. positions in the North Sea, and to test whether the fish condition is affected by ingestion of plastics, 1203 individual fish of seven common North Sea species were investigated: herring, gray gurnard, whiting, horse mackerel, haddock, atlantic mackerel, and cod. Plastic particles were found in 2.6% of the examd. fish and in five of the seven species. No plastics were found in gray gurnard and mackerel. In most cases, only one particle was found per fish, ranging in size from 0.04 to 4.8 mm. Only particles larger than 0.2 mm, being the diam. of the sieve used, were considered for the data analyses, resulting in a median particle size of 0.8 mm. The frequency of fish with plastic was significantly higher (5.4%) in the southern North Sea, than in the northern North Sea above 55°N (1.2%). The highest frequency (>33%) was found in cod from the English Channel. In addn., small fibers were initially detected in most of the samples, but their abundance sharply decreased when working under special clean air conditions. Therefore, these fibers were considered to be artifacts related to air born contamination and were excluded from the analyses. No relationship was found between the condition factor (size-wt. relationship) of the fish and the presence of ingested plastic particles.
52. 52
  Habib, D.; Locke, D. C.; Cannone, L. J. Synthetic fibers as indicators of municipal sewage sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 1998, 103 (1–4) 1– 8 DOI: 10.1023/A:1004908110793
  52
  Synthetic fibers as indicators of municipal sewage sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents
  Habib, Daniel; Locke, David C.; Cannone, Leonard J.
  Water, Air, and Soil Pollution (1998), 103 (1-4), 1-8CODEN: WAPLAC; ISSN:0049-6979. (Kluwer Academic Publishers)
  Because of concerns regarding health, safety, and aesthetics, a test that identifies the presence of sewage sludge or its products (biosolids) in com. materials such as soil conditioners and composts would be useful. This test could also trace the effluent plume from a sewage treatment plant. We have discovered that synthetic fibers serve as such an indicator. Synthetic fibers are abundant in sludge, sludge products, and sewage treatment plant effluents. The fibers evidently are introduced from clothes-washing machines and survive the sewage treatment process. Synthetic fibers were identified using polarized light microscopy, which provided a simple, rapid method for detg. the presence or absence of municipal sewage sludge or its products. False positives or false negatives have not occurred with any of the materials examd. so far. We also monitored synthetic fibers in surface sediments of Huntington Harbor, Long Island, NY, a harbor receiving the effluent from a trickling filter sewage treatment plant. Fibers generally decrease in size and abundance with distance from the source. In Oyster Bay Harbor, Long Island, an advanced sewage treatment plant is operated with a final microfiltration step. Synthetic fibers are less abundant in the sediments of this harbor.
53. 53
  Klein, S.; Worch, E.; Knepper, T. P. Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in River Shore Sediments of the Rhine-Main Area in Germany Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (10) 6070– 6076 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b00492
  53
  Occurrence and Spatial Distribution of Microplastics in River Shore Sediments of the Rhine-Main Area in Germany
  Klein, Sascha; Worch, Eckhard; Knepper, Thomas P.
  Environmental Science & Technology (2015), 49 (10), 6070-6076CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  Plastic debris is one of the most significant org. pollutants in the aquatic environment. Due to properties, e.g., buoyancy and extreme durability, synthetic polymers are present in rivers, lakes, and oceans and accumulate in sediment worldwide; however, freshwater sediment has attracted less attention than investigated marine ecosystem sediment. For this reason, shore sediment of Rhine and Main rivers in the Rhine-Main area (Germany) were analyzed. Sample sites comprised shore sediment of a large river (Rhine) and a river characterized by industrial influence (Main) in areas with varying population sizes and sites near nature reserves. All analyzed sediment contained micro-plastic particles (<5 mm), with mass fractions up to 1 g/kg or 4000 particles/kg. Plastic IR spectroscopy anal. showed a large abundance of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene, covering >75% of all polymer types identified in polluted sediment. The short plastic particle transport distance from tributaries to the main stream was confirmed by the identification of pellets sepd. from shore sediment samples of both rivers. This systematic study showed the emerging micro-plastic pollution of inland river sediment, underlining the importance of rivers as micro-plastic transport vectors to oceans.
54. 54
  Marine Litter in the North-East Atlantic Region: Assessment and Priorities for Response; OSPAR: London, 2009.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
55. 55
  Zbyszewski, M.; Corcoran, P. L.; Hockin, A. Comparison of the distribution and degradation of plastic debris along shorelines of the Great Lakes, North America J. Great Lakes Res. 2014, 40 (2) 288– 299 DOI: 10.1016/j.jglr.2014.02.012
  55
  Comparison of the distribution and degradation of plastic debris along shorelines of the Great Lakes, North America
  Zbyszewski, Maciej; Corcoran, Patricia L.; Hockin, Alexandra
  Journal of Great Lakes Research (2014), 40 (2), 288-299CODEN: JGLRDE; ISSN:0380-1330. (Elsevier B.V.)
  The distribution patterns, compns. and textures of plastic debris along the Lake Erie and St. Clair shorelines were studied in order to det. the roles of potential source locations, surface currents, and shoreline types in the accumulation of plastic litter. The results were compared with those previously detd. from Lake Huron, where abundant plastic pellets characterize the southeastern shoreline. Lake Erie and St.Clair shorelines contained some pellets, but were mainly characterized by plastic fragments and intact products, resp. The potential sources for the pellets include spillage within factories or during transport and off-loading; whereas intact products were derived from urban waste. Once entering the lake environment, low d. floating polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene were degraded by UVB radiation at either the water surface or once deposited on shorelines. Mech. degrdn. by wave action and/or sand abrasion fragmented intact products into cm-size particles. Certain textures identified on the surfaces of plastic particles could be related to the nature of the depositional environment. Plastics sampled from infrequently visited muddy, org.-rich shorelines were characterized by more adhering particles and less mech. pits than those from sandy shorelines. In terms of relative distribution, the Lake St. Clair shoreline contained the least amt. of plastic debris of the three lakes. This is a function of the breakwaters and retaining walls built along Lake St. Clair, which replace natural sandy or muddy sinks for floating polymers. This study represents the first detailed record of plastics distribution along multiple, but related fresh water shorelines.
56. 56
  Browne, M. A.; Dissanayake, A.; Galloway, T. S.; Lowe, D. M.; Thompson, R. C. Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, Mytilus edulis (L) Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (13) 5026– 5031 DOI: 10.1021/es800249a
  56
  Ingested Microscopic Plastic Translocates to the Circulatory System of the Mussel, Mytilus edulis (L.)
  Browne, Mark A.; Dissanayake, Awantha; Galloway, Tamara S.; Lowe, David M.; Thompson, Richard C.
  Environmental Science & Technology (2008), 42 (13), 5026-5031CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  Plastics debris is accumulating in the environment and is fragmenting into smaller pieces; as it does, the potential for ingestion by animals increases. The consequences of macroplastic debris for wildlife are well documented, however the impacts of microplastic (<1 mm) are poorly understood. The mussel, Mytilus edulis, was used to investigate ingestion, translocation, and accumulation of this debris. Initial expts. showed that upon ingestion, microplastic accumulated in the gut. Mussels were subsequently exposed to treatments contg. seawater and microplastic (3.0 or 9.6 μm). After transfer to clean conditions, microplastic was tracked in the hemolymph. Particles translocated from the gut to the circulatory system within 3 days and persisted for over 48 days. Abundance of microplastic was greatest after 12 days and declined thereafter. Smaller particles were more abundant than larger particles and our data indicate as plastic fragments into smaller particles, the potential for accumulation in the tissues of an organism increases. The short-term pulse exposure used here did not result in significant biol. effects. However, plastics are exceedingly durable and so further work using a wider range of organisms, polymers, and periods of exposure will be required to establish the biol. consequences of this debris.
57. 57
  Von Moos, N.; Burkhardt-Holm, P.; Köhler, A. Uptake and effects of microplastics on cells and tissue of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an experimental exposure Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (20) 11327– 11335 DOI: 10.1021/es302332w
  57
  Uptake and effects of microplastics on cells and tissue of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. after an experimental exposure
  von Moos, Nadia; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia; Koehler, Angela
  Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (20), 11327-11335CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
  In this study, we investigated if industrial high-d. polyethylene (HDPE) particles, a model microplastic free of additives, ranging > 0-80 μm are ingested and taken up into the cells and tissue of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis L. The effects of exposure (up to 96 h) and plastic ingestion were obsd. at the cellular and subcellular level. Microplastic uptake into the gills and digestive gland was analyzed by a new method using polarized light microscopy. Mussel health status was investigated incorporating histol. assessment and cytochem. biomarkers of toxic effects and early warning. In addn. to being drawn into the gills, HDPE particles were taken up into the stomach and transported into the digestive gland where they accumulated in the lysosomal system after 3 h of exposure. Our results show notable histol. changes upon uptake and a strong inflammatory response demonstrated by the formation of granulocytomas after 6 h and lysosomal membrane destabilization, which significantly increased with longer exposure times. We provide proof of principle that microplastics are taken up into cells and cause significant effects on the tissue and cellular level, which can be assessed with std. cytochem. biomarkers and polarized light microscopy for microplastic tracking in tissue.
58. 58
  Rech, S.; Macaya-Caquilpán, V.; Pantoja, J. F.; Rivadeneira, M. M.; Campodónico, C. K.; Thiel, M. Sampling of riverine litter with citizen scientists — findings and recommendations Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015, 187 (6) 335 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-015-4473-y
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
59. 59
  Ballent, A.; Corcoran, P. L.; Madden, O.; Helm, P. A.; Longstaffe, F. J. Sources and sinks of microplastics in Canadian Lake Ontario nearshore, tributary and beach sediments Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 110 (1) 383– 395 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.037
  59
  Sources and sinks of microplastics in Canadian Lake Ontario nearshore, tributary and beach sediments
  Ballent, Anika; Corcoran, Patricia L.; Madden, Odile; Helm, Paul A.; Longstaffe, Fred J.
  Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 110 (1), 383-395CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Microplastics contamination of Lake Ontario sediments is investigated with the aim of identifying distribution patterns and hotspots in nearshore, tributary and beach depositional environments. Microplastics are concd. in nearshore sediments in the vicinity of urban and industrial regions. In Humber Bay and Toronto Harbor microplastic concns. were consistently > 500 particles per kg dry sediment. Maximum concns. of ∼ 28,000 particles per kg dry sediment were detd. in Etobicoke Creek. The microplastic particles were primarily fibers and fragments < 2 mm in size. Both low- and high-d. plastics were identified using Raman spectroscopy. We provide a baseline for future monitoring and discuss potential sources of microplastics in terms of how and where to implement preventative measures to reduce the contaminant influx. Although the impacts of microplastics contamination on ecosystem health and functioning is uncertain, understanding, monitoring and preventing further microplastics contamination in Lake Ontario and the other Great Lakes is crucial.
Supporting Information
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02917. All of the sample results have been published separately online. (33)
- Site characteristics, GIS methods, field blank sample results, site-specific result summaries, and relations between plastic concentrations and wastewater contribution (PDF)
- SI Table 1 (XLSX)
- es6b02917_si_001.pdf (504.76 kb)
- es6b02917_si_002.xlsx (22.57 kb)
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Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and HydrologyClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!

Environmental Science & Technology

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Introduction

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Quality Assurance and Quality Control

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Discussion

Relations with Watershed Attributes and Hydrology

Comparisons to Other Studies

Size Distributions

Concentrations

Particle Types

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Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and Hydrology
Click to copy article linkArticle link copied!