Creating a More Perennial Problem? Mountaintop Removal Coal Mining Enhances and Sustains Saline Baseflows of Appalachian WatershedsClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!
Abstract
Mountaintop removal coal mining (MTM) is a form of surface mining where ridges and mountain tops are removed with explosives to access underlying coal seams. The crushed rock material is subsequently deposited in headwater valley fills (VF). We examined how this added water storage potential affects streamflow using a paired watershed approach consisting of two sets of mined and unmined watersheds in West Virginia. The mined watersheds exported 7–11% more water than the reference watersheds, primarily due to higher and more sustained baseflows. The mined watersheds exported only ~1/3 of their streamflow during storms, while the reference watersheds exported ~2/3 of their annual water yield during runoff events. Mined watersheds with valley fills appear to store precipitation for considerable periods of time and steadily export this alkaline and saline water even during the dry periods of the year. As a result, MTMVFs in a mixed mined/unmined watershed contributed disproportionately to streamflow during baseflow periods (up to >90% of flow). Because MTMVFs have both elevated summer baseflows and continuously high concentrations of total dissolved solids, their regional impact on water quantity and quality will be most extreme and most widespread during low flow periods.
Introduction
(1) | To what degree does mountaintop mining alter baseflow and stormflow contributions to total runoff and does this effect change with increasing watershed scale? | ||||
(2) | How does MTMVF affect the export of total dissolved solids? | ||||
(3) | How do mined and unmined portions of partially mined watershed contribute to runoff across hydrologic seasons? | ||||
(4) | How do hydrologic changes associated with MTMVF compare to other disturbances? |
Methods
Site Description
Spatial Analysis
Hydrologic Measurements
Hydrologic Analysis
Results
Spatial Analysis
Hydrology
RB (1st order reference) | LB (1st order mined) | LF (4th order reference) | MR7 (4th order mined) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
precipitation (mm) | 1254 | 1339 | 1293 | 1358 |
runoff (mm) | 609 | 677 | 545 | 585 |
runoff Ratio (−) | 0.49 | 0.51 | 0.42 | 0.43 |
Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) | ||||
baseflow | 0.30 | 0.71 | 0.41 | 0.69 |
event flow | 0.70 | 0.29 | 0.59 | 0.31 |
Pettyjohn and Henning (1979) | ||||
baseflow | 0.30 | 0.72 | 0.33 | 0.65 |
event flow | 0.70 | 0.28 | 0.67 | 0.35 |
Blume et al. (2007) | ||||
baseflow | 0.29 | 0.75 | 0.30 | 0.71 |
event flow | 0.71 | 0.25 | 0.70 | 0.29 |
Specific Conductance
SC (μS/cm) | RB (unmined) | LB (mined) | LF (unmined) | MR7 (mined) |
---|---|---|---|---|
mean | 58 | 1504 | 102 | 1053 |
median | 52 | 1530 | 89 | 1005 |
standard dev | 20 | 198 | 43 | 367 |
minimum | 8 | 660 | 19 | 53 |
maximum | 111 | 1977 | 195 | 1705 |
LB statistics were calculated omitting the period of greatest pump influence (06/27/2015–07/20/2015).
Discussion
Baseflow/Stormflow Ratios
Impacts of MTMVF on Watershed Water Balances
Contributions to Streamflow from Mined and Unmined Areas
Implications
Acknowledgment
This research was funded by NSF Grant No. EAR-1417405 to B.L.M. and E.S.B. and a NSF GRFP to M.R.V.R. Logistical support was provided by staff of WV DNR District 5’s Upper Mud River office. We thank Nick Huffman and Eric Moore for help with field data collection and Anita and Stanley Miller for granting us access to their property.
References
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- 38Griffith, M. B.; Norton, S. B.; Alexander, L. C.; Pollard, A. I.; LeDuc, S. D. The effects of mountaintop mines and valley fills on the physicochemical quality of stream ecosystems in the central Appalachians: A review Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 417, 1– 12 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.042Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 39Lindberg, T. T.; Bernhardt, E. S.; Bier, R.; Helton, A. M.; Merola, R. B.; Vengosh, A.; Di Giulio, R. T. Cumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershed Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108 (52) 20929– 20934 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1112381108Google Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XnvVCrtA%253D%253D&md5=fcd56c2bdf8ee50f98679bb40614a86eCumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershedLindberg, T. Ty; Bernhardt, Emily S.; Bier, Raven; Helton, A. M.; Merola, R. Brittany; Vengosh, Avner; Di Giulio, Richard T.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2011), 108 (52), 20929-20934, S20929/1-S20929/4CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Mountaintop mining is the dominant form of coal mining and the largest driver of land cover change in the central Appalachians. The waste rock from these surface mines is disposed of in the adjacent river valleys, leading to a burial of headwater streams and dramatic increases in salinity and trace metal concns. immediately downstream. In this synoptic study we document the cumulative impact of more than 100 mining discharge outlets and approx. 28 km2 of active and reclaimed surface coal mines on the Upper Mud River of West Virginia. We measured the concns. of major and trace elements within the tributaries and the mainstem and found that upstream of the mines water quality was equiv. to state ref. sites. However, as eight sep. mining-impacted tributaries contributed their flow, cond. and the concns. of selenium, sulfate, magnesium, and other inorg. solutes increased at a rate directly proportional to the upstream areal extent of mining. We found strong linear correlations between the concns. of these contaminants in the river and the proportion of the contributing watershed in surface mines. All tributaries draining mountaintop-mining-impacted catchments were characterized by high cond. and increased sulfate concn., while concns. of some solutes such as Se, Sr, and N were lower in the two tributaries draining reclaimed mines. Our results demonstrate the cumulative impact of multiple mines within a single catchment and provide evidence that mines reclaimed nearly two decades ago continue to contribute significantly to water quality degrdn. within this watershed.
- 40Bernhardt, E. S.; Lutz, B. D.; King, R. S.; Fay, J. P.; Carter, C. E.; Helton, A. M.; Campagna, D.; Amos, J. How Many Mountains Can We Mine? Assessing the Regional Degradation of Central Appalachian Rivers by Surface Coal Mining Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (15) 8115– 8122 DOI: 10.1021/es301144qGoogle Scholar40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVSqtr3F&md5=86165fbc61683f468964e3d037e0a810How Many Mountains Can We Mine? Assessing the Regional Degradation of Central Appalachian Rivers by Surface Coal MiningBernhardt, Emily S.; Lutz, Brian D.; King, Ryan S.; Fay, John P.; Carter, Catherine E.; Helton, Ashley M.; Campagna, David; Amos, JohnEnvironmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (15), 8115-8122CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Surface coal mining is the dominant form of land cover change in Central Appalachia, yet the extent to which surface coal mine runoff is polluting regional rivers is currently unknown. We mapped surface mining from 1976 to 2005 for a 19,581 Km2 area of southern West Virginia and linked these maps with water quality and biol. data for 223 streams. The extent of surface mining within catchments is highly correlated with the ionic strength and sulfate concns. of receiving streams. Generalized additive models were used to est. the amt. of watershed mining, stream ionic strength, or sulfate concns. beyond which biol. impairment (based on state biocriteria) is likely. We find this threshold is reached once surface coal mines occupy >5.4% of their contributing watershed area, ionic strength exceeds 308 μS/cm, or sulfate concns. exceed 50 mg/L. Significant losses of many intolerant macroinvertebrate taxa occur when as little as 2.2% of contributing catchments are mined. As of 2005, 5% of the land area of southern WV was converted to surface mines, 6% of regional streams were buried in valley fills, and 22% of the regional stream network length drained watersheds with >5.4% of their surface area converted to mines.
- 41Palmer, M. A.; Bernhardt, E. S.; Schlesinger, W. H.; Eshleman, K. N.; Foufoula-Georgiou, E.; Hendryx, M. S.; Lemly, A. D.; Likens, G. E.; Loucks, O. L.; Power, M. E.; White, P. S.; Wilcock, P. R. Mountaintop Mining Consequences Science 2010, 327 (5962) 148– 149 DOI: 10.1126/science.1180543Google Scholar41https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXosFCjug%253D%253D&md5=895f62498e80db485d9a28ee0daf2b78Mountaintop mining consequencesPalmer, M. A.; Bernhardt, E. S.; Schlesinger, W. H.; Eshleman, K. N.; Foufoula-Georgiou, E.; Hendryx, M. S.; Lemly, A. D.; Likens, G. E.; Loucks, O. L.; Power, M. E.; White, P. S.; Wilcock, P. R.Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2010), 327 (5962), 148-149CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 42Pond, G. J.; Passmore, M. E.; Borsuk, F. A.; Reynolds, L.; Rose, C. J. Downstream effects of mountaintop coal mining: comparing biological conditions using family- and genus-level macroinvertebrate bioassessment tools Journal of the North American Benthological Society 2008, 27 (3) 717– 737 DOI: 10.1899/08-015.1Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 43Timpano, A. J.; Schoenholtz, S. H.; Soucek, D. J.; Zipper, C. E. Salinity As A Limiting Factor For Biological Condition In Mining-Influenced Central Appalachian Headwater Streams J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2015, 51 (1) 240– 250 DOI: 10.1111/jawr.12247Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 44Bier, R. L.; Voss, K. A.; Bernhardt, E. S. Bacterial community responses to a gradient of alkaline mountaintop mine drainage in Central Appalachian streams ISME J. 2015, 9 (6) 1378– 1390 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2014.222Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 45Voss, K. A.; King, R. S.; Bernhardt, E. S. From a line in the sand to a landscape of decisions: a hierarchical diversity decision framework for estimating and communicating biodiversity loss along anthropogenic gradients Methods in Ecology and Evolution 2015, 6 (7) 795– 805 DOI: 10.1111/2041-210X.12379Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46Murphy, J. C.; Hornberger, G. M.; Liddle, R. G. Concentration-discharge relationships in the coalmined region of the New River basin and Indian Fork sub-basin, Tennessee, USA Hydrological Processes 2014, 28 (3) 718– 728 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.9603Google Scholar46https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXislyhtA%253D%253D&md5=2d0e120df3cf3a77d8d0e62e0f64c7e9Concentration-discharge relationships in the coal mined region of the New River basin and Indian Fork sub-basin, Tennessee, USAMurphy, J. C.; Hornberger, G. M.; Liddle, R. G.Hydrological Processes (2014), 28 (3), 718-728CODEN: HYPRE3; ISSN:1099-1085. (Wiley-Blackwell)For many basins, identifying changes to water quality over time and understanding current hydrol. processes are hindered by fragmented and discontinuous water-quality and hydrol. data. In the coal mined region of the New River basin and Indian Fork sub-basin, muted and pronounced changes, resp., to concn.-discharge (C-Q) relationships were identified using linear regression on log-transformed historical (1970s-1980s) and recent (2000s) water-quality and streamflow data. Changes to C-Q relationships were related to coal mining histories and shifts in land use. Hysteresis plots of individual storms from 2007 (New River) and the fall of 2009 (Indian Fork) were used to understand current hydrol. processes in the basins. In the New River, storm magnitude was found to be closely related to the reversal of loop rotation in hysteresis plots; a peak-flow threshold of 25 cubic meters per s (m3/s) segregates hysteresis patterns into clockwise and counterclockwise rotational groups. Small storms with peak flow less than 25 m3/s often resulted in diln. of constituent concns. in headwater tributaries like Indian Fork and concn. of constituents downstream in the mainstem of the New River. Conceptual two or three component mixing models for the basins were used to infer the influence of water derived from spoil material on water quality. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
- 47NRCS. Soil Survey of Lincoln County, West Virginia; United States Department of Agriculture; Natural Resources Conservation Service in cooperation with the West Virginia Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station and West Virginia Conservation Agency, 2007.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 48NRCS. Soil Survey Geographic Database (SSURGO 2.2); Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2015.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Nicholson, S. W.; Dicken, C. L.; Horton, J. D.; Labay, K. A.; Foose, M. P.; Mueller, J. A. L., Preliminary integrated geologic map databases for the United States: Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia; US Geological Survey: 2005.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 50Braun, E. L. Deciduous forests of eastern North America; Free Press: New York, 1974.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 51PRISM. PRISM Gridded Climate Data; OSU PRISM Climate Group, 2016.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 52Adams, M.; Kochenderfer, J.; Edwards, P. The Fernow Watershed Acidification Study: Ecosystem Acidification, Nitrogen Saturation and Base Cation Leaching Water, Air, Soil Pollut.: Focus 2007, 7 (1–3) 267– 273 DOI: 10.1007/s11267-006-9062-1Google Scholar52https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXks1Cqur0%253D&md5=b694b987af1121630df292184f3fb7c3The Fernow Watershed Acidification Study: Ecosystem Acidification, Nitrogen Saturation and Base Cation LeachingAdams, Mary Beth; Kochenderfer, James N.; Edwards, Pamela J.Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus (2007), 7 (1-3), 267-273CODEN: WASPC7; ISSN:1567-7230. (Springer)In 1989, a watershed acidification expt. was begun on the Fernow Exptl. Forest in West Virginia, USA. Ammonium sulfate fertilizer (35.5 kg/N/ha-1/yr-1 and 40.5 kg/S/ha-1/yr-1) was applied to a forested watershed (WS3) that supported a 20-yr-old stand of eastern deciduous hardwoods. Addns. of N and S are approx. twice the ambient deposition of nitrogen and sulfur in the adjacent mature forested watershed (WS4), that serves as the ref. watershed for this study. Acidification of stream water and soil soln. was documented, although the response was delayed, and acidification processes appeared to be driven by nitrate rather than sulfate. As a result of the acidification treatment, nitrate soln. concns. increased below all soil layers, whereas sulfate was retained by all soil layers after only a few years of the fertilization treatments, perhaps due to adsorption induced from decreasing sulfate deposition. Based on soil soln. monitoring, depletion of calcium and magnesium was obsd., first from the upper soil horizons and later from the lower soil horizons. Increased base cation concns. in stream water also were documented and linked closely with high soln. levels of nitrate. Significant changes in soil chem. properties were not detected after 12 years of treatment, however.
- 53Searcy, J. K.; Hardison, C. H. Double Mass Curves. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1541-B; United States Government Printing Office: 1960.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 54Manning, R.; Griffith, J. P.; Pigot, T.; Vernon-Harcourt, L. F. On the flow of water in open channels and pipes; Dublin, 1890.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 55Hewlett, J. D.; Hibbert, A. R. Factors affecting the response of small watersheds to precipitation in humid areas Forest Hydrology 1966, 275– 291Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 56Wolock, D. M., Base-flow index grid for the conterminous United States, 03-263 ed.; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, 2003.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 57Pettyjohn, W. A.; Henning, R. Preliminary Estimate of Ground-Water Recharge Rates, Related Streamflow and Water Quality in Ohio; Water Resources Center, The Ohio State University: Columbus, 1979.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 58Blume, T.; Zehe, E.; Bronstert, A. Rainfall-runoff response, event-based runoff coefficients and hydrograph separation Hydrol. Sci. J. 2007, 52 (5) 843– 862 DOI: 10.1623/hysj.52.5.843Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 59Pinder, G. F.; Jones, J. F. Determination of the ground-water component of peak discharge from the chemistry of total runoff Water Resour. Res. 1969, 5 (2) 438– 445 DOI: 10.1029/WR005i002p00438Google Scholar59https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaF1MXltFKgurg%253D&md5=02efbf1b97b72dac723b94f7be4204a9Determination of the ground-water component of peak discharge from the chemistry of total runoffPinder, George F.; Jones, John FrederickWater Resources Research (1969), 5 (2), 438-45CODEN: WRERAQ; ISSN:0043-1397.The ground water component of stream discharge can be detd. from the chem. characteristics of the stream water. A chem. mass-balance is used to relate total, direct, and ground water runoff. To solve the mass-balance equation, it is necessary to est. the chem. compn. of the ground water and direct-runoff components. The solute concn. of ground water is detd. from total runoff during baseflow; the chem. characteristics of direct-runoff are estd. from samples of total runoff collected from selected locations in a basin during peak discharge periods. The estn. of the chem. compn. of direct runoff showed, that the concn. of most of the ions studied (bicarbonate, Ca, Mg, and sulfate) increased significantly downstream. Furthermore chem. characteristics of ground water and direct runoff were similar in the upstream areas and thus samples from the uppermost station during periods of peak discharge would provide a good est. of the chem. characteristics of direct runoff. Ions provided consistent and reasonable values for ground water discharge and displayed a strong correlation between chem. and total discharge. In 3 small watersheds to Nova Scotia ground water runoff constituted from 32 to 42% of peak discharge for the period of anal.
- 60Sklash, M. G.; Farvolden, R. N.; Fritz, P. A conceptual model of watershed response to rainfall, developed through the use of oxygen-18 as a natural tracer Can. J. Earth Sci. 1976, 13, 271– 283 DOI: 10.1139/e76-029Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 61Buttle, J. M. Isotope hydrograph separations and rapid delivery of pre-event water from drainage basins Progress in Physical Geography 1994, 18 (1) 16– 41 DOI: 10.1177/030913339401800102Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 62McGlynn, B. L.; McDonnell, J. J.; Seibert, J.; Kendall, C. Scale effects on headwater catchment runoff timing, flow sources, and groundwater-streamflow relations Water Resour. Res. 2004, 40 (7) 1– 14 DOI: 10.1029/2003WR002494Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 63Caissie, D.; Pollock, T. L.; Cunjak, R. A. Variation in stream water chemistry and hydrograph separation in a small drainage basin J. Hydrol. 1996, 178 (1–4) 137– 157 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(95)02806-4Google Scholar63https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK28XjsFWmtbc%253D&md5=e9e9525cf37bff5ca985a925b6a96030Variation in stream water chemistry and hydrograph separation in a small drainage basinCaissie, Daniel; Pollock, Tom L.; Cunjak, Richard A.Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) (1996), 178 (1-4), 137-157CODEN: JHYDA7; ISSN:0022-1694. (Elsevier)The change in chem. compn. of stream water was investigated for a small Atlantic salmon stream (Catamaran Brook) of the Miramichi River system in New Brunswick, Canada. Chem. compn. of runoff and groundwater flow was established, as were relations between concn. of dissolved materials and discharge. Specific storm events were analyzed to det. changes in chem. and to carry out a hydrograph sepn. using specific chem. parameters. The hydrograph sepn. was used to identify the relative contribution of groundwater flow to total streamflow. By selective sampling of stream water during high flow (runoff) and low flow (groundwater) periods it was possible to observe the range in chem. compn. of many parameters in Catamaran Brook. Most relations between concn. of chem. parameters and discharge were significant at p<0.0001, with Na having the highest coeff. of detn. (r2 = 0.849). Concn. returned to pre-storm levels in ∼10 days following an event. As obsd. in previous studies, the peak groundwater flow plays an important role during the storm hydrograph and can account for as much as 91% of the total peak flow for small events. For higher flow events in Catamaran Brook, the groundwater flow contribution was markedly lower (55% of total streamflow). The composite hydrograph sepn. revealed that cond., as a single parameter, provided the best results in representing the composite sepn.
- 64Jencso, K. G.; McGlynn, B. L.; Gooseff, M. N.; Bencala, K. E.; Wondzell, S. M. Hillslope hydrologic connectivity controls riparian groundwater turnover: Implications of catchment structure for riparian buffering and stream water sources Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46, 1– 18 DOI: 10.1029/2009WR008818Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 65Laudon, H.; Slaymaker, O. Hydrograph separation using stable isotopes, silica and electrical conductivity: an alpine example J. Hydrol. 1997, 201 (1–4) 82– 101 DOI: 10.1016/S0022-1694(97)00030-9Google Scholar65https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK2sXnvVegsLc%253D&md5=6121e61e695a1ee411d9c2a8c321320aHydrograph separation using stable isotopes, silica and electrical conductivity: an alpine exampleLaudon, Hjalmar; Slaymaker, OlavJournal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) (1997), 201 (1-4), 82-101CODEN: JHYDA7; ISSN:0022-1694. (Elsevier Science B.V.)Hydrograph sepn. of runoff events in two nested alpine/subalpine basins in the Coast Mountains of British Columbia was carried out using elec. cond., specific concn. of silica and the stable isotopes oxygen-18 and deuterium as hydrol. tracers. The methods predicted consistent high pre-storm water contribution for the subalpine site (60-90%) but more variable contribution at the alpine basin outlet (25-90%). The pre-storm water contribution is much larger than had previously been expected. Pptn. is believed to run off as overland flow due to the steep slopes in combination with the hydrophobic soils until it can enter the subsurface environment. The rapid influx of stored water is possibly caused by pressure propagation in the macropore system which could be enhanced by the heavily fractured bedrock and permeable landslide debris acting as efficient hydrol. conduits.The study suggests that alternative hydrol. tracers such as elec. cond. and silica concn. can be used under certain hydrol. and lithol. conditions. These alternative tracers should, however, be verified against more conventional tracers before use, as the behavior depends on specific characteristics of each basin. At the upper basin outlet, both elec. cond. (EC) and silica underestimated the pre-storm contribution. At the lower station, silica and EC showed a similar pattern to deuterium and oxygen-18 tracers. The calcd. pre-storm component using EC was, however, 10-20 lower than the calcd. values from the other three tracers. The advantage of using these alternative tracers is that hydrograph sepn. results can, a priori, be anticipated.
- 66Pellerin, B. A.; Wollheim, W. M.; Feng, X.; Vorosmarty, C. J. The application of electrical conductivity as a tracer for hydrograph separation in urban catchments Hydrol. Processes 2008, 22 (12) 1810– 1818 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.6786Google Scholar66https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXptVKhurk%253D&md5=b75ccb15f91a45d503cebf89f4672b35The application of electrical conductivity as a tracer for hydrograph separation in urban catchmentsPellerin, Brian A.; Wollheim, Wilfred M.; Feng, Xiahong; Vorosmarty, Charles J.Hydrological Processes (2008), 22 (12), 1810-1818CODEN: HYPRE3; ISSN:0885-6087. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)Two-component hydrograph sepn. was performed on 19 low-to-moderate intensity rainfall events in a 4.1-km2 urban watershed to infer the relative and abs. contribution of surface runoff (e.g. new water) to storm flow generation between 2001 and 2003. The elec. cond. (EC) of water was used as a continuous and inexpensive tracer, with order of magnitude differences in pptn. (12-46 μS/cm) and pre-event stream water EC values (520-1297 μS/cm). While new water accounted for most of the increased discharge during storms (61-117%), the contribution of new water to total discharge during events was typically lower (18-78%) and neg. correlated with antecedent stream discharge (r2 = 0.55, p < 0.01). The amt. of new water was pos. correlated with total rainfall (r2 = 0.77), but hydrograph sepn. results suggest that less than half (9-46%) of the total rainfall on impervious surfaces is rapidly routed to the stream channel as new water. Comparison of hydrograph sepn. results using non-conservative tracers (EC and Si) and a conservative isotopic tracer (δD) for two events showed similar results and highlighted the potential application of EC as an inexpensive, high frequency tracer for hydrograph sepn. studies in urban catchments. The use of a simple tracer-based approach may help hydrologists and watershed managers to better understand impervious surface runoff, storm flow generation and non-point-source pollutant loading to urban streams.
- 67Kobayashi, D. Separation of a snowmelt hydrograph by specific conductance J. Hydrol. 1986, 84 (1–2) 157– 165 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(86)90049-1Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 68Wunsch, D. R.; Dinger, J. S.; Graham, C. D. R. Predicting ground-water movement in large mine spoil areas in the Appalachian Plateau Int. J. Coal Geol. 1999, 41 (1–2) 73– 106 DOI: 10.1016/S0166-5162(99)00012-9Google Scholar68https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1MXktlKjsL0%253D&md5=519e61cee129cc4315c2c85c59a0421ePredicting ground-water movement in large mine spoil areas in the Appalachian PlateauWunsch, David R.; Dinger, James S.; Graham, C. Douglas R.International Journal of Coal Geology (1999), 41 (1-2), 73-106CODEN: IJCGDE; ISSN:0166-5162. (Elsevier Science B.V.)Spoil created by surface mining can accumulate large quantities of ground-water, which can create geotech. or regulatory problems, as well as flood active mine pits. A current study at a large (4.1 km2), thick, (up to 90 m) spoil body in eastern Kentucky reveals important factors that control the storage and movement of water. Ground-water recharge occurs along the periphery of the spoil body where surface-water drainage is blocked, as well as from infiltration along the spoil-bedrock contact, recharge from adjacent bedrock, and to a minor extent, through macro- pores at the spoil's surface. Based on an av. satd. thickness of 6.4 m for all spoil wells, and assuming an estd. porosity of 20%, approx. 5.2×106 m3 of water is stored within the existing 4.1 km2 of reclaimed spoil. A conceptual model of ground-water flow, based on data from monitoring wells, dye-tracing data, discharge from springs and ponds, hydraulic gradients, chem. data, field reconnaissance, and aerial photographs indicate that three distinct but interconnected satd. zones have been established: one in the spoil's interior, and others in the valley fills that surround the main spoil body at lower elevations. Ground-water movement is sluggish in the spoil's interior, but moves quickly through the valley fills. The conceptual model shows that a prediction of ground-water occurrence, movement, and quality can be made for active or abandoned spoil areas if all or some of the following data are available: structural contour of the base of the lowest coal seam being mined, pre-mining topog., documentation of mining methods employed throughout the mine, overburden characteristics, and aerial photographs of mine progression.
- 69Maxwell, A.; Strager, M. Assessing landform alterations induced by mountaintop mining Nat. Sci. 2013, 5, 229– 237 DOI: 10.4236/ns.2013.52A034Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 70Dinger, J. S.; Wunsch, D. R.; Kemp, J. E.Occurrence of Groundwater in Mine Spoil, a Renewable Resource: Star Fire Tract, Eastern Kentucky, Mining and Reclamation Conferene and Exhibition, Charleston, WV, 1990; Charleston, WV, 1990.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 71Wunsch, D. R.; Dinger, J. S.; Taylor, P. B.; Carey, D. I.; Graham, C. D. R. Hydrogeology, Hydrogeochemistry, and Spoil Settlement at a Large Mine-Spoil Area In Eastern Kentucky: Star Fire Tract; Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 1996.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 72Greer, B. M.; Burbey, T. J.; Zipper, C. E.; Hester, E. T. Electrical resistivity imaging of hydrologic flow through surface coal mine valley fills with comparison to other landforms Hydrological Processes 2017, 31 (12) 2244– 2260 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.11180Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 73Hewlett, J. D.; Helvey, J. D. Effects of Forest Clear-Felling on Storm Hydrograph Water Resour. Res. 1970, 6 (3) 768– 782 DOI: 10.1029/WR006i003p00768Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 74Moore, R. D.; Wondzell, S. M. Physical hydrology and the effects of forest harvesting in the Pacific Northwest: A review J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2005, 41 (4) 763– 784 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb04463.xGoogle ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 75Bosch, J. M.; Hewlett, J. D. A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration J. Hydrol. 1982, 55 (1-4) 3– 23 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(82)90117-2Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 76Reinhart, K. G.; Eschner, A. R.; Trimble, G. R., Jr. Effect On Streamflow Of Four Forest Practices In The Mountains Of West Virginia; Northeast Forest Experiment Station: Upper Darby, PA, 1963.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 77Hewlett, J. D.; Hibbert, A. R. Increases In Water Yield After Several Types Of Forest Cutting International Association of Scientific Hydrology. Bulletin 1961, 6 (3) 5– 17 DOI: 10.1080/02626666109493224Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 78Nippgen, F.; McGlynn, B. L.; Emanuel, R. E.; Vose, J. M. Watershed memory at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory: The effect of past precipitation and storage on hydrologic response Water Resour. Res. 2016, 52 (3) 1673– 1695 DOI: 10.1002/2015WR018196Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 79Nippgen, F.; McGlynn, B. L.; Marshall, L. A.; Emanuel, R. E. Landscape structure and climate influences on hydrologic response Water Resour. Res. 2011, 47, 1– 17 DOI: 10.1029/2011WR011161Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 80McGuire, K. J.; McDonnell, J. J.; Weiler, M.; Kendall, C.; McGlynn, B. L.; Welker, J. M.; Seibert, J. The role of topography on catchment-scale water residence time Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41 (5) 1– 14 DOI: 10.1029/2004WR003657Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 81Ritter, J. B.; Gardner, T. W. Hydrologic Evolution Of Drainage Basins Disturbed By Surface Mining, Central Pennsylvania Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1993, 105 (1) 101– 115 DOI: 10.1130/0016-7606(1993)105<0101:HEODBD>2.3.CO;2Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
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- 83Scanlon, T. M.; Raffensperger, J. P.; Hornberger, G. M. Modeling transport of dissolved silica in a forested headwater catchment: Implications for defining the hydrochemical response of observed flow pathways Water Resour. Res. 2001, 37 (4) 1071– 1082 DOI: 10.1029/2000WR900278Google Scholar83https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXksVWqu7c%253D&md5=425b6bb162a6b878fbf450f37a35388eModeling transport of dissolved silica in a forested headwater catchment: implications for defining the hydrochemical response of observed flow pathwaysScanlon, Todd M.; Raffensperger, Jeff P.; Hornberger, George M.Water Resources Research (2001), 37 (4), 1071-1082CODEN: WRERAQ; ISSN:0043-1397. (American Geophysical Union)Groundwater, subsurface stormflow, and overland flow components of discharge, derived from a hydrol. model that was applied to a forested headwater catchment in north central Virginia, were used with measured stream water and lysimeter concns. of dissolved silica to study the hydrochem. behavior of the catchment. Concns. in base flow, taken to be a reflection of groundwater, vary with discharge, an observation in conflict with the typical assumption of const. concn. used in end-member mixing analyses. This obsd. flow dependence was modeled by considering the concn. in groundwater to be related to the satn. deficit in this zone. A pos. correlation between the av. groundwater satn. deficit and base flow dissolved silica concns. is consistent with batch expts. and petrog. anal. of regolith core samples, which both indicate an increase in silica available for dissoln. with depth in the groundwater zone. In the absence of subsurface storm flow zone sampling during rainfall events a const. concn. was assumed for this zone. Concn.-discharge (C-Q) paths in the stream were used to evaluate the modeled stream silica concns. An inconsistency in the direction of the modeled C-Q rotations suggests that the storm flow zone dissolved silica concn. may also vary with time, because of the flushing of high-concn., preevent soil water on the rising limb of the storm hydrograph. For this catchment in Virginia the assumption of a const. concn. for subsurface storm flow, as well as for base flow, appears to be invalid.
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- 88Poff, N. L.; Olden, J. D.; Merritt, D. M.; Pepin, D. M. Homogenization of regional river dynamics by dams and global biodiversity implications Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2007, 104 (14) 5732– 5737 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0609812104Google Scholar88https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXkt1Kgsb4%253D&md5=907cc1792eeacbb7c87887f690579e88Homogenization of regional river dynamics by dams and global biodiversity implicationsPoff, N. LeRoy; Olden, Julian D.; Merritt, David M.; Pepin, David M.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2007), 104 (14), 5732-5737CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Global biodiversity in river and riparian ecosystems is generated and maintained by geog. variation in stream processes and fluvial disturbance regimes, which largely reflect regional differences in climate and geol. Extensive construction of dams by humans has greatly dampened the seasonal and interannual streamflow variability of rivers, thereby altering natural dynamics in ecol. important flows on continental to global scales. The cumulative effects of modification to regional-scale environmental templates caused by dams is largely unexplored but of crit. conservation importance. Here, we use 186 long-term streamflow records on intermediate-sized rivers across the continental United States to show that dams have homogenized the flow regimes on third- through seventh-order rivers in 16 historically distinctive hydrol. regions over the course of the 20th century. This regional homogenization occurs chiefly through modification of the magnitude and timing of ecol. crit. high and low flows. For 317 undammed ref. rivers, no evidence for homogenization was found, despite documented changes in regional pptn. over this period. With an estd. av. d. of one dam every 48 km of third-through seventh-order river channel in the United States, dams arguably have a continental scale effect of homogenizing regionally distinct environmental templates, thereby creating conditions that favor the spread of cosmopolitan, nonindigenous species at the expense of locally adapted native biota. Quant. analyses such as ours provide the basis for conservation and management actions aimed at restoring and maintaining native biodiversity and ecosystem function and resilience for regionally distinct ecosystems at continental to global scales.
- 89Bernhardt, E. S.; Palmer, M. A., The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians. In Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology, Ostfeld, R. S.; Schlesinger, W. H., Eds.; Wiley, 2011; Vol. 1223, pp 39– 57.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
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- 93Agouridis, C. T.; Angel, P. N.; Taylor, T. J.; Barton, C. D.; Warner, R. C.; Yu, X.; Wood, C. Water Quality Characteristics of Discharge from Reforested Loose-Dumped Mine Spoil in Eastern Kentucky Journal of Environmental Quality 2012, 41 (2) 454– 468 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2011.0158Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
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- 12Hupy, J. P.; Schaetzl, R. J. Soil development on the WWI battlefield of Verdun, France Geoderma 2008, 145 (1–2) 37– 49 DOI: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.01.024There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 13Brantley, S. L.; Goldhaber, M. B.; Ragnarsdottir, K. V. Crossing disciplines and scales to understand the Critical Zone Elements 2007, 3 (5) 307– 314 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.3.5.30713https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXhsVSitrvI&md5=fc29a68f877125edd56a5e21004f0e08Crossing disciplines and scales to understand the critical zoneBrantley, Susan; Gold, Martin B.; Ragnarsdottir, K. ValaElements (Chantilly, VA, United States) (2007), 3 (5), 307-314CODEN: EOOCAG; ISSN:1811-5209. (Mineralogical Society of America)A review. The Crit. Zone (CZ) is the system of coupled chem., biol., phys., and geol. processes operating together to support life at the Earth's surface. While our understanding of this zone has increased over the last hundred years, further advance requires scientists to cross disciplines and scales to integrate understanding of processes in the CZ, ranging in scale from the mineral-water interface to the globe. Despite the extreme heterogeneities manifest in the CZ, patterns are obsd. at all scales. Explanations require the use of new computational and anal. tools, inventive interdisciplinary approaches, and growing networks of sites and people.
- 14Foley, J. A.; DeFries, R.; Asner, G. P.; Barford, C.; Bonan, G.; Carpenter, S. R.; Chapin, F. S.; Coe, M. T.; Daily, G. C.; Gibbs, H. K.; Helkowski, J. H.; Holloway, T.; Howard, E. A.; Kucharik, C. J.; Monfreda, C.; Patz, J. A.; Prentice, I. C.; Ramankutty, N.; Snyder, P. K. Global Consequences of Land Use Science 2005, 309 (5734) 570– 574 DOI: 10.1126/science.111177214https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXmsFChtrs%253D&md5=6c5699de2c42011adcebf8b4c9589b2cGlobal Consequences of Land UseFoley, Jonathan A.; DeFries, Ruth; Asner, Gregory P.; Barford, Carol; Bonan, Gordon; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Chapin, F. Stuart; Coe, Michael T.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Gibbs, Holly K.; Helkowski, Joseph H.; Holloway, Tracey; Howard, Erica A.; Kucharik, Christopher J.; Monfreda, Chad; Patz, Jonathan A.; Prentice, I. Colin; Ramankutty, Navin; Snyder, Peter K.Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2005), 309 (5734), 570-574CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)Land use has generally been considered a local environmental issue, but it is becoming a force of global importance. Worldwide changes to forests, farmlands, waterways, and air are being driven by the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter to more than six billion people. Global croplands, pastures, plantations, and urban areas have expanded in recent decades, accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity. Such changes in land use have enabled humans to appropriate an increasing share of the planet's resources, but they also potentially undermine the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food prodn., maintain freshwater and forest resources, regulate climate and air quality, and ameliorate infectious diseases. We face the challenge of managing trade-offs between immediate human needs and maintaining the capacity of the biosphere to provide goods and services in the long term.
- 15Peterson, B. J.; Wollheim, W. M.; Mulholland, P. J.; Webster, J. R.; Meyer, J. L.; Tank, J. L.; Martí, E.; Bowden, W. B.; Valett, H. M.; Hershey, A. E.; McDowell, W. H.; Dodds, W. K.; Hamilton, S. K.; Gregory, S.; Morrall, D. D. Control of Nitrogen Export from Watersheds by Headwater Streams Science 2001, 292 (5514) 86– 90 DOI: 10.1126/science.1056874There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 16McGlynn, B. L.; McDonnell, J. J. Role of discrete landscape units in controlling catchment dissolved organic carbon dynamics Water Resour. Res. 2003, 39 (4) SWC 3-1– SWC 3-18 DOI: 10.1029/2002WR001525There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 17Konar, M.; Todd, M. J.; Muneepeerakul, R.; Rinaldo, A.; Rodriguez-Iturbe, I. Hydrology as a driver of biodiversity: Controls on carrying capacity, niche formation, and dispersal Adv. Water Resour. 2013, 51, 317– 325 DOI: 10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.02.009There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 18Bunn, S. E.; Arthington, A. H. Basic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversity Environ. Manage. 2002, 30 (4) 492– 507 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-002-2737-018https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD38jhvFGmtg%253D%253D&md5=b8435702e08b01bbfef30161ff7ea51aBasic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversityBunn Stuart E; Arthington Angela HEnvironmental management (2002), 30 (4), 492-507 ISSN:0364-152X.The flow regime is regarded by many aquatic ecologists to be the key driver of river and floodplain wetland ecosystems. We have focused this literature review around four key principles to highlight the important mechanisms that link hydrology and aquatic biodiversity and to illustrate the consequent impacts of altered flow regimes: Firstly, flow is a major determinant of physical habitat in streams, which in turn is a major determinant of biotic composition; Secondly, aquatic species have evolved life history strategies primarily in direct response to the natural flow regimes; Thirdly, maintenance of natural patterns of longitudinal and lateral connectivity is essential to the viability of populations of many riverine species; Finally, the invasion and success of exotic and introduced species in rivers is facilitated by the alteration of flow regimes. The impacts of flow change are manifest across broad taxonomic groups including riverine plants, invertebrates, and fish. Despite growing recognition of these relationships, ecologists still struggle to predict and quantify biotic responses to altered flow regimes. One obvious difficulty is the ability to distinguish the direct effects of modified flow regimes from impacts associated with land-use change that often accompanies water resource development. Currently, evidence about how rivers function in relation to flow regime and the flows that aquatic organisms need exists largely as a series of untested hypotheses. To overcome these problems, aquatic science needs to move quickly into a manipulative or experimental phase, preferably with the aims of restoration and measuring ecosystem response.
- 19Gaffield, S. J.; Goo, R. L.; Richards, L. A.; Jackson, R. J. Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoff Am. J. Public Health 2003, 93 (9) 1527– 1533 DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.93.9.152719https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD3svjt1yrsQ%253D%253D&md5=75fb2230bd0aa624d57944de4abfed24Public health effects of inadequately managed stormwater runoffGaffield Stephen J; Goo Robert L; Richards Lynn A; Jackson Richard JAmerican journal of public health (2003), 93 (9), 1527-33 ISSN:0090-0036.OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the scale of the public health risk from stormwater runoff caused by urbanization. METHODS: We compiled turbidity data for municipal treated drinking water as an indication of potential risk in selected US cities and compared estimated costs of waterborne disease and preventive measures. RESULTS: Turbidity levels in other US cities were similar to those linked to illnesses in Milwaukee, Wis, and Philadelphia, Pa. The estimated annual cost of waterborne illness is comparable to the long-term capital investment needed for improved drinking water treatment and stormwater management. CONCLUSIONS: Although additional data on cost and effectiveness are needed, stormwater management to minimize runoff and associated pollution appears to make sense for protecting public health at the least cost.
- 20Wellen, C. C.; Shatilla, N. J.; Carey, S. K. Regional scale selenium loading associated with surface coal mining, Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 532, 791– 802 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.06.04020https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFWhtr%252FI&md5=046fcadffcb945330049041490114c64Regional scale selenium loading associated with surface coal mining, Elk Valley, British Columbia, CanadaWellen, Christopher C.; Shatilla, Nadine J.; Carey, Sean K.Science of the Total Environment (2015), 532 (), 791-802CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)Se concns. in surface water downstream of surface mining operations have been reported at levels in excess of water quality guidelines for the protection of wildlife. Previous research in surface mining environments has focused on downstream water quality impacts, yet little is known about the fundamental controls on Se loading. This study examd. the relation between mining practices, stream flows and Se concns. using a spatially referenced regression on watershed attributes (SPARROW) model. This work is part of a R&D program examg. the influence of surface coal mining on hydrol. and water quality responses in the Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada, aimed at informing effective management responses. Results indicate that waste rock vol., a product of mining activity, accounted for ∼80% of the Se load from the Elk Valley, while background sources accounted for ∼13%. Wet years were characterized by more than twice the Se load of dry years. A no. of variables regarding placement of waste rock within the catchments, length of buried streams, and the construction of rock drains did not significantly influence the Se load. The age of the waste rock, the proportion of waste rock surface reclaimed, and the ratio of waste rock pile side area to top area all varied inversely with the Se load from watersheds contg. waste rock. These results suggest operational practices that are likely to reduce the release of Se to surface waters.
- 21Yang, X. J.; Lin, A.; Li, X.-L.; Wu, Y.; Zhou, W.; Chen, Z. China’s ion-adsorption rare earth resources, mining consequences and preservation Environmental Development 2013, 8, 131– 136 DOI: 10.1016/j.envdev.2013.03.006There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 22Slonecker, E. T.; Benger, M. J. Remote sensing and mountaintop mining Remote Sensing Reviews 2001, 20 (4) 293– 322 DOI: 10.1080/02757250109532440There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 23DEP. Standards and Specifications for Erosion and Sediment Control Excess Spoil Disposal Haulageways; Department of Environmental Protection Division of Mining and Reclamation: 1993.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 24U.S. EPA. The Effects of Mountaintop Mines and Valley Fills on Aquatic Ecosystems of the Central Appalachian Coalfields; United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2011.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 25Ebel, B. A.; Mirus, B. B. Disturbance hydrology: challenges and opportunities Hydrological Processes 2014, 28 (19) 5140– 5148 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.10256There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 26Ross, M. R. V.; McGlynn, B. L.; Bernhardt, E. S. Deep Impact: Effects of Mountaintop Mining on Surface Topography, Bedrock Structure, and Downstream Waters Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (4) 2064– 2074 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b0453226https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xht1Khtbw%253D&md5=5207bd6221793d13a6aaf20d1ce9ce2eDeep Impact: Effects of Mountaintop Mining on Surface Topography, Bedrock Structure, and Downstream WatersRoss, Matthew R. V.; McGlynn, Brian L.; Bernhardt, Emily S.Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (4), 2064-2074CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Land use impacts are commonly quantified and compared using 2D maps, limiting the scale of their reported impacts to surface area ests. Yet, nearly all land use involves disturbances below the land surface. Incorporating this third dimension into our ests. of land use impact is esp. important when examg. the impacts of mining. Mountaintop mining is the most common form of coal mining in the Central Appalachian ecoregion. Previous ests. suggest that active, reclaimed, or abandoned mountaintop mines cover ∼7% of Central Appalachia. While this is double the areal extent of development in the ecoregion (estd. to occupy <3% of the land area), the impacts are far more extensive than areal ests. alone can convey as the impacts of mines extend 10s to 100s of meters below the current land surface. We provide the 1st ests. for the total volumetric and topog. disturbance assocd. with mining in an 11,500 Km2 region of southern West Virginia. We find that the cutting of ridges and filling of valleys has lowered the median slope of mined landscapes in the region by ∼10 degrees while increasing their av. elevation by 3 m as a result of expansive valley filling. We est. that in southern West Virginia, >6.4 Km3 of bedrock has been broken apart and deposited into 1544 headwater valley fills. We used NPDES monitoring datasets available for 91 of these valley fills to explore whether fill characteristics could explain variation in the pH or Se concns. reported for streams draining these fills. We found that the vol. of overburden in individual valley fills correlates with stream pH and Se concn., and suggest that a 3-dimensional assessment of mountaintop mining impacts is necessary to predict both the severity and the longevity of the resulting environmental impacts.
- 27Miller, A. J.; Zegre, N. P. Mountaintop Removal Mining and Catchment Hydrology Water 2014, 6 (3) 472– 499 DOI: 10.3390/w6030472There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28Zegre, N. P.; Maxwell, A.; Lamont, S. Characterizing streamflow response of a mountaintop-mined watershed to changing land use Applied Geography 2013, 39, 5– 15 DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.11.008There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 29Messinger, T. Comparison of Storm Response of Streams in Small, Unmined and Valley-Filled Watersheds, 1999–2001, Ballard Fork, West Virginia. Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4303; U.S. Geological Survey: Charleston, WV, 2003.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 30Messinger, T.; Paybins, K. S.Relations Between Precipitation and Daily and Monthly Mean Flows in Gaged, Unmined and Valley-Filled Watersheds, Ballard Fork, West Virginia, 1999–2001; U.S. Department of the Interior; U.S. Geological Survey: Charleston, WV, 2003.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 31Zegre, N. P.; Miller, A. J.; Maxwell, A.; Lamont, S. J. Multiscale Analysis Of Hydrology In A Mountaintop Mine-Impacted Watershed J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2014, 50 (5) 1257– 1272 DOI: 10.1111/jawr.12184There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 32Evans, D. M.; Zipper, C. E.; Hester, E. T.; Schoenholtz, S. H. Hydrologic Effects of Surface Coal Mining in Appalachia (US) J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2015, 51 (5) 1436– 1452 DOI: 10.1111/1752-1688.12322There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 33Negley, T. L.; Eshleman, K. N. Comparison of stormflow responses of surface-mined and forested watersheds in the Appalachian Mountains, USA Hydrol. Processes 2006, 20 (16) 3467– 3483 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.6148There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 34Simmons, J. A.; Currie, W. S.; Eshleman, K. N.; Kuers, K.; Monteleone, S.; Negley, T. L.; Pohlad, B. R.; Thomas, C. L. Forest to reclaimed mine land use change leads to altered ecosystem structure and function Ecological Applications 2008, 18 (1) 104– 118 DOI: 10.1890/07-1117.134https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1c3hsFKhug%253D%253D&md5=d7adef65a717c137e7dbbf46c0b00abcForest to reclaimed mine land use change leads to altered ecosystem structure and functionSimmons Jeffrey A; Currie William S; Eshleman Keith N; Kuers Karen; Monteleone Susan; Negley Tim L; Pohlad Bob R; Thomas Carolyn LEcological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America (2008), 18 (1), 104-18 ISSN:1051-0761.The United States' use of coal results in many environmental alterations. In the Appalachian coal belt region, one widespread alteration is conversion of forest to reclaimed mineland. The goal of this study was to quantify the changes to ecosystem structure and function associated with a conversion from forest to reclaimed mine grassland by comparing a small watershed containing a 15-year-old reclaimed mine with a forested, reference watershed in western Maryland. Major differences were apparent between the two watersheds in terms of biogeochemistry. Total C, N, and P pools were all substantially lower at the mined site, mainly due to the removal of woody biomass but also, in the case of P, to reductions in soil pools. Mineral soil C, N, and P pools were 96%, 79%, and 69% of native soils, respectively. Although annual runoff from the watersheds was similar, the mined watershed exhibited taller, narrower storm peaks as a result of a higher soil bulk density and decreased infiltration rates. Stream export of N was much lower in the mined watershed due to lower net nitrification rates and nitrate concentrations in soil. However, stream export of sediment and P and summer stream temperature were much higher. Stream leaf decomposition was reduced and macroinvertebrate community structure was altered as a result of these changes to the stream environment. This land use change leads to substantial, long-term changes in ecosystem capital and function.
- 35McCormick, B. C.; Eshleman, K. N.; Griffith, J. L.; Townsend, P. A. Detection of flooding responses at the river basin scale enhanced by land use change Water Resour. Res. 2009, 45, 1– 15 DOI: 10.1029/2008WR007594There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 36Ferrari, J. R.; Lookingbill, T. R.; McCormick, B.; Townsend, P. A.; Eshleman, K. N., Surface mining and reclamation effects on flood response of watersheds in the central Appalachian Plateau region. Water Resour. Res. 2009, 45. DOI: 10.1029/2008WR007109There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 37Miller, A. J.; Zegre, N. P. Landscape-Scale Disturbance: Insights into the Complexity of Catchment Hydrology in the Mountaintop Removal Mining Region of the Eastern United States Land 2016, 5 (3) 22 DOI: 10.3390/land5030022There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 38Griffith, M. B.; Norton, S. B.; Alexander, L. C.; Pollard, A. I.; LeDuc, S. D. The effects of mountaintop mines and valley fills on the physicochemical quality of stream ecosystems in the central Appalachians: A review Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 417, 1– 12 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.042There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 39Lindberg, T. T.; Bernhardt, E. S.; Bier, R.; Helton, A. M.; Merola, R. B.; Vengosh, A.; Di Giulio, R. T. Cumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershed Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108 (52) 20929– 20934 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.111238110839https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XnvVCrtA%253D%253D&md5=fcd56c2bdf8ee50f98679bb40614a86eCumulative impacts of mountaintop mining on an Appalachian watershedLindberg, T. Ty; Bernhardt, Emily S.; Bier, Raven; Helton, A. M.; Merola, R. Brittany; Vengosh, Avner; Di Giulio, Richard T.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2011), 108 (52), 20929-20934, S20929/1-S20929/4CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Mountaintop mining is the dominant form of coal mining and the largest driver of land cover change in the central Appalachians. The waste rock from these surface mines is disposed of in the adjacent river valleys, leading to a burial of headwater streams and dramatic increases in salinity and trace metal concns. immediately downstream. In this synoptic study we document the cumulative impact of more than 100 mining discharge outlets and approx. 28 km2 of active and reclaimed surface coal mines on the Upper Mud River of West Virginia. We measured the concns. of major and trace elements within the tributaries and the mainstem and found that upstream of the mines water quality was equiv. to state ref. sites. However, as eight sep. mining-impacted tributaries contributed their flow, cond. and the concns. of selenium, sulfate, magnesium, and other inorg. solutes increased at a rate directly proportional to the upstream areal extent of mining. We found strong linear correlations between the concns. of these contaminants in the river and the proportion of the contributing watershed in surface mines. All tributaries draining mountaintop-mining-impacted catchments were characterized by high cond. and increased sulfate concn., while concns. of some solutes such as Se, Sr, and N were lower in the two tributaries draining reclaimed mines. Our results demonstrate the cumulative impact of multiple mines within a single catchment and provide evidence that mines reclaimed nearly two decades ago continue to contribute significantly to water quality degrdn. within this watershed.
- 40Bernhardt, E. S.; Lutz, B. D.; King, R. S.; Fay, J. P.; Carter, C. E.; Helton, A. M.; Campagna, D.; Amos, J. How Many Mountains Can We Mine? Assessing the Regional Degradation of Central Appalachian Rivers by Surface Coal Mining Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (15) 8115– 8122 DOI: 10.1021/es301144q40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtVSqtr3F&md5=86165fbc61683f468964e3d037e0a810How Many Mountains Can We Mine? Assessing the Regional Degradation of Central Appalachian Rivers by Surface Coal MiningBernhardt, Emily S.; Lutz, Brian D.; King, Ryan S.; Fay, John P.; Carter, Catherine E.; Helton, Ashley M.; Campagna, David; Amos, JohnEnvironmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (15), 8115-8122CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Surface coal mining is the dominant form of land cover change in Central Appalachia, yet the extent to which surface coal mine runoff is polluting regional rivers is currently unknown. We mapped surface mining from 1976 to 2005 for a 19,581 Km2 area of southern West Virginia and linked these maps with water quality and biol. data for 223 streams. The extent of surface mining within catchments is highly correlated with the ionic strength and sulfate concns. of receiving streams. Generalized additive models were used to est. the amt. of watershed mining, stream ionic strength, or sulfate concns. beyond which biol. impairment (based on state biocriteria) is likely. We find this threshold is reached once surface coal mines occupy >5.4% of their contributing watershed area, ionic strength exceeds 308 μS/cm, or sulfate concns. exceed 50 mg/L. Significant losses of many intolerant macroinvertebrate taxa occur when as little as 2.2% of contributing catchments are mined. As of 2005, 5% of the land area of southern WV was converted to surface mines, 6% of regional streams were buried in valley fills, and 22% of the regional stream network length drained watersheds with >5.4% of their surface area converted to mines.
- 41Palmer, M. A.; Bernhardt, E. S.; Schlesinger, W. H.; Eshleman, K. N.; Foufoula-Georgiou, E.; Hendryx, M. S.; Lemly, A. D.; Likens, G. E.; Loucks, O. L.; Power, M. E.; White, P. S.; Wilcock, P. R. Mountaintop Mining Consequences Science 2010, 327 (5962) 148– 149 DOI: 10.1126/science.118054341https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXosFCjug%253D%253D&md5=895f62498e80db485d9a28ee0daf2b78Mountaintop mining consequencesPalmer, M. A.; Bernhardt, E. S.; Schlesinger, W. H.; Eshleman, K. N.; Foufoula-Georgiou, E.; Hendryx, M. S.; Lemly, A. D.; Likens, G. E.; Loucks, O. L.; Power, M. E.; White, P. S.; Wilcock, P. R.Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2010), 327 (5962), 148-149CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 42Pond, G. J.; Passmore, M. E.; Borsuk, F. A.; Reynolds, L.; Rose, C. J. Downstream effects of mountaintop coal mining: comparing biological conditions using family- and genus-level macroinvertebrate bioassessment tools Journal of the North American Benthological Society 2008, 27 (3) 717– 737 DOI: 10.1899/08-015.1There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 43Timpano, A. J.; Schoenholtz, S. H.; Soucek, D. J.; Zipper, C. E. Salinity As A Limiting Factor For Biological Condition In Mining-Influenced Central Appalachian Headwater Streams J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2015, 51 (1) 240– 250 DOI: 10.1111/jawr.12247There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 44Bier, R. L.; Voss, K. A.; Bernhardt, E. S. Bacterial community responses to a gradient of alkaline mountaintop mine drainage in Central Appalachian streams ISME J. 2015, 9 (6) 1378– 1390 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2014.222There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 45Voss, K. A.; King, R. S.; Bernhardt, E. S. From a line in the sand to a landscape of decisions: a hierarchical diversity decision framework for estimating and communicating biodiversity loss along anthropogenic gradients Methods in Ecology and Evolution 2015, 6 (7) 795– 805 DOI: 10.1111/2041-210X.12379There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46Murphy, J. C.; Hornberger, G. M.; Liddle, R. G. Concentration-discharge relationships in the coalmined region of the New River basin and Indian Fork sub-basin, Tennessee, USA Hydrological Processes 2014, 28 (3) 718– 728 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.960346https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXislyhtA%253D%253D&md5=2d0e120df3cf3a77d8d0e62e0f64c7e9Concentration-discharge relationships in the coal mined region of the New River basin and Indian Fork sub-basin, Tennessee, USAMurphy, J. C.; Hornberger, G. M.; Liddle, R. G.Hydrological Processes (2014), 28 (3), 718-728CODEN: HYPRE3; ISSN:1099-1085. (Wiley-Blackwell)For many basins, identifying changes to water quality over time and understanding current hydrol. processes are hindered by fragmented and discontinuous water-quality and hydrol. data. In the coal mined region of the New River basin and Indian Fork sub-basin, muted and pronounced changes, resp., to concn.-discharge (C-Q) relationships were identified using linear regression on log-transformed historical (1970s-1980s) and recent (2000s) water-quality and streamflow data. Changes to C-Q relationships were related to coal mining histories and shifts in land use. Hysteresis plots of individual storms from 2007 (New River) and the fall of 2009 (Indian Fork) were used to understand current hydrol. processes in the basins. In the New River, storm magnitude was found to be closely related to the reversal of loop rotation in hysteresis plots; a peak-flow threshold of 25 cubic meters per s (m3/s) segregates hysteresis patterns into clockwise and counterclockwise rotational groups. Small storms with peak flow less than 25 m3/s often resulted in diln. of constituent concns. in headwater tributaries like Indian Fork and concn. of constituents downstream in the mainstem of the New River. Conceptual two or three component mixing models for the basins were used to infer the influence of water derived from spoil material on water quality. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
- 47NRCS. Soil Survey of Lincoln County, West Virginia; United States Department of Agriculture; Natural Resources Conservation Service in cooperation with the West Virginia Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station and West Virginia Conservation Agency, 2007.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 48NRCS. Soil Survey Geographic Database (SSURGO 2.2); Natural Resources Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2015.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Nicholson, S. W.; Dicken, C. L.; Horton, J. D.; Labay, K. A.; Foose, M. P.; Mueller, J. A. L., Preliminary integrated geologic map databases for the United States: Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, and West Virginia; US Geological Survey: 2005.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 50Braun, E. L. Deciduous forests of eastern North America; Free Press: New York, 1974.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 51PRISM. PRISM Gridded Climate Data; OSU PRISM Climate Group, 2016.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 52Adams, M.; Kochenderfer, J.; Edwards, P. The Fernow Watershed Acidification Study: Ecosystem Acidification, Nitrogen Saturation and Base Cation Leaching Water, Air, Soil Pollut.: Focus 2007, 7 (1–3) 267– 273 DOI: 10.1007/s11267-006-9062-152https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXks1Cqur0%253D&md5=b694b987af1121630df292184f3fb7c3The Fernow Watershed Acidification Study: Ecosystem Acidification, Nitrogen Saturation and Base Cation LeachingAdams, Mary Beth; Kochenderfer, James N.; Edwards, Pamela J.Water, Air, & Soil Pollution: Focus (2007), 7 (1-3), 267-273CODEN: WASPC7; ISSN:1567-7230. (Springer)In 1989, a watershed acidification expt. was begun on the Fernow Exptl. Forest in West Virginia, USA. Ammonium sulfate fertilizer (35.5 kg/N/ha-1/yr-1 and 40.5 kg/S/ha-1/yr-1) was applied to a forested watershed (WS3) that supported a 20-yr-old stand of eastern deciduous hardwoods. Addns. of N and S are approx. twice the ambient deposition of nitrogen and sulfur in the adjacent mature forested watershed (WS4), that serves as the ref. watershed for this study. Acidification of stream water and soil soln. was documented, although the response was delayed, and acidification processes appeared to be driven by nitrate rather than sulfate. As a result of the acidification treatment, nitrate soln. concns. increased below all soil layers, whereas sulfate was retained by all soil layers after only a few years of the fertilization treatments, perhaps due to adsorption induced from decreasing sulfate deposition. Based on soil soln. monitoring, depletion of calcium and magnesium was obsd., first from the upper soil horizons and later from the lower soil horizons. Increased base cation concns. in stream water also were documented and linked closely with high soln. levels of nitrate. Significant changes in soil chem. properties were not detected after 12 years of treatment, however.
- 53Searcy, J. K.; Hardison, C. H. Double Mass Curves. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1541-B; United States Government Printing Office: 1960.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 54Manning, R.; Griffith, J. P.; Pigot, T.; Vernon-Harcourt, L. F. On the flow of water in open channels and pipes; Dublin, 1890.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 55Hewlett, J. D.; Hibbert, A. R. Factors affecting the response of small watersheds to precipitation in humid areas Forest Hydrology 1966, 275– 291There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 56Wolock, D. M., Base-flow index grid for the conterminous United States, 03-263 ed.; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, 2003.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 57Pettyjohn, W. A.; Henning, R. Preliminary Estimate of Ground-Water Recharge Rates, Related Streamflow and Water Quality in Ohio; Water Resources Center, The Ohio State University: Columbus, 1979.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 58Blume, T.; Zehe, E.; Bronstert, A. Rainfall-runoff response, event-based runoff coefficients and hydrograph separation Hydrol. Sci. J. 2007, 52 (5) 843– 862 DOI: 10.1623/hysj.52.5.843There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 59Pinder, G. F.; Jones, J. F. Determination of the ground-water component of peak discharge from the chemistry of total runoff Water Resour. Res. 1969, 5 (2) 438– 445 DOI: 10.1029/WR005i002p0043859https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaF1MXltFKgurg%253D&md5=02efbf1b97b72dac723b94f7be4204a9Determination of the ground-water component of peak discharge from the chemistry of total runoffPinder, George F.; Jones, John FrederickWater Resources Research (1969), 5 (2), 438-45CODEN: WRERAQ; ISSN:0043-1397.The ground water component of stream discharge can be detd. from the chem. characteristics of the stream water. A chem. mass-balance is used to relate total, direct, and ground water runoff. To solve the mass-balance equation, it is necessary to est. the chem. compn. of the ground water and direct-runoff components. The solute concn. of ground water is detd. from total runoff during baseflow; the chem. characteristics of direct-runoff are estd. from samples of total runoff collected from selected locations in a basin during peak discharge periods. The estn. of the chem. compn. of direct runoff showed, that the concn. of most of the ions studied (bicarbonate, Ca, Mg, and sulfate) increased significantly downstream. Furthermore chem. characteristics of ground water and direct runoff were similar in the upstream areas and thus samples from the uppermost station during periods of peak discharge would provide a good est. of the chem. characteristics of direct runoff. Ions provided consistent and reasonable values for ground water discharge and displayed a strong correlation between chem. and total discharge. In 3 small watersheds to Nova Scotia ground water runoff constituted from 32 to 42% of peak discharge for the period of anal.
- 60Sklash, M. G.; Farvolden, R. N.; Fritz, P. A conceptual model of watershed response to rainfall, developed through the use of oxygen-18 as a natural tracer Can. J. Earth Sci. 1976, 13, 271– 283 DOI: 10.1139/e76-029There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 61Buttle, J. M. Isotope hydrograph separations and rapid delivery of pre-event water from drainage basins Progress in Physical Geography 1994, 18 (1) 16– 41 DOI: 10.1177/030913339401800102There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 62McGlynn, B. L.; McDonnell, J. J.; Seibert, J.; Kendall, C. Scale effects on headwater catchment runoff timing, flow sources, and groundwater-streamflow relations Water Resour. Res. 2004, 40 (7) 1– 14 DOI: 10.1029/2003WR002494There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 63Caissie, D.; Pollock, T. L.; Cunjak, R. A. Variation in stream water chemistry and hydrograph separation in a small drainage basin J. Hydrol. 1996, 178 (1–4) 137– 157 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(95)02806-463https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK28XjsFWmtbc%253D&md5=e9e9525cf37bff5ca985a925b6a96030Variation in stream water chemistry and hydrograph separation in a small drainage basinCaissie, Daniel; Pollock, Tom L.; Cunjak, Richard A.Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) (1996), 178 (1-4), 137-157CODEN: JHYDA7; ISSN:0022-1694. (Elsevier)The change in chem. compn. of stream water was investigated for a small Atlantic salmon stream (Catamaran Brook) of the Miramichi River system in New Brunswick, Canada. Chem. compn. of runoff and groundwater flow was established, as were relations between concn. of dissolved materials and discharge. Specific storm events were analyzed to det. changes in chem. and to carry out a hydrograph sepn. using specific chem. parameters. The hydrograph sepn. was used to identify the relative contribution of groundwater flow to total streamflow. By selective sampling of stream water during high flow (runoff) and low flow (groundwater) periods it was possible to observe the range in chem. compn. of many parameters in Catamaran Brook. Most relations between concn. of chem. parameters and discharge were significant at p<0.0001, with Na having the highest coeff. of detn. (r2 = 0.849). Concn. returned to pre-storm levels in ∼10 days following an event. As obsd. in previous studies, the peak groundwater flow plays an important role during the storm hydrograph and can account for as much as 91% of the total peak flow for small events. For higher flow events in Catamaran Brook, the groundwater flow contribution was markedly lower (55% of total streamflow). The composite hydrograph sepn. revealed that cond., as a single parameter, provided the best results in representing the composite sepn.
- 64Jencso, K. G.; McGlynn, B. L.; Gooseff, M. N.; Bencala, K. E.; Wondzell, S. M. Hillslope hydrologic connectivity controls riparian groundwater turnover: Implications of catchment structure for riparian buffering and stream water sources Water Resour. Res. 2010, 46, 1– 18 DOI: 10.1029/2009WR008818There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 65Laudon, H.; Slaymaker, O. Hydrograph separation using stable isotopes, silica and electrical conductivity: an alpine example J. Hydrol. 1997, 201 (1–4) 82– 101 DOI: 10.1016/S0022-1694(97)00030-965https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK2sXnvVegsLc%253D&md5=6121e61e695a1ee411d9c2a8c321320aHydrograph separation using stable isotopes, silica and electrical conductivity: an alpine exampleLaudon, Hjalmar; Slaymaker, OlavJournal of Hydrology (Amsterdam) (1997), 201 (1-4), 82-101CODEN: JHYDA7; ISSN:0022-1694. (Elsevier Science B.V.)Hydrograph sepn. of runoff events in two nested alpine/subalpine basins in the Coast Mountains of British Columbia was carried out using elec. cond., specific concn. of silica and the stable isotopes oxygen-18 and deuterium as hydrol. tracers. The methods predicted consistent high pre-storm water contribution for the subalpine site (60-90%) but more variable contribution at the alpine basin outlet (25-90%). The pre-storm water contribution is much larger than had previously been expected. Pptn. is believed to run off as overland flow due to the steep slopes in combination with the hydrophobic soils until it can enter the subsurface environment. The rapid influx of stored water is possibly caused by pressure propagation in the macropore system which could be enhanced by the heavily fractured bedrock and permeable landslide debris acting as efficient hydrol. conduits.The study suggests that alternative hydrol. tracers such as elec. cond. and silica concn. can be used under certain hydrol. and lithol. conditions. These alternative tracers should, however, be verified against more conventional tracers before use, as the behavior depends on specific characteristics of each basin. At the upper basin outlet, both elec. cond. (EC) and silica underestimated the pre-storm contribution. At the lower station, silica and EC showed a similar pattern to deuterium and oxygen-18 tracers. The calcd. pre-storm component using EC was, however, 10-20 lower than the calcd. values from the other three tracers. The advantage of using these alternative tracers is that hydrograph sepn. results can, a priori, be anticipated.
- 66Pellerin, B. A.; Wollheim, W. M.; Feng, X.; Vorosmarty, C. J. The application of electrical conductivity as a tracer for hydrograph separation in urban catchments Hydrol. Processes 2008, 22 (12) 1810– 1818 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.678666https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXptVKhurk%253D&md5=b75ccb15f91a45d503cebf89f4672b35The application of electrical conductivity as a tracer for hydrograph separation in urban catchmentsPellerin, Brian A.; Wollheim, Wilfred M.; Feng, Xiahong; Vorosmarty, Charles J.Hydrological Processes (2008), 22 (12), 1810-1818CODEN: HYPRE3; ISSN:0885-6087. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)Two-component hydrograph sepn. was performed on 19 low-to-moderate intensity rainfall events in a 4.1-km2 urban watershed to infer the relative and abs. contribution of surface runoff (e.g. new water) to storm flow generation between 2001 and 2003. The elec. cond. (EC) of water was used as a continuous and inexpensive tracer, with order of magnitude differences in pptn. (12-46 μS/cm) and pre-event stream water EC values (520-1297 μS/cm). While new water accounted for most of the increased discharge during storms (61-117%), the contribution of new water to total discharge during events was typically lower (18-78%) and neg. correlated with antecedent stream discharge (r2 = 0.55, p < 0.01). The amt. of new water was pos. correlated with total rainfall (r2 = 0.77), but hydrograph sepn. results suggest that less than half (9-46%) of the total rainfall on impervious surfaces is rapidly routed to the stream channel as new water. Comparison of hydrograph sepn. results using non-conservative tracers (EC and Si) and a conservative isotopic tracer (δD) for two events showed similar results and highlighted the potential application of EC as an inexpensive, high frequency tracer for hydrograph sepn. studies in urban catchments. The use of a simple tracer-based approach may help hydrologists and watershed managers to better understand impervious surface runoff, storm flow generation and non-point-source pollutant loading to urban streams.
- 67Kobayashi, D. Separation of a snowmelt hydrograph by specific conductance J. Hydrol. 1986, 84 (1–2) 157– 165 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(86)90049-1There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 68Wunsch, D. R.; Dinger, J. S.; Graham, C. D. R. Predicting ground-water movement in large mine spoil areas in the Appalachian Plateau Int. J. Coal Geol. 1999, 41 (1–2) 73– 106 DOI: 10.1016/S0166-5162(99)00012-968https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK1MXktlKjsL0%253D&md5=519e61cee129cc4315c2c85c59a0421ePredicting ground-water movement in large mine spoil areas in the Appalachian PlateauWunsch, David R.; Dinger, James S.; Graham, C. Douglas R.International Journal of Coal Geology (1999), 41 (1-2), 73-106CODEN: IJCGDE; ISSN:0166-5162. (Elsevier Science B.V.)Spoil created by surface mining can accumulate large quantities of ground-water, which can create geotech. or regulatory problems, as well as flood active mine pits. A current study at a large (4.1 km2), thick, (up to 90 m) spoil body in eastern Kentucky reveals important factors that control the storage and movement of water. Ground-water recharge occurs along the periphery of the spoil body where surface-water drainage is blocked, as well as from infiltration along the spoil-bedrock contact, recharge from adjacent bedrock, and to a minor extent, through macro- pores at the spoil's surface. Based on an av. satd. thickness of 6.4 m for all spoil wells, and assuming an estd. porosity of 20%, approx. 5.2×106 m3 of water is stored within the existing 4.1 km2 of reclaimed spoil. A conceptual model of ground-water flow, based on data from monitoring wells, dye-tracing data, discharge from springs and ponds, hydraulic gradients, chem. data, field reconnaissance, and aerial photographs indicate that three distinct but interconnected satd. zones have been established: one in the spoil's interior, and others in the valley fills that surround the main spoil body at lower elevations. Ground-water movement is sluggish in the spoil's interior, but moves quickly through the valley fills. The conceptual model shows that a prediction of ground-water occurrence, movement, and quality can be made for active or abandoned spoil areas if all or some of the following data are available: structural contour of the base of the lowest coal seam being mined, pre-mining topog., documentation of mining methods employed throughout the mine, overburden characteristics, and aerial photographs of mine progression.
- 69Maxwell, A.; Strager, M. Assessing landform alterations induced by mountaintop mining Nat. Sci. 2013, 5, 229– 237 DOI: 10.4236/ns.2013.52A034There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 70Dinger, J. S.; Wunsch, D. R.; Kemp, J. E.Occurrence of Groundwater in Mine Spoil, a Renewable Resource: Star Fire Tract, Eastern Kentucky, Mining and Reclamation Conferene and Exhibition, Charleston, WV, 1990; Charleston, WV, 1990.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 71Wunsch, D. R.; Dinger, J. S.; Taylor, P. B.; Carey, D. I.; Graham, C. D. R. Hydrogeology, Hydrogeochemistry, and Spoil Settlement at a Large Mine-Spoil Area In Eastern Kentucky: Star Fire Tract; Kentucky Geological Survey, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 1996.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 72Greer, B. M.; Burbey, T. J.; Zipper, C. E.; Hester, E. T. Electrical resistivity imaging of hydrologic flow through surface coal mine valley fills with comparison to other landforms Hydrological Processes 2017, 31 (12) 2244– 2260 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.11180There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 73Hewlett, J. D.; Helvey, J. D. Effects of Forest Clear-Felling on Storm Hydrograph Water Resour. Res. 1970, 6 (3) 768– 782 DOI: 10.1029/WR006i003p00768There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 74Moore, R. D.; Wondzell, S. M. Physical hydrology and the effects of forest harvesting in the Pacific Northwest: A review J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2005, 41 (4) 763– 784 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb04463.xThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 75Bosch, J. M.; Hewlett, J. D. A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration J. Hydrol. 1982, 55 (1-4) 3– 23 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(82)90117-2There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 76Reinhart, K. G.; Eschner, A. R.; Trimble, G. R., Jr. Effect On Streamflow Of Four Forest Practices In The Mountains Of West Virginia; Northeast Forest Experiment Station: Upper Darby, PA, 1963.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 77Hewlett, J. D.; Hibbert, A. R. Increases In Water Yield After Several Types Of Forest Cutting International Association of Scientific Hydrology. Bulletin 1961, 6 (3) 5– 17 DOI: 10.1080/02626666109493224There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 78Nippgen, F.; McGlynn, B. L.; Emanuel, R. E.; Vose, J. M. Watershed memory at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory: The effect of past precipitation and storage on hydrologic response Water Resour. Res. 2016, 52 (3) 1673– 1695 DOI: 10.1002/2015WR018196There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 79Nippgen, F.; McGlynn, B. L.; Marshall, L. A.; Emanuel, R. E. Landscape structure and climate influences on hydrologic response Water Resour. Res. 2011, 47, 1– 17 DOI: 10.1029/2011WR011161There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 80McGuire, K. J.; McDonnell, J. J.; Weiler, M.; Kendall, C.; McGlynn, B. L.; Welker, J. M.; Seibert, J. The role of topography on catchment-scale water residence time Water Resour. Res. 2005, 41 (5) 1– 14 DOI: 10.1029/2004WR003657There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 81Ritter, J. B.; Gardner, T. W. Hydrologic Evolution Of Drainage Basins Disturbed By Surface Mining, Central Pennsylvania Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1993, 105 (1) 101– 115 DOI: 10.1130/0016-7606(1993)105<0101:HEODBD>2.3.CO;2There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 82Hendershot, W. H.; Savoie, S.; Courchesne, F. Simulation Of Stream-Water Chemistry With Soil Solution And Groundwater-Flow Contributions J. Hydrol. 1992, 136 (1–4) 237– 252 DOI: 10.1016/0022-1694(92)90013-L82https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK38XlslOrtr0%253D&md5=883cc473094420764631f815a75b8bbbSimulation of stream-water chemistry with soil solution and groundwater flow contributionsHendershot, W. H.; Savoie, S.; Courchesne, F.Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (1992), 136 (1-4), 237-52CODEN: JHYDA7; ISSN:0022-1694.The mass balance equation was used to assess the contribution of water flowing from the solum (the upper 80 cm of soil) and subsoil to a 1st-order stream in the southern Laurentians, Quebec, during spring snowmelt. Dissolved reactive Si was used as a tracer and showed that during high flow the solum contributed 50-95% of the stream discharge. During low flow, the stream was mainly fed by groundwater. Based on this hydrograph sepn. and soil soln. chem., a model was developed to predict stream chem. The simulations for Ca, Na, SO42-, NO3-, Cl, and elec. cond. showed good agreement with the stream chem. The predicted values of H and total Al followed the same pattern as the measured values but overestimated concns. in the stream during high flow due to their reactive, non-conservative behavior.
- 83Scanlon, T. M.; Raffensperger, J. P.; Hornberger, G. M. Modeling transport of dissolved silica in a forested headwater catchment: Implications for defining the hydrochemical response of observed flow pathways Water Resour. Res. 2001, 37 (4) 1071– 1082 DOI: 10.1029/2000WR90027883https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXksVWqu7c%253D&md5=425b6bb162a6b878fbf450f37a35388eModeling transport of dissolved silica in a forested headwater catchment: implications for defining the hydrochemical response of observed flow pathwaysScanlon, Todd M.; Raffensperger, Jeff P.; Hornberger, George M.Water Resources Research (2001), 37 (4), 1071-1082CODEN: WRERAQ; ISSN:0043-1397. (American Geophysical Union)Groundwater, subsurface stormflow, and overland flow components of discharge, derived from a hydrol. model that was applied to a forested headwater catchment in north central Virginia, were used with measured stream water and lysimeter concns. of dissolved silica to study the hydrochem. behavior of the catchment. Concns. in base flow, taken to be a reflection of groundwater, vary with discharge, an observation in conflict with the typical assumption of const. concn. used in end-member mixing analyses. This obsd. flow dependence was modeled by considering the concn. in groundwater to be related to the satn. deficit in this zone. A pos. correlation between the av. groundwater satn. deficit and base flow dissolved silica concns. is consistent with batch expts. and petrog. anal. of regolith core samples, which both indicate an increase in silica available for dissoln. with depth in the groundwater zone. In the absence of subsurface storm flow zone sampling during rainfall events a const. concn. was assumed for this zone. Concn.-discharge (C-Q) paths in the stream were used to evaluate the modeled stream silica concns. An inconsistency in the direction of the modeled C-Q rotations suggests that the storm flow zone dissolved silica concn. may also vary with time, because of the flushing of high-concn., preevent soil water on the rising limb of the storm hydrograph. For this catchment in Virginia the assumption of a const. concn. for subsurface storm flow, as well as for base flow, appears to be invalid.
- 84Dunne, T. Water in environmental planning. W. H. Freeman: San Francisco, 1978.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 85McCormick, B. C.; Eshleman, K. N. Assessing Hydrologic Change in Surface-Mined Watersheds Using the Curve Number Method Journal of Hydrologic Engineering 2011, 16 (7) 575– 584 DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0000344There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 86Magilligan, F. J.; Nislow, K. H. Changes in hydrologic regime by dams Geomorphology 2005, 71 (1–2) 61– 78 DOI: 10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.08.017There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 87Singer, M. B. The influence of major dams on hydrology through the drainage network of the Sacramento River basin, California River Research and Applications 2007, 23 (1) 55– 72 DOI: 10.1002/rra.968There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 88Poff, N. L.; Olden, J. D.; Merritt, D. M.; Pepin, D. M. Homogenization of regional river dynamics by dams and global biodiversity implications Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2007, 104 (14) 5732– 5737 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.060981210488https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXkt1Kgsb4%253D&md5=907cc1792eeacbb7c87887f690579e88Homogenization of regional river dynamics by dams and global biodiversity implicationsPoff, N. LeRoy; Olden, Julian D.; Merritt, David M.; Pepin, David M.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2007), 104 (14), 5732-5737CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Global biodiversity in river and riparian ecosystems is generated and maintained by geog. variation in stream processes and fluvial disturbance regimes, which largely reflect regional differences in climate and geol. Extensive construction of dams by humans has greatly dampened the seasonal and interannual streamflow variability of rivers, thereby altering natural dynamics in ecol. important flows on continental to global scales. The cumulative effects of modification to regional-scale environmental templates caused by dams is largely unexplored but of crit. conservation importance. Here, we use 186 long-term streamflow records on intermediate-sized rivers across the continental United States to show that dams have homogenized the flow regimes on third- through seventh-order rivers in 16 historically distinctive hydrol. regions over the course of the 20th century. This regional homogenization occurs chiefly through modification of the magnitude and timing of ecol. crit. high and low flows. For 317 undammed ref. rivers, no evidence for homogenization was found, despite documented changes in regional pptn. over this period. With an estd. av. d. of one dam every 48 km of third-through seventh-order river channel in the United States, dams arguably have a continental scale effect of homogenizing regionally distinct environmental templates, thereby creating conditions that favor the spread of cosmopolitan, nonindigenous species at the expense of locally adapted native biota. Quant. analyses such as ours provide the basis for conservation and management actions aimed at restoring and maintaining native biodiversity and ecosystem function and resilience for regionally distinct ecosystems at continental to global scales.
- 89Bernhardt, E. S.; Palmer, M. A., The environmental costs of mountaintop mining valley fill operations for aquatic ecosystems of the Central Appalachians. In Year in Ecology and Conservation Biology, Ostfeld, R. S.; Schlesinger, W. H., Eds.; Wiley, 2011; Vol. 1223, pp 39– 57.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 90Pond, G. J.; Passmore, M. E.; Pointon, N. D.; Felbinger, J. K.; Walker, C. A.; Krock, K. J. G.; Fulton, J. B.; Nash, W. L. Long-Term Impacts on Macroinvertebrates Downstream of Reclaimed Mountaintop Mining Valley Fills in Central Appalachia Environ. Manage. 2014, 54 (4) 919– 933 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-014-0319-6There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 91Burger, J.; Graves, D.; Angel, P.; Davis, V.; Zipper, C. The Forestry Reclamation Approach; The Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative (ARRI), 2005.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 92Angel, P. N.; Burger, J. A.; Davis, V. M.; Barton, C. D.; Bower, M.; Eggerud, S. D.; Rothman, P., The Forestry Reclamation Approach And The Measure Of Its Success In Appalachia. In National Meeting of the American Society of Mining and Reclamation; Barnhisel, R. I., Ed.; ASMR: Lexington, 2009.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 93Agouridis, C. T.; Angel, P. N.; Taylor, T. J.; Barton, C. D.; Warner, R. C.; Yu, X.; Wood, C. Water Quality Characteristics of Discharge from Reforested Loose-Dumped Mine Spoil in Eastern Kentucky Journal of Environmental Quality 2012, 41 (2) 454– 468 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2011.0158There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 94Taylor, T. J.; Agouridis, C. T.; Warner, R. C.; Barton, C. D.; Angel, P. N. Hydrologic characteristics of Appalachian loose-dumped spoil in the Cumberland Plateau of eastern Kentucky Hydrol. Processes 2009, 23 (23) 3372– 3381 DOI: 10.1002/hyp.7443There is no corresponding record for this reference.