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Stressor Exposures Determine Risk: So, Why Do Fellow Scientists Continue To Focus on Superficial Microplastics Risk?
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University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
A couple of years ago, I tried to publish an Op-Ed challenging the perceived environmental threat of microplastics in the New York Times, Washington Post, LA Times, Chicago Times, and Wall Street Journal—but these respected news outlets rejected my submission. Subsequently, I published a Letter to the Editor in the journal Integrated Environmental Assessment & Management.(1) This did little to change the concern expressed here.
The focus on my opinion article was the concern that the environmental risk from microplastics (more specifically, microbeads) was overstated. As an environmental toxicologist and risk assessor, I knew low microplastic exposure concentrations dictated there could be no risk. Thankfully, others are now beginning to join this chorus.(2-9)
Even when scientific knowledge was in its infancy, Paracelsus stated in ∼500 AD a currently held, toxicological truth: All things are poisons at the right dose. My concern that microplastics in marine and freshwater ecosystems aquatic environment are not a risk due to LOW concentrations (i.e., low exposures) is slowly being realized and certainly applies to other contaminants of emerging concern. Recently, an Environmental Science & Technology Viewpoint article by Weltje and Sumpter(10) challenged scientists to better define environmentally relevant concentrations as all too often this term is loosely used.
Numerous authors and organizations have called for standardized methods for collecting, quantifying, and characterizing microplastics.(3, 11, 12) A plethora of methods exist for each of these three critical components of environmental assessments, each with their own strengths and limitations, but no one is sufficient. High numbers of false positive and false negatives have been identified, depending on the methods used, which makes it impossible to compare microplastic studies that may be overestimating or under-estimating exposures.(2, 11, 12) Nevertheless, the great majority of studies are stating the highest concentrations typically found are in the range of less than 1 to 10s of particles per meter squared (i.e., 1000 L).(2, 3, 7, 8, 13, 14) These concentrations are several orders of magnitude lower than virtually all laboratory studies and organisms feeding on this sized range will find orders of magnitude more plankton available for ingesting. Also, many of the studies measure concentrations based on mass (e.g., mg/L) or surface area (number/km2), and these units add large uncertainty to actual organism exposures to these diverse particles.(3)
As Editor-in-Chief of one of the premier journals for environmental toxicology, I find the continuing publication of microplastics studies stating a severe environmental threat, in high quality journals disturbing. These studies are rapidly picked up by the news media, as we have seen and serve to misinform the public and policy makers, as noted by others.(6, 15)
Are reviewers and Associate Editors for our highest quality journals simply unaware of what constitutes hazard and risk and how exposure is the most important part of the equation? Since scientists should be nonbiased, how can this be happening? Is the penchant for visibility, pressure to publish, inability to publish negative results, funding, and sensationalism overtaken this science? This seems unethical.
In the Environmental Science & Technology Feature by Koelmans et al.,(6) they present a comprehensive coverage of these issues and propose and simple and eloquent path forward.
In my opinion, this trend of reporting has adversely influenced policy making (e.g., the banning of microbeads—one of the lesser components of microplastics and clearly not an environmental threat). The dominant component of microplastics characterized to date are not microbeads, rather polyester fibers or fragments (depending on which study cited), which are also below concentrations causing adverse effects. Nevertheless, there is no call by environmental advocates to ban polyester clothing or to ban all plastics which eventually will disintegrate to fragments. Colleagues in the industries affected by this ban have said privately at international scientific conferences it is a battle their respective companies have chosen not to fight. Well, that is wonderful, fewer microbeads being discharged—but if there was no adverse exposure to begin with—why care?
In addition, there are likely much higher exposures from “nanoplastics/nanoparticles” (less than the lowest size of 100 μm often measured for microplastics), but few have attempted to study this small size because of methodological challenges. Perhaps these ultrasmall particles are an environmental risk–but we do not know. Recent papers, suggest they share many traits of nanosize carbon and metal compounds and quickly aggregate in the environment. Much is to be learned from previous nanomaterial research.(16, 17)
The process of determining microplastics risk should be an analysis of true risk (realistic exposure relationships to adverse effects). It should be documented in the field.(3, 6, 18) Much greater and pervasive ecosystem risks often occur where microplastics are at their highest concentrations(18) and are well-documented and rampant globally; including excess nutrients, low dissolved oxygen, solids from erosion, pathogens, altered flows, degraded habitats, temperature, and loss of shading. These common and major stressors should first be dealt with by regulators and environmental advocacy groups before focusing on the minor and questionable threats.
Disclaimer: The author received no funding from the plastics or any microparticles organization.
The author declares no competing financial interest.
Author Information
ARTICLE SECTIONS
- G. Allen Burton - University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States;
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8660-6294
The author declares no competing financial interest.
References
ARTICLE SECTIONS
This article references 18 other publications.
- 1Burton, G. A., Jr. Losing sight of science in the regulatory push to ban microbeads from consumer products and industrial use Integr. Environ. Assess. Manage. 2015, 11 (3) 346– 347 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.1645[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar1https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2Mbls1agsg%253D%253D&md5=e92ea68fb8dd975aeb9c72d2c2aa972fLosing sight of science in the regulatory push to ban microbeads from consumer products and industrial useBurton G Allen; Burton G AllenIntegrated environmental assessment and management (2015), 11 (3), 346-7 ISSN:.There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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- 5Koelmans, A. A.; Bakir, A.; Burton, G. A.; Janssen, C. R. Microplastic as a vector for chemicals in the aquatic environt: Critical review and model-supported reinterpretation of empirical studies Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 3315– 3326 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b06069[ACS Full Text
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- 9Van Cauwenberghe, L.; Devriese, L.; Galgani, F.; Robbens, J.; Janssen, C. R. Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effects Mar. Environ. Res. 2015, 111, 5– 17 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.06.007[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVWru73N&md5=551d3e576f2c41fa2963ffeab846c731Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effectsVan Cauwenberghe, Lisbeth; Devriese, Lisa; Galgani, Francois; Robbens, Johan; Janssen, Colin R.Marine Environmental Research (2015), 111 (), 5-17CODEN: MERSDW; ISSN:0141-1136. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review with many refs. Microplastics are omnipresent in the marine environment and sediments are hypothesized to be major sinks of these plastics. Here, over 100 articles spanning the last 50 yr are reviewed with following objectives: (i) to evaluate current microplastic extn. techniques, (ii) to discuss the occurrence and worldwide distribution of microplastics in sediments, and (iii) to make a comprehensive assessment of the possible adverse effects of this type of pollution to marine organisms. Based on this review we propose future research needs and conclude that there is a clear need for a standardized techniques, unified reporting units and more realistic effect assessments.
- 10Weltje, L.; Sumpter, J. P. What makes a concentration environmentally relevant? Critique and a Proposal Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 11520– 11521 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04673[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFKhtL7N&md5=61bab9106725cc80506321767a965e54What Makes a Concentration Environmentally Relevant? Critique and a ProposalWeltje, Lennart; Sumpter, John P.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (20), 11520-11521CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)To shed light on whether or not ecotoxicol. research is progressively becoming more environmentally relevant, we assessed the use of the words "environmentally relevant", combined with exposure or level or concn. or dose (and variants thereof), in the titles of publications in Web of Knowledge. It is clear that use of the term "environmentally relevant" has increased dramatically in the last 20 years (ca. 10-fold). The authors of the majority of these papers are claiming that certain adverse effects occur at concn. levels (commonly) occurring in the environment, and that therefore a risk is inferred. It is apparent from the literature that the environmental relevance of chem. concns. needs to be justified much better than it is presently. This opinion article aims to contribute to the debate by making proposals on how to deal with environmental measurements and from these define environmentally relevant values.
- 11Hidalgo-Ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R. C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the metehods used for identification and quantification Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 3060– 3075 DOI: 10.1021/es2031505[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XitVGhurY%253D&md5=3b73431f8ef6206f296d6e262b63c805Microplastics in marine environment review of methods for identification and quantificationHidalgo-Ruz, Valeria; Gutow, Lars; Thompson, Richard C.; Thiel, MartinEnvironmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (6), 3060-3075CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, vol.-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: d. sepn., filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degrdn. stage, and color as criteria). Chem. and phys. characteristics (e.g., specific d.) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chem. compn. of microplastics is by IR spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance ests. are "items per m2" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m3" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance ests. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
- 12Vandermeersch, G.; Van Cauwenberghe, L.; Janssen, C. R.; Marques, A.; Granby, K.; Fait, G.; Kotterman, M.; Diogene, J.; Bekaert, K.; Robbens, J.; Devriese, L. A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organisms Environ. Res. 2015, 143, 46– 55 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.016[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXht1yjsr%252FM&md5=c12c25828a056dcca7c05df9caf97ad8A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organismsVandermeersch, Griet; Van Cauwenberghe, Lisbeth; Janssen, Colin R.; Marques, Antonio; Granby, Kit; Fait, Gabriella; Kotterman, Michiel J. J.; Diogene, Jorge; Bekaert, Karen; Robbens, Johan; Devriese, LisaEnvironmental Research (2015), 143 (Part_B), 46-55CODEN: ENVRAL; ISSN:0013-9351. (Elsevier)Microplastics, plastic particles and fragments smaller than 5 mm, are ubiquitous in the marine environment. Ingestion and accumulation of microplastics have previously been demonstrated for diverse marine species ranging from zooplankton to bivalves and fish, implying the potential for microplastics to accumulate in the marine food web. In this way, microplastics can potentially impact food safety and human health. Although a few methods to quantify microplastics in biota have been described, no comparison and/or intercalibration of these techniques have been performed. Here we conducted a literature review on all available extn. and quantification methods. Two of these methods, involving wet acid destruction, were used to evaluate the presence of microplastics in field-collected mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from three different "hotspot" locations in Europe (Po estuary, Italy; Tagus estuary, Portugal; Ebro estuary, Spain). An av. of 0.18±0.14 total microplastics g-1 w.w. for the Acid mix Method and 0.12±0.04 total microplastics g-1 w.w. for the Nitric acid Method was established. Addnl., in a pilot study an av. load of 0.13±0.14 total microplastics g-1 w.w. was recorded in com. mussels (Mytilus edulis and M. galloprovincialis) from five European countries (France, Italy, Denmark, Spain and The Netherlands). A detailed anal. and comparison of methods indicated the need for further research to develop a standardised operating protocol for microplastic quantification and monitoring.
- 13Baldwin, A. K.; Corsi, S. R.; Mason, S. A. Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and Hydrology Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 10377– 10385 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02917[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFSjurnJ&md5=da395e7a75896f1b21f6bf50a6688b19Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and HydrologyBaldwin, Austin K.; Corsi, Steven R.; Mason, Sherri A.Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (19), 10377-10385CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic debris is a growing contaminant of concern in freshwater environments, yet sources, transport, and fate remain unclear. This study characterized the quantity and morphol. of floating micro- and macroplastics in 29 Great Lakes tributaries in six states under different land covers, wastewater effluent contributions, population densities, and hydrol. conditions. Tributaries were sampled three or four times each using a 333 μm mesh neuston net. Plastic particles were sorted by size, counted, and categorized as fibers/lines, pellets/beads, foams, films, and fragments. Plastics were found in all 107 samples, with a max. concn. of 32 particles/m3 and a median of 1.9 particles/m3. Ninety-eight percent of sampled plastic particles were less than 4.75 mm in diam. and therefore considered microplastics. Fragments, films, foams, and pellets/beads were pos. correlated with urban-related watershed attributes and were found at greater concns. during runoff-event conditions. Fibers, the most frequently detected particle type, were not assocd. with urban-related watershed attributes, wastewater effluent contribution, or hydrol. condition. Results from this study add to the body of information currently available on microplastics in different environmental compartments, including unique contributions to quantify their occurrence and variability in rivers with a wide variety of different land-use characteristics while highlighting differences between surface samples from rivers compared with lakes.
- 14Beer, S.; Garm, A.; Huwer, B.; Dierking, J.; Nielsen, T. G. No increase in marine microplastic concentration over the last three decades—A case study from the Baltic Sea Sci. Total Environ. 2017, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.101
- 15McDevitt, J. P.; Criddle, C. S.; Morse, M.; Hale, R. C.; Bott, C. B.; Rochman, C. M. Addressing the issue of microplastics int he Wake of the Microbead-Free Water Act – A new standard can facilitate improved policy Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 6611– 6617 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05812[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXns1OnsLk%253D&md5=eaf81dc3bb3f5cbd7278d1187e25a29eAddressing the Issue of Microplastics in the Wake of the Microbead-Free Waters Act-A New Standard Can Facilitate Improved PolicyMcDevitt, Jason P.; Criddle, Craig S.; Morse, Molly; Hale, Robert C.; Bott, Charles B.; Rochman, Chelsea M.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (12), 6611-6617CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)The US Microbead-Free Waters Act, signed into law in Dec. 2015, is a bipartisan agreement which will eliminate one preventable source of microplastic pollution in the US. The bill was criticized for being too limited in scope and for discouraging development of biodegradable alternatives which ultimately are needed to solve the larger plastics-related environmental issues. Due to a lack of an acknowledged, appropriate std. for environmentally safe microplastics, the bill banned all plastic microbeads in selected cosmetic products. This work reviews the legislative history and how it relates to the microplastic pollution issue in general and suggests a framework for a std. (Ecocyclable) which includes relative requirements related to toxicity, bioaccumulation, and degrdn./assimilation into the natural C cycle. The authors suggest such a std. will facilitate future regulation and legislation to reduce pollution while encouraging sustainable technologies innovation.
- 16Huffer, T.; Praetorius, A.; Wagner, S.; von der Kammer, F.; Hofmann, T. Microplastic exposure assessment in aquatic environmewnts: Learning from similarities and differences to engineered nanparticles Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 2499– 2507 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04054[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar16https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1c7psFyjsg%253D%253D&md5=c87298a72ddebe208d3d804f6077cdf2Microplastic Exposure Assessment in Aquatic Environments: Learning from Similarities and Differences to Engineered NanoparticlesHuffer Thorsten; Praetorius Antonia; von der Kammer Frank; Hofmann Thilo; Praetorius Antonia; Hofmann Thilo; Wagner StephanEnvironmental science & technology (2017), 51 (5), 2499-2507 ISSN:.Microplastics (MPs) have been identified as contaminants of emerging concern in aquatic environments and research into their behavior and fate has been sharply increasing in recent years. Nevertheless, significant gaps remain in our understanding of several crucial aspects of MP exposure and risk assessment, including the quantification of emissions, dominant fate processes, types of analytical tools required for characterization and monitoring, and adequate laboratory protocols for analysis and hazard testing. This Feature aims at identifying transferrable knowledge and experience from engineered nanoparticle (ENP) exposure assessment. This is achieved by comparing ENP and MPs based on their similarities as particulate contaminants, whereas critically discussing specific differences. We also highlight the most pressing research priorities to support an efficient development of tools and methods for MPs environmental risk assessment.
- 17Syberg, K.; Khan, F. R.; Selck, H.; Palmqvist, A.; Banta, G. T.; Daley, J.; Sano, L.; Duhaime, M. B. Microplastics: Addressing ecological risk through lessons learned Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2015, 34, 945– 953 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2914[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXmslyisrw%253D&md5=061f7e81c2e0317ba3b4950ceaa218d1Microplastics: addressing ecological risk through lessons learnedSyberg, Kristian; Khan, Farhan R.; Selck, Henriette; Palmqvist, Annemette; Banta, Gary T.; Daley, Jennifer; Sano, Larissa; Duhaime, Melissa B.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2015), 34 (5), 945-953CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)Plastic litter is an environmental problem of great concern. Despite the magnitude of the plastic pollution in our water bodies, only limited scientific understanding is available about the risk to the environment, particularly for microplastics. The apparent magnitude of the problem calls for quickly developing sound scientific guidance on the ecol. risks of microplastics. The authors suggest that future research into microplastics risks should be guided by lessons learned from the more advanced and better understood areas of (eco) toxicol. of engineered nanoparticles and mixt. toxicity. Relevant examples of advances in these two fields are provided to help accelerate the scientific learning curve within the relatively unexplored area of microplastics risk assessment. Finally, the authors advocate an expansion of the "vector effect" hypothesis with regard to microplastics risk to help focus research of microplastics environmental risk at different levels of biol. and environmental organization. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:945-953. © 2015 SETAC.
- 18Sedlak, D. Three lessons for the microplastics voyage Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 7747– 7748 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03340[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtFelu7jO&md5=c7bc28aa1467dfda9ac087788521f5f4Three Lessons for the Microplastics VoyageSedlak, DavidEnvironmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (14), 7747-7748CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A brief review and commentary. Microplastics are our newest emerging contaminant. Although scientists have expressed concerns about the impacts of plastic pollution for over four decades, microplastics did not become emerging contaminants until 2007. The issue gained momentum about five years later, when researchers reported the presence of microbeads from consumer products in wastewater effluent receiving waters. Facing neg. publicity for a nonessential ingredient, leading manufacturers voluntarily eliminated microbeads and accepted the decision to ban them in the United States in 2015. Now that we are into the second wave of research that will det. whether or not the remaining sources of microplastics will be controlled, it is worth considering lessons learned from other emerging contaminants. The first lesson is that occurrence data and lab. toxicol. studies alone are not enough to bring about action when the effects being studied do not involve humans. The second lesson is that contaminants are more likely to emerge if there is a reasonable possibility that their use is endangering human health. The third lesson is that the likelihood that society will control an emerging contaminant is inversely proportional to the cost of solving the problem as well as the degree to which blame can be affixed on a small no. of companies.
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Abstract
References
ARTICLE SECTIONSThis article references 18 other publications.
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- 4Galloway, T.; Cole, M.; Lewis, C. Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystem Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2017, 1, 0116 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0116[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar4https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1cfotVegsg%253D%253D&md5=30ad45a2216eb32723e00afbb85417d3Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystemGalloway Tamara S; Cole Matthew; Lewis CeriNature ecology & evolution (2017), 1 (5), 116 ISSN:.Marine microscopic plastic (microplastic) debris is a modern societal issue, illustrating the challenge of balancing the convenience of plastic in daily life with the prospect of causing ecological harm by careless disposal. Here we develop the concept of microplastic as a complex, dynamic mixture of polymers and additives, to which organic material and contaminants can successively bind to form an 'ecocorona', increasing the density and surface charge of particles and changing their bioavailability and toxicity. Chronic exposure to microplastic is rarely lethal, but can adversely affect individual animals, reducing feeding and depleting energy stores, with knock-on effects for fecundity and growth. We explore the extent to which ecological processes could be impacted, including altered behaviours, bioturbation and impacts on carbon flux to the deep ocean. We discuss how microplastic compares with other anthropogenic pollutants in terms of ecological risk, and consider the role of science and society in tackling this global issue in the future.
- 5Koelmans, A. A.; Bakir, A.; Burton, G. A.; Janssen, C. R. Microplastic as a vector for chemicals in the aquatic environt: Critical review and model-supported reinterpretation of empirical studies Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 3315– 3326 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b06069[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar5https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xjs1CgsLc%253D&md5=344eb828690c7a35aec869b7f9bed3f8Microplastic as a Vector for Chemicals in the Aquatic Environment: Critical Review and Model-Supported Reinterpretation of Empirical StudiesKoelmans, Albert A.; Bakir, Adil; Burton, G. Allen; Janssen, Colin R.Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (7), 3315-3326CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)The hypothesis that 'microplastic will transfer hazardous hydrophobic org. chems. (HOC) to marine animals' has been central to the perceived hazard and risk of plastic in the marine environment. The hypothesis is often cited and has gained momentum, turning it into paradigm status. We provide a crit. evaluation of the scientific literature regarding this hypothesis. Using new calcns. based on published studies, we explain the sometimes contrasting views and unify them in one interpretive framework. One explanation for the contrasting views among studies is that they test different hypotheses. When reframed in the context of the above hypothesis, the available data become consistent. We show that HOC microplastic-water partitioning can be assumed to be at equil. for most microplastic residing in the oceans. We calc. the fraction of total HOC sorbed by plastics to be small compared to that sorbed by other media in the ocean. We further demonstrate consistency among (a) measured HOC transfer from microplastic to organisms in the lab., (b) measured HOC desorption rates for polymers in artificial gut fluids (c) simulations by plastic-inclusive bioaccumulation models and (d) HOC desorption rates for polymers inferred from first principles. We conclude that overall the flux of HOCs bioaccumulated from natural prey overwhelms the flux from ingested microplastic for most habitats, which implies that microplastic ingestion is not likely to increase the exposure to and thus risks of HOCs in the marine environment.
- 6Koelmans, A. A.; Besseling, E.; Foekema, E.; Kooi, M.; Mintenig, S.; Ossendorp, B. C.; Redondo-Hasselerharm, P. E.; Verschoor, A.; van Wezel, A. P.; Scheffer, M. Risks of plastic debris: Unravelling fact, opinion, perception, and belief Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 11513– 11519 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02219[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar6https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFynt7%252FO&md5=2a823ec7f7df356ce60ee76b7a6b10afRisks of Plastic Debris: Unravelling Fact, Opinion, Perception, and BeliefKoelmans, Albert A.; Besseling, Ellen; Foekema, Edwin; Kooi, Merel; Mintenig, Svenja; Ossendorp, Bernadette C.; Redondo-Hasselerharm, Paula E.; Verschoor, Anja; van Wezel, Annemarie P.; Scheffer, MartenEnvironmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (20), 11513-11519CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Researcher and media alarms caused plastic debris to be perceived as a major threat to humans and animals; however, although wasting plastics in the environment is clearly undesirable for aesthetic and economic reasons, actual environmental risks of different plastics and their assocd. chems. is largely unknown. This work showed how a systematic assessment of adverse outcome pathways based on ecol. relevant metrics for exposure and effect can bring risk assessment within reach. Results will help respond to the current public concern in a balanced way and allow policy-makers to take measures using scientifically sound reasons.
- 7Lenz, R.; Enders, K.; Nielsen, T. G. Microplastic exposure studies should be environmentally realistic Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113, E4121– E4122 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1606615113[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar7https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtF2ht7bI&md5=bcd8675451a71fd6acb0f7cad2796653Microplastic exposure studies should be environmentally realisticLenz, Robin; Enders, Kristina; Nielsen, Torkel GisselProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (29), E4121-E4122CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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- 9Van Cauwenberghe, L.; Devriese, L.; Galgani, F.; Robbens, J.; Janssen, C. R. Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effects Mar. Environ. Res. 2015, 111, 5– 17 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.06.007[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVWru73N&md5=551d3e576f2c41fa2963ffeab846c731Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effectsVan Cauwenberghe, Lisbeth; Devriese, Lisa; Galgani, Francois; Robbens, Johan; Janssen, Colin R.Marine Environmental Research (2015), 111 (), 5-17CODEN: MERSDW; ISSN:0141-1136. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review with many refs. Microplastics are omnipresent in the marine environment and sediments are hypothesized to be major sinks of these plastics. Here, over 100 articles spanning the last 50 yr are reviewed with following objectives: (i) to evaluate current microplastic extn. techniques, (ii) to discuss the occurrence and worldwide distribution of microplastics in sediments, and (iii) to make a comprehensive assessment of the possible adverse effects of this type of pollution to marine organisms. Based on this review we propose future research needs and conclude that there is a clear need for a standardized techniques, unified reporting units and more realistic effect assessments.
- 10Weltje, L.; Sumpter, J. P. What makes a concentration environmentally relevant? Critique and a Proposal Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 11520– 11521 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04673[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFKhtL7N&md5=61bab9106725cc80506321767a965e54What Makes a Concentration Environmentally Relevant? Critique and a ProposalWeltje, Lennart; Sumpter, John P.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (20), 11520-11521CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)To shed light on whether or not ecotoxicol. research is progressively becoming more environmentally relevant, we assessed the use of the words "environmentally relevant", combined with exposure or level or concn. or dose (and variants thereof), in the titles of publications in Web of Knowledge. It is clear that use of the term "environmentally relevant" has increased dramatically in the last 20 years (ca. 10-fold). The authors of the majority of these papers are claiming that certain adverse effects occur at concn. levels (commonly) occurring in the environment, and that therefore a risk is inferred. It is apparent from the literature that the environmental relevance of chem. concns. needs to be justified much better than it is presently. This opinion article aims to contribute to the debate by making proposals on how to deal with environmental measurements and from these define environmentally relevant values.
- 11Hidalgo-Ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R. C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the metehods used for identification and quantification Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 3060– 3075 DOI: 10.1021/es2031505[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XitVGhurY%253D&md5=3b73431f8ef6206f296d6e262b63c805Microplastics in marine environment review of methods for identification and quantificationHidalgo-Ruz, Valeria; Gutow, Lars; Thompson, Richard C.; Thiel, MartinEnvironmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (6), 3060-3075CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, vol.-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: d. sepn., filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degrdn. stage, and color as criteria). Chem. and phys. characteristics (e.g., specific d.) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chem. compn. of microplastics is by IR spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance ests. are "items per m2" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m3" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance ests. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
- 12Vandermeersch, G.; Van Cauwenberghe, L.; Janssen, C. R.; Marques, A.; Granby, K.; Fait, G.; Kotterman, M.; Diogene, J.; Bekaert, K.; Robbens, J.; Devriese, L. A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organisms Environ. Res. 2015, 143, 46– 55 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2015.07.016[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXht1yjsr%252FM&md5=c12c25828a056dcca7c05df9caf97ad8A critical view on microplastic quantification in aquatic organismsVandermeersch, Griet; Van Cauwenberghe, Lisbeth; Janssen, Colin R.; Marques, Antonio; Granby, Kit; Fait, Gabriella; Kotterman, Michiel J. J.; Diogene, Jorge; Bekaert, Karen; Robbens, Johan; Devriese, LisaEnvironmental Research (2015), 143 (Part_B), 46-55CODEN: ENVRAL; ISSN:0013-9351. (Elsevier)Microplastics, plastic particles and fragments smaller than 5 mm, are ubiquitous in the marine environment. Ingestion and accumulation of microplastics have previously been demonstrated for diverse marine species ranging from zooplankton to bivalves and fish, implying the potential for microplastics to accumulate in the marine food web. In this way, microplastics can potentially impact food safety and human health. Although a few methods to quantify microplastics in biota have been described, no comparison and/or intercalibration of these techniques have been performed. Here we conducted a literature review on all available extn. and quantification methods. Two of these methods, involving wet acid destruction, were used to evaluate the presence of microplastics in field-collected mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from three different "hotspot" locations in Europe (Po estuary, Italy; Tagus estuary, Portugal; Ebro estuary, Spain). An av. of 0.18±0.14 total microplastics g-1 w.w. for the Acid mix Method and 0.12±0.04 total microplastics g-1 w.w. for the Nitric acid Method was established. Addnl., in a pilot study an av. load of 0.13±0.14 total microplastics g-1 w.w. was recorded in com. mussels (Mytilus edulis and M. galloprovincialis) from five European countries (France, Italy, Denmark, Spain and The Netherlands). A detailed anal. and comparison of methods indicated the need for further research to develop a standardised operating protocol for microplastic quantification and monitoring.
- 13Baldwin, A. K.; Corsi, S. R.; Mason, S. A. Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and Hydrology Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 10377– 10385 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b02917[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFSjurnJ&md5=da395e7a75896f1b21f6bf50a6688b19Plastic Debris in 29 Great Lakes Tributaries: Relations to Watershed Attributes and HydrologyBaldwin, Austin K.; Corsi, Steven R.; Mason, Sherri A.Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (19), 10377-10385CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic debris is a growing contaminant of concern in freshwater environments, yet sources, transport, and fate remain unclear. This study characterized the quantity and morphol. of floating micro- and macroplastics in 29 Great Lakes tributaries in six states under different land covers, wastewater effluent contributions, population densities, and hydrol. conditions. Tributaries were sampled three or four times each using a 333 μm mesh neuston net. Plastic particles were sorted by size, counted, and categorized as fibers/lines, pellets/beads, foams, films, and fragments. Plastics were found in all 107 samples, with a max. concn. of 32 particles/m3 and a median of 1.9 particles/m3. Ninety-eight percent of sampled plastic particles were less than 4.75 mm in diam. and therefore considered microplastics. Fragments, films, foams, and pellets/beads were pos. correlated with urban-related watershed attributes and were found at greater concns. during runoff-event conditions. Fibers, the most frequently detected particle type, were not assocd. with urban-related watershed attributes, wastewater effluent contribution, or hydrol. condition. Results from this study add to the body of information currently available on microplastics in different environmental compartments, including unique contributions to quantify their occurrence and variability in rivers with a wide variety of different land-use characteristics while highlighting differences between surface samples from rivers compared with lakes.
- 14Beer, S.; Garm, A.; Huwer, B.; Dierking, J.; Nielsen, T. G. No increase in marine microplastic concentration over the last three decades—A case study from the Baltic Sea Sci. Total Environ. 2017, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.101
- 15McDevitt, J. P.; Criddle, C. S.; Morse, M.; Hale, R. C.; Bott, C. B.; Rochman, C. M. Addressing the issue of microplastics int he Wake of the Microbead-Free Water Act – A new standard can facilitate improved policy Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 6611– 6617 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05812[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXns1OnsLk%253D&md5=eaf81dc3bb3f5cbd7278d1187e25a29eAddressing the Issue of Microplastics in the Wake of the Microbead-Free Waters Act-A New Standard Can Facilitate Improved PolicyMcDevitt, Jason P.; Criddle, Craig S.; Morse, Molly; Hale, Robert C.; Bott, Charles B.; Rochman, Chelsea M.Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (12), 6611-6617CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)The US Microbead-Free Waters Act, signed into law in Dec. 2015, is a bipartisan agreement which will eliminate one preventable source of microplastic pollution in the US. The bill was criticized for being too limited in scope and for discouraging development of biodegradable alternatives which ultimately are needed to solve the larger plastics-related environmental issues. Due to a lack of an acknowledged, appropriate std. for environmentally safe microplastics, the bill banned all plastic microbeads in selected cosmetic products. This work reviews the legislative history and how it relates to the microplastic pollution issue in general and suggests a framework for a std. (Ecocyclable) which includes relative requirements related to toxicity, bioaccumulation, and degrdn./assimilation into the natural C cycle. The authors suggest such a std. will facilitate future regulation and legislation to reduce pollution while encouraging sustainable technologies innovation.
- 16Huffer, T.; Praetorius, A.; Wagner, S.; von der Kammer, F.; Hofmann, T. Microplastic exposure assessment in aquatic environmewnts: Learning from similarities and differences to engineered nanparticles Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 2499– 2507 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04054[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar16https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1c7psFyjsg%253D%253D&md5=c87298a72ddebe208d3d804f6077cdf2Microplastic Exposure Assessment in Aquatic Environments: Learning from Similarities and Differences to Engineered NanoparticlesHuffer Thorsten; Praetorius Antonia; von der Kammer Frank; Hofmann Thilo; Praetorius Antonia; Hofmann Thilo; Wagner StephanEnvironmental science & technology (2017), 51 (5), 2499-2507 ISSN:.Microplastics (MPs) have been identified as contaminants of emerging concern in aquatic environments and research into their behavior and fate has been sharply increasing in recent years. Nevertheless, significant gaps remain in our understanding of several crucial aspects of MP exposure and risk assessment, including the quantification of emissions, dominant fate processes, types of analytical tools required for characterization and monitoring, and adequate laboratory protocols for analysis and hazard testing. This Feature aims at identifying transferrable knowledge and experience from engineered nanoparticle (ENP) exposure assessment. This is achieved by comparing ENP and MPs based on their similarities as particulate contaminants, whereas critically discussing specific differences. We also highlight the most pressing research priorities to support an efficient development of tools and methods for MPs environmental risk assessment.
- 17Syberg, K.; Khan, F. R.; Selck, H.; Palmqvist, A.; Banta, G. T.; Daley, J.; Sano, L.; Duhaime, M. B. Microplastics: Addressing ecological risk through lessons learned Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2015, 34, 945– 953 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2914[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXmslyisrw%253D&md5=061f7e81c2e0317ba3b4950ceaa218d1Microplastics: addressing ecological risk through lessons learnedSyberg, Kristian; Khan, Farhan R.; Selck, Henriette; Palmqvist, Annemette; Banta, Gary T.; Daley, Jennifer; Sano, Larissa; Duhaime, Melissa B.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2015), 34 (5), 945-953CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)Plastic litter is an environmental problem of great concern. Despite the magnitude of the plastic pollution in our water bodies, only limited scientific understanding is available about the risk to the environment, particularly for microplastics. The apparent magnitude of the problem calls for quickly developing sound scientific guidance on the ecol. risks of microplastics. The authors suggest that future research into microplastics risks should be guided by lessons learned from the more advanced and better understood areas of (eco) toxicol. of engineered nanoparticles and mixt. toxicity. Relevant examples of advances in these two fields are provided to help accelerate the scientific learning curve within the relatively unexplored area of microplastics risk assessment. Finally, the authors advocate an expansion of the "vector effect" hypothesis with regard to microplastics risk to help focus research of microplastics environmental risk at different levels of biol. and environmental organization. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:945-953. © 2015 SETAC.
- 18Sedlak, D. Three lessons for the microplastics voyage Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 7747– 7748 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03340[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtFelu7jO&md5=c7bc28aa1467dfda9ac087788521f5f4Three Lessons for the Microplastics VoyageSedlak, DavidEnvironmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (14), 7747-7748CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)A brief review and commentary. Microplastics are our newest emerging contaminant. Although scientists have expressed concerns about the impacts of plastic pollution for over four decades, microplastics did not become emerging contaminants until 2007. The issue gained momentum about five years later, when researchers reported the presence of microbeads from consumer products in wastewater effluent receiving waters. Facing neg. publicity for a nonessential ingredient, leading manufacturers voluntarily eliminated microbeads and accepted the decision to ban them in the United States in 2015. Now that we are into the second wave of research that will det. whether or not the remaining sources of microplastics will be controlled, it is worth considering lessons learned from other emerging contaminants. The first lesson is that occurrence data and lab. toxicol. studies alone are not enough to bring about action when the effects being studied do not involve humans. The second lesson is that contaminants are more likely to emerge if there is a reasonable possibility that their use is endangering human health. The third lesson is that the likelihood that society will control an emerging contaminant is inversely proportional to the cost of solving the problem as well as the degree to which blame can be affixed on a small no. of companies.
