ACS Publications. Most Trusted. Most Cited. Most Read
Phthalate and Organophosphate Plasticizers in Nail Polish: Evaluation of Labels and Ingredients
More

OR SEARCH CITATIONS

My Activity
Publications

Figure 1Loading Img
Download Hi-Res ImageDownload to MS-PowerPointCite This:Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 21, 12841-12850
  • Open Access
Article

Phthalate and Organophosphate Plasticizers in Nail Polish: Evaluation of Labels and Ingredients
Click to copy article linkArticle link copied!

Open PDFSupporting Information (1)

Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 21, 12841–12850
Click to copy citationCitation copied!
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b04495
Published October 10, 2018

Copyright © 2018 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under these Terms of Use.

Request reuse permissions

Abstract

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!
High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide

In the 2000s, nail polish manufacturers started promoting “3-Free” products, phasing out three widely publicized toxic chemicals: toluene, formaldehyde, and dibutyl phthalate (DnBP). However, DnBP was sometimes replaced by another endocrine-disrupting plasticizer, triphenyl phosphate (TPHP). Many new “n-Free” labels have since appeared, without any standardization on which n chemicals are excluded. This study aimed to compare measured plasticizer content against nail polish labels. First, we summarized definitions of labels. Then, we measured 12 phthalate and 10 organophosphate plasticizers in 40 nail polishes from 12 brands selected for popularity and label variety. We found labels ranging from 3- to 13-Free; 10-Free was the most inconsistently defined (six definitions). Our samples contained TPHP and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) at up to 7940 and 331 μg/g, respectively. The 5- to 13-Free samples had lower TPHP levels than unlabeled or 3-Free samples (median <0.002 vs 3730 μg/g, p < 0.001). The samples that did not contain TPHP had higher DEHP levels (median 68.5 vs 1.51 μg/g, p < 0.05). We measured plasticizers above 100 μg/g in five brands that did not disclose them and in two that excluded them in labels. This study highlights inconsistencies in nail polish labels and identifies TPHP and DEHP as ingredient substitutes for DnBP.

Copyright © 2018 American Chemical Society

Subjects

what are subjects

Introduction

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!
In the early 2000s in the U.S., many nail polish products were found to list dibutyl phthalate (DnBP) as an ingredient. (1,2) DnBP is a plasticizer that improves the flexibility of the nail polish film, prevents the polish from chipping, and holds color. (3,4) Concerns grew because animal studies had identified DnBP as a reproductive and developmental toxicant, (5−7) and a research study in the U.S. in 2000 had shown that women of reproductive age experience much higher exposures to DnBP than other age or gender groups. (8,9) Furthermore, the European Union banned DnBP in cosmetics in 2004. (10) By 2006, companies in the U.S. started voluntarily labeling nail polish as “3-Free,” meaning the nail polish does not contain three widely publicized, so-called “toxic trio” chemicals: DnBP, toluene (a developmental and neurological toxicant), and formaldehyde (a human carcinogen). (11−15)
The reported removal of DnBP has been promising given growing evidence of adverse effects on reproductive health, fetal development, thyroid function, and obesity. (16−21) However, the California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal EPA) analyzed seven 3-Free nail polishes and found that one still contained DnBP at 82 000 ppm and four contained toluene at up to 180 000 ppm (2012). In addition, the most common plasticizer ingredient detected in the absence of DnBP was triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), (12) an ingredient listed in about half of nail polishes between 2012 and 2015. (22,23) Only more recently has TPHP been shown to be an endocrine disruptor that can adversely affect thyroid function and reproductive health in humans. (24−28) This new evidence raises concern that one toxic chemical (DnBP) has been replaced by another (TPHP). This phenomenon in public health is called regrettable substitution, in which toxic chemicals are replaced with compounds (sometimes of the same chemical class) that are later found to also be toxic. (29,30)
Regrettable substitution can occur because the U.S. lacks a regulatory structure to motivate proactive consideration of health risks of replacement chemicals. (2) The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates cosmetics but does not require products to be tested for safety or approved before entering the market (except for color additives). (31) The FDA holds the burden of proof to show that an ingredient harms health, so less than a dozen ingredients have been prohibited or restricted since 1938. (32,33) Labeling and advertising claims such as 3-Free or nontoxic also do not need premarket approval by the FDA or the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Although these agencies have the authority to take action (e.g., through lawsuits) against products for deceptive claims, the burden again lies with them to prove the deception. (31,34) In effect, there is very limited regulation and enforcement of nail polish products.
Although the FDA does require ingredient labels on nail polish sold to consumers (but not salon-only polish), phthalates can be listed as “fragrance” due to trade secret concerns. (35,36) The FDA exempts “incidental ingredients” from disclosure requirements, for example when the substance is a component of another ingredient and has no functional effect in the product. (37) For nail polish used professionally in nail salons, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires chemical hazard information sheets, called Safety Data Sheets (SDS), to be available to workers. However, the SDS only needs to disclose ingredients that have been tested and shown to be hazardous to health above a certain concentration. (38)
The limited regulation of ingredients in nail polish may leave nail polish users and nail salon workers vulnerable. Consumers that use nail polish mostly consist of women, often of child-bearing age, and even children. (39−41) Market research suggests that consumers apply nail polish two to six times per month on average, or as much as once per day. (39,40) Two studies of pregnant or lactating women found that urinary concentrations of the DnBP metabolite were significantly higher among recent or frequent nail polish users. (42,43) In addition to nail polish users, there are about 400 000 active licensed nail technicians in the U.S., mostly female (97%), Vietnamese (56%), and aged 45 years or younger (54%). At least 45% of the technicians work over 30 h per week and have worked in the field for over eight years, (41) so nail salon workers may face higher and more long-term exposures than consumers. Research has shown that nail salon workers have higher urinary levels of the DnBP metabolite cross-shift and compared to the general population, (3,44) and that they may have an increased risk of negative birth outcomes and maternal complications. (45,46) The main route of exposure for plasticizers like DnBP is dermal absorption from skin contact with the product, settled dust, or contaminated surfaces. (3,23) Many plasticizers are semivolatile, and inhalation and dermal uptake from the air have been suggested as additional exposure routes. (47−49)
A better understanding of nail polish ingredients is needed to effectively inform industry, consumers, and nail salon workers about how to best design and select nail polishes. The objectives of this study are to (1) summarize the types of plasticizer-related labels for nail polish, and (2) measure concentrations of 22 plasticizers in 40 nail polish samples to compare by brand, label, and reported plasticizer ingredient information.

Methods

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Nail Polish Labels

To evaluate the different nail polish labels on the market (Objective 1), we conducted a field and Internet investigation of U.S. nail polish products between July 2016 and March 2018. For the field investigation, we identified nail polish brands available at two leading online beauty retailers and at three Greater Boston beauty supply stores. We also observed nail polish brands used at eight Greater Boston nail salons recruited for convenience by our parent exposure assessment study. For each of these brands, we examined the online descriptions of nail polish ingredients and chemical-related labels (e.g., 3-Free). In this manuscript, the term “label” refers to claims listed on the product itself or advertised by the company (e.g., in online product descriptions). When brands had more than one nail polish product line (i.e., a nail polish product category that typically shares one label and ingredient list but consists of several different color options grouped together), we evaluated the product lines individually. Then, we expanded our investigation with a multistep online search of labels. We started with the Google search keywords “nail polish,” “3-Free,” and “nontoxic,” and iteratively expanded our search terms to include each other label type discovered. In the searches, we again identified nail polish product lines with relevant labels.
We verified and defined the identified labels based on online retail product descriptions, brand webpages, or brand social media posts. When the definition of a label was not explained in the descriptions (e.g., if a product line was labeled 3-Free without listing the three excluded chemicals), we determined the definition from conversations with customer service or other online information. When certain brands advertised different labels for different product lines or changed a product line’s label over time, we included each unique label from each brand in the data. Undefined labels were excluded from our assessment.
For each nail polish product line, we recorded the label, the definition of the label, and when possible the associated retail price. Prices were sometimes unable to be identified for labels that product lines had previously used but had since updated. In this manuscript, the term “excluded ingredient” refers to a plasticizer that the label indicated was not used in the nail polish. The term “disclosed ingredient” refers to a plasticizer that was listed as an ingredient in any of the available nail polish information.

Plasticizer Ingredient Levels

We selected 40 nail polishes for the analysis of plasticizers (Objective 2). We employed a multilevel selection strategy to ensure the samples were representative of both the nail polish market and the different label types. First, we selected the most commonly used nail polish brands (regardless of any labels), identified as brands available at online beauty retailers, local beauty supply stores, and local nail salons visited. Then, we selected nine additional brands to ensure our set of samples spanned as many labels identified by early 2017 in our investigation as possible. When a given label was advertised (and equivalently defined) by multiple different brands, we selected the brand that was available on the online retailers and/or in the local nail salons, as a potential indicator of more common use by consumers or workers. When a label was defined differently by different brands, we included two brands in the set of nine. For the most common label, we also included two brands. One of our final selected brands was a UV-cured gel-like nail polish.
For each of the final 12 selected brands, we randomly selected two color coats and one special coat or “finish.” For colors, we chose from red or pink shades, the most popular colors as reported by five local nail salon workers during our nail salon visits. For finishes, we chose from available metallic, shimmer, or glitter coats. In addition, a clear top coat was randomly selected for each of the three most common nail polish brands and for the brand with the reportedly safest label.
The 40 nail polish samples selected were acquired in April 2017 from online retailers or as donated samples. All samples were consumer grade and could be purchased by any consumer. The samples were shipped in sealed, new, and unopened glass bottles to the Wadsworth Center at the New York State Department of Health (Albany, NY) for the analysis of plasticizers.
Each nail polish sample was analyzed for 12 phthalate and 10 organophosphate plasticizers: dimethyl phthalate [DMP], diethyl phthalate [DEP], butyl benzyl phthalate [BBP], di-n-butyl phthalate [DnBP], diisobutyl phthalate [DiBP], bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate [DEHP], di-n-hexyl phthalate [DnHP], dicyclohexyl phthalate [DCHP], di-n-octyl phthalate [DnOP], di-isononyl phthalate [DiNP], bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate [DEHA], bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate [DEHtP], triphenyl phosphate [TPHP], tris(methylphenyl) phosphate [TMPP], triethyl phosphate [TEP], tripropyl phosphate [TPP], tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate [TCEP], tris(1-chloro-2-propyl)phosphate [TCIPP], tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate [TDCIPP], p,p′-1,3-phenylene p,p,p′,p′-tetraphenyl ester phosphate [PBDPP], 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate [EHDPP], and tris(4-butylphenyl)phosphate [TBPhP]. Twelve phthalate diesters and 11 deuterated internal standards were measured in nail polish sample extracts using a gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies 6890N; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA) coupled with a mass spectrometer (Agilent Technologies 5973 MSD) in the selected ion monitoring mode. Nail polish sample extracts were also analyzed for 10 organophosphate plasticizers and eight corresponding deuterated compounds using high-performance liquid chromatography (Agilent 1100 series HPLC; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA) coupled with electrospray triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (API 2000, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). We analyzed two procedural blanks for the target compounds and only detected trace levels of BBP, DEHA, and DEHP (0.16 to 2.47 ng/g). We subtracted the average values in blanks from the sample values. Two matrix spikes (50 ng) were analyzed, which showed recoveries of target chemicals ranging from 85 to 121%. More information on the laboratory methods is detailed in the Supporting Information (SI).
Label definitions, product ingredient lists, and SDSs for the samples were obtained from the online product descriptions, customer service, or a supplier Web site. When differently dated SDSs were located for a product, we conservatively recorded disclosures from either. We classified the samples based on their labels as “old generation,” for polishes without a label or with the original 3-Free label, or as “new generation,” for polishes with n-Free labels beyond 3-Free.
We evaluated nail polish patent information to determine what concentrations of plasticizers are considered functional (thus, likely intentionally added) for nail polish performance. We searched the United States Patent and Trademark Office database in March 2018 for U.S.-based patents with the abstract keywords “nail,” “polish,” and “plasticizer." The five investigated patents listed preferred total plasticizer levels as the following ranges: 0.01–25%, (50) 1–5%, (51) 10–30%, (52) 3–20%, (53) and 0.01–25%. (54) We chose 0.01% by weight (100 μg/g), the lowest reported level, as our threshold above which concentrations could be suitable for plasticizer performance. Although the lower bound, this may be a conservative estimate given that patent levels are based on total plasticizer compositions, not individual plasticizer concentrations. In addition, we identified other suitable types of plasticizers (according to the patents) that we did not measure but that were disclosed in ingredient lists of our samples.

Statistical Analyses

We calculated descriptive statistics for nail polish labels and for plasticizer concentrations by brand, label, finish, and reported disclosed/excluded ingredients. We substituted all nondetect measured concentrations with half the LOD; in tables, however, if medians or minimums were calculated to be less than the LOD, they were presented as “<[LOD]”. We then compared measured plasticizer levels of nail polishes with old generation labels (unlabeled or 3-Free) to polishes with new generation labels (chemical-related labels different than 3-Free) using Wilcoxon rank sum tests (chosen due to the non-normality of the data).
To evaluate potential replacement chemicals for TPHP specifically, we performed Wilcoxon rank sum tests for concentrations of plasticizers measured in samples with detected levels of TPHP vs samples without detected levels of TPHP. For the Wilcoxon rank sum tests, we only evaluated plasticizers detected above 100 μg/g (0.01% by weight), the cutoff chosen to represent functional concentrations.
Statistical significance was evaluated at the alpha of 0.05 level for the Wilcoxon rank sum tests. All analyses were performed in R (version 3.3.1).

Results

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Nail Polish Labels

We identified 11 different n-Free labels ranging from 3-Free to 13-Free that reported the exclusion of n ingredients. These labels were used by 55 nail polish product lines comprising 44 unique brands. The definitions of the labels, as reported by the brands, are presented in Figure 1. The 5-Free label was the most commonly used (17 brands), followed by 10-Free (10 brands).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Product label definitions for investigated nail polish product lines. Note: The blue color represents the ingredients that are removed from the product line, according to the label. Potential plasticizer ingredients are underlined. Nonplasticizer ingredients are not underlined. No. of nail polish brands refers to the number of brands that had a nail polish product line with that particular product label. *These two ingredients were reported to count as one exclusion. **Fragrances can contain plasticizer chemicals.

High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide
We identified six different 10-Free label definitions, as well as three different definitions of 5-Free and 7-Free. Although all 10-Free product lines removed seven of the same chemicals (DnBP, toluene, formaldehyde, camphor, tosylamide/formaldehyde resin, parabens, and xylene), the remaining three chemical exclusions varied. For example, TPHP was only excluded in four 10-Free definitions and phthalates were only excluded in one definition. Other exclusions by only some of the 10-Free product lines were ethyl tosylamide, gluten, animal-derived ingredients, fragrance, lead, tert-butyl hydroperoxide, and soy.
Plasticizer-related ingredient exclusions included: DnBP, phthalates, camphor, TPHP, and ethyl tosylamide. (50−55) All investigated product lines excluded DnBP, four of which excluded all phthalates. All product lines 5-Free or higher excluded camphor. TPHP began to be excluded from many product lines 6-Free or higher (35% of all labels). Ethyl tosylamide was excluded from 33% of product lines (all 8-Free or higher). Two 10-Free labels also excluded fragrance, an ingredient that can potentially indicate the presence of phthalate plasticizers. (35,37) Of the investigated product lines, 20 were advertised as nontoxic in the product description. Five product lines described the polish as safe for kids and/or pregnancy.

Plasticizer Ingredient Levels

The ranges of measured plasticizer concentrations in the 40 nail polish samples by brand, label category, and coat or finish are summarized in Table 1. Thirteen out of the 22 plasticizers were detected: one plasticizer at levels above 1000 μg/g (TPHP), two at levels above 100 μg/g (DEHP and PBDPP), and two at levels above 10 μg/g (EHDPP and DnOP). The median, range, and percent detected for each detected plasticizer are detailed in Table 2. The maximum concentrations were 7940 μg/g for organophosphates (specifically, TPHP) and 331 μg/g for phthalates (DEHP). TPHP and DEHP were detected in 60% and 98% of samples, respectively. PBDPP was detected above 100 μg/g in samples from just one brand, the UV-cured nail polish. There were no apparent patterns in plasticizer levels by coat or finish type, but we found some variability of the five above-mentioned plasticizers within brands (8–200% coefficients of variation when detected).
Table 1. Product Characteristics, Concentrations of Phthalate and Organophosphate (OP) Plasticizers (μg/g), and Product Information on Chemicals Reported to Be Disclosed or Excluded as Ingredients for 40 Nail Polish Samplesg
a

Limits of detection (LODs) for OP plasticizers were 10, 5.0, 0.2, and 2.0 ng/g (in order of appearance).

b

LODs for phthalate plasticizers were 2.0, 2.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5, and 0.5 ng/g (in order of appearance).

c

Newer labels after 5-Free are described in categories in order to preserve brand anonymity.

d

Product description reported the exclusion of the toxic trio chemicals without a specific ″3-Free” label.

e

Semipermanent UV-cured nail polish (but not a full gel polish).

f

Safety Data Sheet was not acquired.

g

Note: Plasticizers not detected in any of the samples were TEP, TPP, TCEP, TCIPP, TDCIPP, TBPhP, DCHP, DEHtP, and DiNP.

Table 2. Percent Detected and Median [Range] of Concentrations (μg/g) of Phthalate and Organophosphate (OP) Plasticizers for 40 Nail Polish Samplesa
plasticizern (%) detectedmedian [range]
OPsb  
 EHDPP9 (22.5)<0.01 [<0.01, 49.4]
 PBDPP30 (75)0.387 [<0.005, 115]
 TMPP12 (30)<0.0002 [<0.0002, 0.379]
 TPHP24 (60)2.73 [<0.002, 7940]
phthalatesc  
 BBP40 (100)1.00 [0.415, 2.13]
 DEHA35 (87.5)0.107 [<0.002, 0.467]
 DEHP39 (97.5)1.65 [<0.001, 331]
 DEP25 (62.5)0.0140 [<0.001, 1.56]
 DiBP40 (100)0.114 [0.00300, 0.778]
 DMP2 (5)<0.0005 [<0.0005, 1.57]
 DnBP36 (90)0.021 [<0.0005, 0.138]
 DnHP3 (7.5)<0.0005 [<0.0005, 0.918]
 DnOP8 (20)<0.0005 [<0.0005, 11.5]
a

Note: < means the calculated value for the median or range fell below the limit of detection.

b

OP plasticizers not detected in any of the samples were TEP, TPP, TCEP, TCIPP, TDCIPP, and TBPhP.

c

Phthalate plasticizers not detected in any of the samples were DCHP, DEHtP, and DiNP.

Table 3 presents group comparison test results for concentrations of plasticizers detected above 100 μg/g by label generation and TPHP detection. Concentrations of TPHP were significantly lower in new generation (5- to 13-Free) nail polish samples compared to old generation (unlabeled and 3-Free) samples (median <0.002 vs 3730 μg/g, p < 0.001). Among the nail polish samples without measurable levels of TPHP, concentrations of DEHP were significantly higher compared to samples with measurable TPHP (median 68.5 vs 1.51 μg/g, p = 0.02). Figure 2 highlights the patterns of high DEHP levels only in the absence of TPHP and vice versa.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Side-by-side comparison of concentrations (μg/g) of TPHP (top) vs DEHP (bottom) for 40 nail polish samples.

High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide
Table 3. Median [Range] of Concentrations (μg/g) of Phthalate and Organophosphate (OP) Plasticizers Detected above 100 μg/g in at Least One Sample for 40 Nail Polish Samples by Generation of Label and Detection of TPHPa
  median [range]
plasticizertypeold generation label (n = 12)new generation label (n = 28)detected TPHP (n = 24)no detected TPHP (n = 16)
DEHPphthalate1.61 [0.703, 2.23]1.67 [<0.001, 331]1.51 [<0.001, 2.50]68.5 [0.684, 331]b
PBDPPOP0.287 [<0.005, 0.62]0.522 [<0.005, 115]0.531 [<0.005, 2.27]0.151 [<0.005, 115]
TPHPOP3730 [<0.002, 7940]<0.002 [<0.002, 5330]c  
a

Note: Old generation, unlabeled or 3-Free; New generation, 5- to 13-Free; < , calculated value fell below the limit of detection.

b

Samples with detected TPHP significantly different from samples without detected TPHP at p < 0.05 (Wilcoxon rank sum test).

c

New generation samples significantly different from old generation samples at p < 0.001 (Wilcoxon rank sum test).

In these 40 nail polish samples, TPHP was disclosed as an ingredient (in ingredient lists or SDSs) for 13 samples. TPHP was detected in 12 (44.4%) of the 27 nail polishes that did not disclose TPHP as an ingredient (Table 1). These 12 samples composed five unique brands, all 5-Free or higher. Concentrations of TPHP were significantly higher in the nail polishes that disclosed TPHP compared to the polishes that did not (median 3840 vs 3.65 μg/g, p < 0.001). Although SDSs typically did not list plasticizer ingredients, the SDSs that did disclose TPHP described ranges of 0–1%, ≤ 2%, 1–9%, or 5–10% by weight; none of the measured TPHP levels exceeded these reported ranges.
No other phthalates or organophosphates were reported as ingredients in ingredient lists or SDSs for any samples. Overall, nine brands had samples with undisclosed plasticizer levels measured above 10 μg/g. Five of these brands had undisclosed plasticizer levels above 100 μg/g, and none had undisclosed plasticizer levels above 1000 μg/g. In SDSs, DEHP would only have needed to be disclosed at concentrations above 1000 μg/g (0.1% by weight). (14,56) In product ingredient lists, plasticizers must be declared if they have a functional effect on the nail polish, (37) which we assume to be true above 100 μg/g (based on patents). Fragrance was not disclosed as an ingredient in any sample.
Many samples had labels that reported the exclusion of a phthalate or organophosphate ingredient, which in most cases was consistent with measured levels. Ninety percent (36 out of 40 samples tested) had a label that excluded DnBP, and measured levels did not exceed 0.138 μg/g. One brand’s label listed the exclusion of all phthalates and fragrance; however, the three samples of this brand had levels of DEHP ranging from 134 to 174 μg/g (0.013% to 0.017%, respectively). Three brands (nine nail polish samples) reported the exclusion of TPHP in their labels; however, samples from one of the brands had levels of TPHP up to 153 μg/g (0.015%). The other two brands had lower TPHP levels, at up to 5.20 μg/g and 2.01 μg/g.
We found other suitable plasticizers disclosed in the ingredient lists of the 40 nail polish samples that we did not measure. Of these plasticizers, acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) was the most commonly disclosed (in seven of the 12 sampled brands, all of which had new generation labels). Six of these brands also disclosed trimethyl pentanediyl dibenzoate. Other identified plasticizer ingredients in the sampled brands included trimethyl pentanyl diisobutyrate (three brands), ethyl tosylamide (two brands–both conventional), camphor (two brands–both conventional), propylene glycol (one brand), sucrose acetate isobutyrate (one brand), dipropylene glycol dibenzoate (one brand), and propylene carbonate (one brand).

Discussion

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Nail Polish Labels

The original practice of promoting nail polishes with a standardized 3-Free label has been replaced with an expanding list of inconsistent n-Free labels. We found that (1) a label can be defined differently by brands, (2) the ingredient exclusions are usually not validated by a third party or justified for their relevance to health, and (3) new label types are often not consistent with preceding labels in regard to the ingredients excluded.
The 5-Free label is now more common than the original 3-Free, and most brands (except for two) use the same definition of 5-Free. The second most common label is 10-Free, but it is inconsistently defined by many brands. Our results showed that the number of ingredient exclusions in n-Free labels does not always translate to the degree of reduced toxicity. For example, the exclusions of animal-derived ingredients, gluten, fat, or soy may not impact nail polish toxicity. Thus, the expanded labels can cause confusion about the meaning of the labels, which originally intended to denote the number of toxic nail polish ingredients removed. Adding to the barriers to understanding labels, in some cases the label definitions were not provided in the product descriptions and had to be acquired from customer service. The rapid expansion of nail polish labels also presents a difficult challenge for research and healthy nail salon recognition programs, as nail polishes free of the toxic trio are largely still the recommendation or certification requirement for salon purchasing decisions. (57−62)
The available retail prices for nail polish product lines that we evaluated were, on average, $11.70 per fluid ounce for 3-Free brands (range: $2.41–$21.00) and $33.50 per fluid ounce for brands with labels higher than 3-Free (range: $6.00–$60.00). In comparison, the two unlabeled brands we sampled were $16.50 per fluid ounce on average. The higher average price point may be motivating brands to use new generation labels with more exclusions.

Plasticizer Ingredient Levels

Our analysis showed that DnBP was not added as an ingredient in the 40 nail polish samples. The detected levels, all below 1 μg/g, were much lower than had been previously detected by most studies, although our sample selection was weighted toward popularity and label variety (Table 4). In support of this finding, the cosmetics ingredient database (with over 50 nail product brands) by the Environmental Working Group (EWG) only shows one nail polish brand to still disclose DnBP in a few products, (22) and that brand actually no longer discloses DnBP in the ingredient lists. Thus, DnBP is likely not currently used in most nail polishes.
Table 4. Maximum Concentrations of Phthalate and Organophosphate (OP) Plasticizers (μg/g) Detected in Nail Polish Products in This Study Compared to Other Studiesa
   OPsphthalates 
countrysample selectionnTPHPBBPDCHPDEHADEHPDEPDiBPDMPDnBPDnOPreference
U.S.A.             
 popularity & labels4079002.1ND0.473301.60.781.60.1412this study
 convenience & TPHP1017 000         Mendelsohnet al (2016)
 convenience & popularity8 2.2ND 1409.2590.2227000NDGuo & Kannan (2013)
 convenience4 NDNDND1–100ND1–100 NDNDDodson et al (2012)
 convenience & 3-Free2525 000       88 000 CalEPA (2012)
 convenience24 ND  NDND ND63 000 Hubinger (2010)
 convenience6 110  ND1100 15 00060 000 Hubinger & Havery (2006)
otherb             
Canadaconvenience20 NDND 1000ND0.4ND24 000NDKoniecki et al (2011)
Chinaconvenience10 ND140 80279ND5.75Bao et al (2015)
Koreaconvenience21 ND  2531  3900 Koo & Lee (2004)
a

Note: ND, not detected. Nearly all minimum concentrations in the studies were below the limit of detection (LOD) or not reported. Maximums were selected as metrics due to their reporting across studies.

b

Only literature in English was searched.

Maximum TPHP levels (7900 μg/g) measured in our 40 samples were also lower than previously reported in other studies. The Cal EPA study found TPHP at 17 000–18 000 μg/g in three of the same brands selected in our study (including the brand with our highest detected TPHP level) (2012). This result suggests that some manufacturers are indeed reducing TPHP content in nail polishes.
The finding that our samples do not contain added DnBP and that TPHP use has decreased demonstrates a public health success in which scientific research about harmful ingredients has successfully reached industry and impacted manufacturing practices. To build on this progress, our study can inform industry attention to replacement chemicals: the fact that certain minimum levels of plasticizers are needed for adequate nail polish performance raises questions about what ingredients are replacing DnBP and TPHP in nail polish. In this study, we detected other phthalate and organophosphate plasticizers in the samples. For example, the nail polishes without measurable TPHP had higher DEHP levels than those with measurable TPHP. Three of those brands contained added DEHP above total plasticizer levels functional for nail polish performance (100 μg/g). (50−54) Concentrations of DEHP were higher than had previously been detected in nail polish in the U.S. (Table 4). Of further concern, DEHP was not disclosed as an ingredient at those levels (above 100 μg/g) and in one brand was reported to be excluded in the label. Lower measured levels of DEHP and other plasticizers (i.e., below 100 μg/g) may result from their use as one component in mixtures of multiple plasticizers or due to unintentional impurities from the manufacturing process, contaminated ingredients, or the plastic brush cap.
Similarly to TPHP, DEHP is a semivolatile endocrine-disrupting chemical. (16,24−28) DEHP can cause adverse reproductive health effects, impaired development, and metabolic disruption. (16) It is also a possible human carcinogen that was banned from cosmetics in the European Union at the same time as DnBP in 2004. (10,14) Due to its chemical properties, DEHP may be absorbed more effectively from ingestion or inhalation than through skin contact. (63) Dietary intake is considered the primary route of exposure to DEHP for the general population, but inhalation is a concern in occupational settings. (63−65) In fact, DEHP has been suggested to persist in indoor environments for years even with ventilation and after removal of the primary source. (49) So, for workers in nail salons, inhalation may be a more important route of exposure to DEHP than dermal contact.
Unmeasured plasticizers disclosed in the ingredient lists of our samples included alternatives that have been less studied for toxicity. ATBC, for example, has been found in some animal studies to potentially impact the endocrine system. (66−69) We should remain cautious about the understudied toxicity of plasticizers being introduced into nail polish. Overall, our results indicate a possibly recurring pattern of substituting plasticizers without evaluating the replacement for toxicity.

Strengths and Limitations

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!
This study is the first comprehensive evaluation of nail polish labels and their definitions. It is also the first study to assess plasticizers in nail polish by a wide variety of labels. However, there are several limitations to the study. Our results do not provide a comprehensive assessment of plasticizers in nail polishes across the whole nail polish market. For one, it is possible that DnBP is still present in some other products we did not analyze. The Cal EPA investigation conducted in 2011 reported detected DnBP concentrations between 14 000 and 88 000 ppm in nail polish, and these levels were measured in less common brands that we did not sample. We did sample five of the same brands, which did not have detectable DnBP levels in that analysis (possibly because any DnBP had already been removed). (12) However, given the lack of DnBP-containing nail polish currently in EWG’s database, (22) compared to EWG’s finding of at least 20 nail polish brands with DnBP in the early 2000s, (1,2) we can still make inferences that DnBP has largely been phased out in the nail polish market.
Second, during our online research, we investigated nearly 100 different U.S. nail polish brands, so our sampling of a dozen brands may not be generalizable to the large nail polish market. However, we made every effort to include representation by popularity in our study design. The total market share of our sampled brands is not known, but two of the included brands made up about 15% of the nail polish market share in 2015. (40) Our study’s measured plasticizer levels may actually be underestimates of the average market levels since we based part of our selection on brands that reported to be less toxic. Even though we did not measure all plasticizer ingredients in the nail polishes studied, we measured 22 chemicals from two different classes, including many organophosphate plasticizers not previously studied in nail polish. (12,23)
Our label accuracy assessment was limited because we only focused on plasticizers and only four sampled brands reported to exclude TPHP or all phthalates. However, phthalate-free brands are uncommon, and 11 of the 12 selected brands did report to exclude DnBP. Also, our selection strategy was more focused on analyzing nail polish across a variety of label types.
Another limitation is that the samples could contain other plasticizers we did not analyze for, including the alternatives listed in some patents. Finally, we excluded gel polishes (except for one gel-like brand) from the laboratory analysis, and gels may contain different chemical formulations. (70) The gel-like nail polish brand in our study was the only brand to contain PBDPP levels above 10 μg/g, which warrants further investigation of gel polishes for plasticizer differences. U.S. nail polish sales have been declining in recent years with a 14% decrease between 2013 and 2015, whereas gel nail polishes have been trending upward. (40) Future studies should include other nail product types and analysis of other plasticizer types such as citrates.
In our study, we did not account for potential variability in a single product due to differences in production batches or shipping and storage conditions. However, we analyzed multiple products of different colors and finishes from each selected brand; only two other studies have sampled multiple products (and for only two of their selected brands). (12,23) Thus, our study was able to capture the moderate plasticizer variability within some brands. In comparison to other studies, we also analyzed a higher total number of samples. The results of this study could inform larger studies to understand the variability in nail polish plasticizer levels.

Implications

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!
Our study identifies the use of DEHP and TPHP as potential substitutes to the historically common nail polish plasticizer DnBP, even among nail polishes with newer n-Free labels. These n-Free labels seem to be based on a framework of removing chemicals one at a time. As a result, since many brands now report to exclude DnBP, TPHP, and other plasticizers, regrettable substitution of ingredients in nail polish is a growing concern. This is especially true since nail polish formulations may not be able to eliminate all plasticizer additives without sacrifices to product performance. Therefore, nail polish labels would benefit from standardization and validation by a third unbiased party. The labels should exclude ingredients based on a chemical class-based approach (e.g., phthalates and organophosphates as a whole) instead of one ingredient at a time. Then, certified labels could be useful tools for educating nail polish users, nail salon owners, and nail salon workers about toxic chemicals and how to make best purchasing decisions. More broadly, our results reinforce the need for the nail polish industry to remove harmful classes of chemical, test any ingredient substitutes for safety before use, and design safer ingredient alternatives following known validated frameworks. (71)

Supporting Information

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04495.

  • Detailed summary of methods for laboratory analysis (PDF)

Terms & Conditions

Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!
  • Corresponding Author
  • Authors
    • Joseph G. Allen - Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0003-2702-5550
    • Un-Jung Kim - Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York 12201, United States;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-5666-8649
    • Stephanie Seller - Boston Public Health Commission, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
    • Thomas F. Webster - Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
    • Kurunthachalam Kannan - Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York 12201, United States;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-1926-7456
    • Diana M. Ceballos - Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

We would like to acknowledge the Massachusetts Healthy Cosmetology Committee, Nan Pham, Lorri Ducharme, and local nail salons for their help with recruitment and worker interviews, and nail polish manufacturers for some donated samples. We would also like to thank Jose Vallarino, Jaime Hart, Francine Laden, Aaron Specht, and Chensheng Lu for their help. This investigation was made possible by Grant No. T42 OH008416 from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NIOSH. This research was also supported by NIH P30ES000002, NIH/NIEHS 2R25ES023635-04, and the Harvard Hoffman Program on Chemicals and Health. D.M.C. is a JPB Environmental Health Fellow at the Harvard Chan School. T.F.W. is supported in part by R01 ES016099 and R01 ES028800.

References

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

This article references 71 other publications.

  1. 1
    Houlihan, J.; Brody, C.; Schwan, B. Not Too Pretty: Phthalates, Beauty Products, & the FDA ; 2002.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  2. 2
    Houlihan, J.; Wiles, R. Beauty Secrets: Does a Common Chemical in Nail Polish Pose Risks to Human Health? ; 2000.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  3. 3
    Kwapniewski, R.; Kozaczka, S.; Hauser, R.; Silva, M. J.; Calafat, A. M.; Duty, S. M. Occupational Exposure to Dibutyl Phthalate among Manicurists. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2008, 50 (6), 705– 711,  DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181651571
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  4. 4
    Schlossman, M. L. Modern Nail Enamel Technology. J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 1980, 31, 29– 36
    Google Scholar
    4
    Modern nail enamel technology
    Schlossman, Mitchell L.
    Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists (1980), 31 (1), 29-36CODEN: JSCCA5; ISSN:0037-9832.
    Nail lacquer constituents and the basis for their selection are reviewed with 6 refs. together with properties, formulation and manufg. techniques, equipment and plant requirements, manufg. problems, dermatolog. considerations, as well as quality control testing of nail enamels. Techniques described for the evaluation of nail enamels include adhesion, color matching, flow characteristics, and wear resistance.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL3cXitVegsL0%253D&md5=cc4e662639fb08bedd70ac55459a07e7
  5. 5
    Foster, P. M. D.; Thomas, L. V.; Cook, M. W.; Gangolli, S. D. Study of the Testicular Effects and Changes in Zinc Excretion Produced by Some N-Alkyl Phthalates in the Rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1980, 54 (3), 392– 398,  DOI: 10.1016/0041-008X(80)90165-9
    Google Scholar
    5
    Study of the testicular effects and changes in zinc excretion produced by some n-alkyl phthalates in the rat
    Foster, Paul M. D.; Thomas, Lucy V.; Cook, Melvyn W.; Gangolli, Sharat D.
    Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology (1980), 54 (3), 392-8CODEN: TXAPA9; ISSN:0041-008X.
    A study was made of the comparative effects of treatment with phthalates [I, R = Me, Et, Pr, (CH2)4Me, (CH2)6Me, or (CH2)7Me] on testicular tissue and Zn excretion in the rat. I were given orally, at 7.2 mmol/kg/day, equiv. to 2 g/kg/day of I (R = Bu) (II) for 4 days to young male rats. I [R = (CH2)4Me and (CH2)5Me] produced testicular atrophy similar to II. In addn., the 2 agents also induced an increase in urinary Zn excretion together with a lowering of testicular Zn content. The other I investigated did not damage the testes and had no effect on the Zn urinary excretion or testicular Zn content.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL3cXlt1Kmtbc%253D&md5=8658b52ad4b7f1c3c5eacde370a72bd4
  6. 6
    Heindel, J. J.; Powell, C. J. Phthalate Ester Effects on Rat Sertoli Cell Function in Vitro: Effects of Phthalate Side Chain and Age of Animal. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992, 115 (1), 116– 123,  DOI: 10.1016/0041-008X(92)90374-2
    Google Scholar
    6
    Phthalate ester effects on rat Sertoli cell function in vitro: effects of phthalate side chain and age of animal
    Heindel, Jerrold J.; Powell, Cassandra J.
    Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology (1992), 115 (1), 116-23CODEN: TXAPA9; ISSN:0041-008X.
    The effect of animal age and phthalate monoester on the Sertoli cell FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation, lactate secretion, and ATP levels were examd. to det. if these effects are part of the mechanism of action of phthalate esters in vivo. Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), monobutyl and monopentyl phthalates but not the monoethyl, monomethyl, or monopropyl phthalates inhibited FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation, a segregation which matches the in vivo toxicity potential of these agents. MEHP and monopentyl, but not monobutyl phthalates, also stimulated Sertoli cell lactate secretion. The effect of the active phthalates on FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation and lactate secretion is not dependent on the age of the animal over a range of 13-80 days, suggesting that the age-related toxicity in vivo may be related to differences in metab. and disposition rather than tissue sensitivity. Since the ED50 of MEHP inhibition of cAMP accumulation and lactate secretion is similar, these two effects may be related to a common initial effect of the active phthalates. Inhibition of intracellular ATP levels is specific for MEHP and is lost with age (>28 days of age) and thus is not likely to be an essential part of the in vivo mechanism of action of phthalate diesters.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK38XlvVKitL8%253D&md5=ab5e5534d9d5645b40fd5ad93159494d
  7. 7
    Shiota, K.; Chou, M. J.; Nishimura, H. Embryotoxic Effects of Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) and Di-N-Butyl Phthalate (DBP) in Mice. Environ. Res. 1980, 22 (1), 245– 253,  DOI: 10.1016/0013-9351(80)90136-X
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  8. 8
    Blount, B. C.; Silva, M. J.; Caudill, S. P.; Needham, L. L.; Pirkle, J. L.; Sampson, E. J.; Lucier, G. W.; Jackson, R. J.; Brock, J. W. Levels of Seven Urinary Phthalate Metabolites in a Human Reference Population. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108 (10), 979– 982,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.00108979
    Google Scholar
    8
    Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population
    Blount, Benjamin C.; Silva, Manori J.; Caudill, Samuel P.; Needham, Larry L.; Pirkle, Jim L.; Sampson, Eric J.; Lucier, George W.; Jackson, Richard J.; Brock, John W.
    Environmental Health Perspectives (2000), 108 (10), 979-982CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences)
    Using a novel and highly selective technique, we measured monoester metabolites of seven commonly used phthalates in urine samples from a ref. population of 289 adult humans. This anal. approach allowed us to directly measure the individual phthalate metabolites responsible for the animal reproductive and developmental toxicity while avoiding contamination from the ubiquitous parent compds. The monoesters with the highest urinary levels found were monoethyl phthalate (95th percentile, 3750 ppb, 2610 μg/g creatinine), monobutyl phthalate (95th percentile, 294 ppb, 162 μg/g creatinine), and monobenzyl phthalate (95th percentile, 137 ppb, 92 μg/g creatinine), reflecting exposure to di-Et phthalate, di-Bu phthalate, and benzyl Bu phthalate. Women of reproductive age (20-40 yr) were found to have significantly higher levels of monobutyl phthalate, a reproductive and developmental toxicant in rodents, than other age/gender groups (p < 0.005). Current scientific and regulatory attention on phthalates has focused almost exclusively on health risks from exposure to only two phthalates, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di-isononyl phthalate. These findings strongly suggest that health-risk assessments for phthalate exposure in humans should include di-Et, di-Bu, and benzyl Bu phthalates.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3cXotVWrur4%253D&md5=2adfffcb7645d6b657b2146596db9b99
  9. 9
    Kohn, M. C.; Parham, F.; Masten, S. A.; Portier, C. J.; Shelby, M. D.; Brock, J. W.; Needham, L. L. Human Exposure Estimates for Phthalates. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108 (10), A440– 2,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.108-a440b
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  10. 10
    EU (European Union). Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on Cosmetic Products ; 2016.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  11. 11
    Breskey, J. D. California Again Leading the Way: Cosmetics Safety and Worker Health. Calif. J. Heal. Promot. 2013, 11 (1), vi– viii
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  12. 12
    Cal EPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). Summary of Data and Findings from Testing of a Limited Number of Nail Products ; 2012.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  13. 13
    EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Toluene Hazard Summary ; 2012.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  14. 14
    IARC. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: List of Classifications, Volumes 1–121; 2018.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  15. 15
    Nir, S. M. Perfect Nails, Poisoned Workers. New York Times ; 2015.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  16. 16
    Casals-Casas, C.; Desvergne, B. Endocrine Disruptors: From Endocrine to Metabolic Disruption. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2011, 73, 135– 162,  DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-012110-142200
    Google Scholar
    16
    Endocrine disruptors: from endocrine to metabolic disruption
    Casals-Casas, Cristina; Desvergne, Beatrice
    Annual Review of Physiology (2011), 73 (), 135-162CODEN: ARPHAD; ISSN:0066-4278. (Annual Reviews Inc.)
    A review. Synthetic chems. currently used in a variety of industrial and agricultural applications are leading to widespread contamination of the environment. Even though the intended uses of pesticides, plasticizers, antimicrobials, and flame retardants are beneficial, effects on human health are a global concern. These so-called endocrine-disrupting chems. (EDCs) can disrupt hormonal balance and result in developmental and reproductive abnormalities. New in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiol. studies link human EDC exposure with obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. Here we review the main chem. compds. that may contribute to metabolic disruption. We then present their demonstrated or suggested mechanisms of action with respect to nuclear receptor signaling. Finally, we discuss the difficulties of fairly assessing the risks linked to EDC exposure, including developmental exposure, problems of high- and low-dose exposure, and the complexity of current chem. environments.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXktVKjtb8%253D&md5=3cbdf6eb334add87c80f2c53fccfeb2d
  17. 17
    Ferguson, K. K.; McElrath, T. F.; Meeker, J. D. Environmental Phthalate Exposure and Preterm Birth. JAMA Pediatr. 2014, 168 (1), 61– 67,  DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.3699
    Google Scholar
    17
    Environmental phthalate exposure and preterm birth
    Ferguson Kelly K; Meeker John D; McElrath Thomas F
    JAMA pediatrics (2014), 168 (1), 61-67 ISSN:.
    IMPORTANCE: Preterm birth is a leading cause of neonatal mortality, with a variety of contributing causes and risk factors. Environmental exposures represent a group of understudied, but potentially important, factors. Phthalate diesters are used extensively in a variety of consumer products worldwide. Consequently, exposure in pregnant women is highly prevalent. OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between phthalate exposure during pregnancy and preterm birth. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This nested case-control study was conducted at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. Women were recruited for a prospective observational cohort study from 2006-2008. Each provided demographic data, biological samples, and information about birth outcomes. From within this group, we selected 130 cases of preterm birth and 352 randomly assigned control participants, and we analyzed urine samples from up to 3 time points during pregnancy for levels of phthalate metabolites. EXPOSURE: Phthalate exposure during pregnancy. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: We examined associations between average levels of phthalate exposure during pregnancy and preterm birth, defined as fewer than 37 weeks of completed gestation, as well as spontaneous preterm birth, defined as preterm preceded by spontaneous preterm labor or preterm premature rupture of the membranes (n = 57). RESULTS: Geometric means of the di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites mono-(2-ethyl)-hexyl phthalate (MEHP) and mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), as well as mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP), were significantly higher in cases compared with control participants. In adjusted models, MEHP, MECPP, and Σ DEHP metabolites were associated with significantly increased odds of preterm birth. When spontaneous preterm births were examined alone, MEHP, mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate, MECPP, Σ DEHP, MBP, and mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate metabolite levels were all associated with significantly elevated odds of prematurity. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Women exposed to phthalates during pregnancy have significantly increased odds of delivering preterm. Steps should be taken to decrease maternal exposure to phthalates during pregnancy.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2c7otFSqsQ%253D%253D&md5=39f19c2df37fcc4042b2d7150f905216
  18. 18
    Hauser, R.; Meeker, J. D.; Duty, S.; Silva, M. J.; Calafat, A. M. Altered Semen Quality in Relation to Urinary Concentrations of Phthalate Monoester and Oxidative Metabolites. Epidemiology 2006, 17 (6), 682– 691,  DOI: 10.1097/01.ede.0000235996.89953.d7
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  19. 19
    Huang, P.; Kuo, P.; Guo, Y.; Liao, P.; Lee, C. Associations between Urinary Phthalate Monoesters and Thyroid Hormones in Pregnant Women. Hum. Reprod. 2007, 22 (10), 2715– 2722,  DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dem205
    Google Scholar
    19
    Associations between urinary phthalate monoesters and thyroid hormones in pregnant women
    Huang, Po-Chin; Kuo, Pao-Lin; Guo, Yue-Liang; Liao, Pao-Chi; Lee, Ching-Chang
    Human Reproduction (2007), 22 (10), 2715-2722CODEN: HUREEE; ISSN:0268-1161. (Oxford University Press)
    Background: Maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy can cause adverse effects in the fetus. Scientific evidence has shown that probable thyroid-like function of some phthalates in vitro and in vivo, and phthalates exposure, can begin in utero. This study investigated the assocn. between phthalate exposure and thyroid hormones in pregnant women. Methods: Serum and spot urine samples were collected from 76 Taiwanese pregnant women at second trimester. Thyroid hormones, including TSH (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and free T4 (FT4) were analyzed in serum samples, and five urinary phthalate monoesters, including mono Bu phthalate (MBP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP) and mono ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), were measured. Results: Urinary MBP, MEP and MEHP, the median levels of which were 81.8, 27.7 and 20.6 ng/mL, resp., were the predominant substances in the urinary phthalate monoesters. Significant mild neg. correlations were found between T4 and urinary MBP (R = -0.248, P < 0.05), and between FT4 and urinary MBP (R = -0.368, P < 0.05). After adjusting for age, BMI and gestation, urinary MBP levels showed neg. assocns. with FT4 and T4 (FT4: β = -0.110, P < 0.001; T4: β = -0.112, P = 0.003). Conclusions: Exposure to di-Bu phthalate (DBP) may affect thyroid activity in pregnant women, but how DBP affects thyroid function is unclear. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism of action and to investigate whether any other factors related to DBP exposure alter the thyroid function.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXhtlekt77O&md5=944437691f53b7d157f5b566e292b558
  20. 20
    Schug, T. T.; Janesick, A.; Blumberg, B.; Heindel, J. J. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Disease Susceptibility. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2011, 127, 204– 215,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.08.007
    Google Scholar
    20
    Endocrine disrupting chemicals and disease susceptibility
    Schug, Thaddeus T.; Janesick, Amanda; Blumberg, Bruce; Heindel, Jerrold J.
    Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (2011), 127 (3-5), 204-215CODEN: JSBBEZ; ISSN:0960-0760. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    A review. Environmental chems. have significant impacts on biol. systems. Chem. exposures during early stages of development can disrupt normal patterns of development and thus dramatically alter disease susceptibility later in life. Endocrine disrupting chems. (EDCs) interfere with the body's endocrine system and produce adverse developmental, reproductive, neurol., cardiovascular, metabolic and immune effects in humans. A wide range of substances, both natural and man-made, are thought to cause endocrine disruption, including pharmaceuticals, dioxin and dioxin-like compds., polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT and other pesticides, and components of plastics such as bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates. EDCs are found in many everyday products - including plastic bottles, metal food cans, detergents, flame retardants, food additives, toys, cosmetics, and pesticides. EDCs interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, activity, or elimination of natural hormones. This interference can block or mimic hormone action, causing a wide range of effects. This review focuses on the mechanisms and modes of action by which EDCs alter hormone signaling. It also includes brief overviews of select disease endpoints assocd. with endocrine disruption.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhsFSksrnE&md5=4c95fa724875f3e63ebcd3ff3442d678
  21. 21
    Swan, S. H.; Main, K. M.; Liu, F.; Stewart, S. L.; Kruse, R. L.; Calafat, A. M.; Mao, C. S.; Redmon, J. B.; Ternand, C. L.; Sullivan, S.; Teague, J. L. the Study for Future Families Research Team. Decrease in Anogenital Distance among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113 (8), 1056– 1061,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8100
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  22. 22
    EWG (Environmental Working Group). Skin Deep Cosmetic Database http://www.ewg.org/skindeep (accessed Feb 5, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  23. 23
    Mendelsohn, E.; Hagopian, A.; Hoffman, K.; Butt, C. M.; Lorenzo, A.; Congleton, J.; Webster, T. F.; Stapleton, H. M. Nail Polish as a Source of Exposure to Triphenyl Phosphate. Environ. Int. 2016, 86, 45– 51,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.10.005
    Google Scholar
    23
    Nail polish as a source of exposure to triphenyl phosphate
    Mendelsohn, Emma; Hagopian, Audrey; Hoffman, Kate; Butt, Craig M.; Lorenzo, Amelia; Congleton, Johanna; Webster, Thomas F.; Stapleton, Heather M.
    Environment International (2016), 86 (), 45-51CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Tri-Ph phosphate (TPHP) is primarily used as either a flame retardant or plasticizer, and is listed as an ingredient in nail polishes. However, the concn. of TPHP in nail polish and the extent of human exposure following applications have not been previously studied. We measured TPHP in ten different nail polish samples purchased from department stores and pharmacies in 2013-2014. Concns. up to 1.68% TPHP by wt. were detected in eight samples, including two that did not list TPHP as an ingredient. Two cohorts (n = 26 participants) were recruited to assess fingernail painting as a pathway of TPHP exposure. Participants provided urine samples before and after applying one brand of polish contg. 0.97% TPHP by wt. Di-Ph phosphate (DPHP), a TPHP metabolite, was then measured in urine samples (n = 411) and found to increase nearly seven-fold 10-14 h after fingernail painting (p < 0.001). To det. relative contributions of inhalation and dermal exposure, ten participants also painted their nails and painted synthetic nails adhered to gloves on two sep. occasions, and collected urine for 24 h following applications. Urinary DPHP was significantly diminished when wearing gloves, suggesting that the primary exposure route is dermal. Our results indicate that nail polish may be a significant source of short-term TPHP exposure and a source of chronic exposure for frequent users or those occupationally exposed.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhslWisr7E&md5=a390d01ba0c50afece646a084b844f2e
  24. 24
    Carignan, C. C.; Mínguez-Alarcón, L.; Butt, C. M.; Williams, P. L.; Meeker, J. D.; Stapleton, H. M.; Toth, T. L.; Ford, J. B.; Hauser, R. Urinary Concentrations of Organophosphate Flame Retardant Metabolites and Pregnancy Outcomes among Women Undergoing in Vitro Fertilization for the EARTH Study Team. Environ. Health Perspect. 2017, 125 (8), 8,  DOI: 10.1289/EHP1021
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  25. 25
    Liu, C.; Wang, Q.; Liang, K.; Liu, J.; Zhou, B.; Zhang, X.; Liu, H.; Giesy, J. P.; Yu, H. Effects of tris(1,3-Dichloro-2-Propyl) Phosphate and Triphenyl Phosphate on Receptor-Associated mRNA Expression in Zebrafish Embryos/larvae. Aquat. Toxicol. 2013, 128–129, 147– 157,  DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.12.010
    Google Scholar
    25
    Effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate and triphenyl phosphate on receptor-associated mRNA expression in zebrafish embryos/larvae
    Liu, Chunsheng; Wang, Qiangwei; Liang, Kang; Liu, Jingfu; Zhou, Bingsheng; Zhang, Xiaowei; Liu, Hongling; Giesy, John P.; Yu, Hongxia
    Aquatic Toxicology (2013), 128-129 (), 147-157CODEN: AQTODG; ISSN:0166-445X. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) and tri-Ph phosphate (TPP) are frequently detected in biota, including fish. However, knowledge of the toxicol. and mol. effects of these currently used flame retardants is limited. In the present study, an in vivo screening approach was developed to evaluate effects of TDCPP and TPP on developmental endpoints and receptor-assocd. expression of mRNA in zebrafish embryos/larvae. Exposure to TDCPP or TPP resulted in significantly smaller rates of hatching and survival, in dose- and time-dependent manners. The median lethal concn. (LC50) was 7.0 mg/L for TDCPP and 29.6 mg/L for TPP at 120 h post-fertilization (hpf). Real-time PCR revealed alterations in expression of mRNAs involved in aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AhRs)-, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα)-, estrogenic receptors (ERs)-, thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TRα)-, glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-, and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)-centered gene networks. Exposure to pos. control chems. significantly altered abundances of mRNA in corresponding receptor-centered gene networks, a result that suggests that it is feasible to use zebrafish embryos/larvae to evaluate effects of chems. on mRNA expression in these gene networks. Exposure to TDCPP altered transcriptional profiles in all six receptor-centered gene networks, thus exerting multiple toxic effects. TPP was easily metabolized and its potency to change expression of mRNA involved in receptor-centered gene networks was weaker than that of TDCPP. The PPARα- and TRα-centered gene networks might be the primary pathways affected by TPP. Taken together, these results demonstrated that TDCPP and TPP could alter mRNA expression of genes involved in the six receptor-centered gene networks in zebrafish embryos/larvae, and TDCPP seemed to have higher potency in changing the mRNA expression of these genes.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1CjsLk%253D&md5=33025295f1a38a4c45cd602605c29ee4
  26. 26
    Meeker, J. D.; Stapleton, H. M. House Dust Concentrations of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Relation to Hormone Levels and Semen Quality Parameters. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118 (3), 318– 323,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901332
    Google Scholar
    26
    House dust concentrations of organophosphate flame retardants in relation to hormone levels and semen quality parameters
    Meeker, John D.; Stapleton, Heather M.
    Environmental Health Perspectives (2010), 118 (3), 318-323CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
    Background: Organophosphate (OP) compds., such as tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) and tri-Ph phosphate (TPP), are commonly used as additive flame retardants and plasticizers in a wide range of materials. Although widespread human exposure to OP flame retardants is likely, there is a lack of human and animal data on potential health effects. Objective: We explored relationships of TDCPP and TPP concns. in house dust with hormone levels and semen quality parameters. Methods: We analyzed house dust from 50 men recruited through a U.S. infertility clinic for TDCPP and TPP. Relationships with reproductive and thyroid hormone levels, as well as semen quality parameters, were assessed using crude and multivariable linear regression. Results: TDCPP and TPP were detected in 96% and 98% of samples, resp., with widely varying concns. up to 1.8 mg/g. In models adjusted for age and body mass index, an interquartile range (IQR) increase in TDCPP was assocd. with a 3% [95% confidence interval (CI), -5% to -1%) decline in free thyroxine and a 17% (95% CI, 4-32%) increase in prolactin. There was a suggestive inverse assocn. between TDCPP and free androgen index that became less evident in adjusted models. In the adjusted models, an IQR increase in TPP was assocd. with a 10% (95% CI, 2-19%) increase in prolactin and a 19% (95% CI, -30% to -5%) decrease in sperm concn. Conclusion: OP flame retardants may be assocd. with altered hormone levels and decreased semen quality in men. More research on sources and levels of human exposure to OP flame retardants and assocd. health outcomes are needed.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXksVyltrk%253D&md5=e2b4fce9dd40b375ff120863b3a2a4d8
  27. 27
    Meeker, J. D.; Cooper, E. M.; Stapleton, H. M.; Hauser, R. Exploratory Analysis of Urinary Metabolites of Phosphorus-Containing Flame Retardants in Relation to Markers of Male Reproductive Health. Endocr. Disruptors 2013, 1 (1), e26306,  DOI: 10.4161/endo.26306
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  28. 28
    Preston, E. V.; McClean, M. D.; Claus Henn, B.; Stapleton, H. M.; Braverman, L. E.; Pearce, E. N.; Makey, C. M.; Webster, T. F. Associations between Urinary Diphenyl Phosphate and Thyroid Function. Environ. Int. 2017, 101, 158– 164,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.020
    Google Scholar
    28
    Associations between urinary diphenyl phosphate and thyroid function
    Preston, Emma V.; McClean, Michael D.; Claus Henn, Birgit; Stapleton, Heather M.; Braverman, Lewis E.; Pearce, Elizabeth N.; Makey, Colleen M.; Webster, Thomas F.
    Environment International (2017), 101 (), 158-164CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Tri-Ph phosphate (TPHP) is a commonly used organophosphate flame retardant and plasticizer with widespread human exposure. Data on health effects of TPHP are limited. Recent toxicol. studies suggest TPHP may alter thyroid function. We used repeated measures to assess the temporal variability in urinary concns. of the TPHP metabolite, di-Ph phosphate (DPHP), and to examine relationships between DPHP concns. and thyroid hormones. We sampled 51 adults at months 1, 6, and 12 from 2010 to 2011. Urine samples were analyzed for DPHP. Serum samples were analyzed for free and total thyroxine (fT4, TT4), total triiodothyronine (TT3), and TSH (TSH). We assessed variability in DPHP using intraclass correlation coeffs. (ICCs) and kappa statistics. We used linear mixed-effects models to examine assocns. between DPHP and thyroid hormones. DPHP was detected in 95% of urine samples. Mean DPHP concns. were 43% higher in women than men. DPHP showed high within-subject variability (ICC range, 0.13-0.39; kappa range, 0.16-0.39). High vs. low (≥ 2.65 vs. < 2.65 ng/mL) DPHP in all participants was assocd. with a 0.43 μg/dL (95% confidence interval: 0.15, 0.72) increase in mean TT4 levels. In sex-stratified analyses, high vs. low DPHP was assocd. with a 0.91 μg/dL (95% CI: 0.47, 1.36) increase in mean TT4 in women. The assocn. was attenuated in men (βeta = 0.19; 95% CI: - 0.15, 0.52). We found no significant assocns. between DPHP and fT4, TT3, or TSH. We found evidence that TPHP exposure may be assocd. with increased TT4 levels, esp. in women.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXitlKltr0%253D&md5=c0aeb1a55cbc13aec7c5e4be4694e724
  29. 29
    Scherer, L. D.; Maynard, A.; Dolinoy, D. C.; Fagerlin, A.; Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. The Psychology of “Regrettable Substitutions”: Examining Consumer Judgements of Bisphenol A and Its Alternatives. Health. Risk Soc. 2014, 16 (7–8), 649– 666,  DOI: 10.1080/13698575.2014.969687
    Google Scholar
    29
    The psychology of 'regrettable substitutions': Examining consumer judgements of Bisphenol A and its alternatives
    Scherer Laura D; Maynard Andrew; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J; Maynard Andrew; Dolinoy Dana C; Fagerlin Angela; Fagerlin Angela; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J; Fagerlin Angela; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J; Fagerlin Angela; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J
    Health, risk & society (2014), 16 (7-8), 649-666 ISSN:1369-8575.
    Bisphenol A is a chemical used to make certain types of plastics and is found in numerous consumer products. Because scientific studies have raised concerns about Bisphenol A's potential impact on human health, it has been removed from some (but not all) products. What many consumers do not know, however, is that Bisphenol A is often replaced with other, less-studied chemicals whose health implications are virtually unknown. This type of situation is known as a potential 'regrettable substitution', because the substitute material might actually be worse than the material that it replaces. Regrettable substitutions are a common concern among policymakers, and they are a real-world manifestation of the tension that can exist between the desire to avoid risk (known possible consequences that might or might not occur) and ambiguity (second-order uncertainty), which is itself aversive. In this article we examine how people make such trade-offs using the example of Bisphenol A. Using data from Study 1, we show that people have inconsistent preferences toward these alternatives and that choice is largely determined by irrelevant contextual factors such as the order in which the alternatives are evaluated. Using data from Study 2 we further demonstrate that when people are informed of the presence of substitute chemicals, labeling the alternative product as 'free' of Bisphenol A causes them to be significantly more likely to choose the alternative despite its ambiguity. We discuss the relevance of these findings for extant psychological theories as well as their implications for risk, policy and health communication.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1MvlvF2mtA%253D%253D&md5=06643cf2b9777361ffa8fb34dc4e7564
  30. 30
    Zimmerman, J. B.; Anastas, P. T. Toward Substitution with No Regrets. Science 2015, 347 (6227), 1198– 1199,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa0812
    Google Scholar
    30
    Toward substitution with no regrets
    Zimmerman, Julie B.; Anastas, Paul T.
    Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2015), 347 (6227), 1198-1199CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
    There is no expanded citation for this reference.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXls1Squ7Y%253D&md5=4539fc1fe159ead2954d6dadcdab4078
  31. 31
    FDA (Food and Drug Administration). Cosmetics: FDA authority over cosmetics: how cosmetics are not FDA-approved, but are FDA-regulated https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/GuidanceRegulation/LawsRegulations/ucm074162.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  32. 32
    FDA. Cosmetics: prohibited & restricted ingredients https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/GuidanceRegulation/LawsRegulations/ucm127406.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  33. 33
    FDA. About FDA: Part II: 1938, Food, Drug, Cosmetic Act https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/FOrgsHistory/EvolvingPowers/ucm054826.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  34. 34
    FTC (Federal Trade Commission). Rule 16 CFR Part 260: Guides for the use of environmental marketing claims https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=ddcda39ef66f41f82d4b3910f7d5082a&mc=true&node=pt16.1.260&rgn=div5 (accessed Sep 17, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  35. 35
    FDA. Cosmetics: fragrances in cosmetics https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductsIngredients/Ingredients/ucm388821.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  36. 36
    FDA. Cosmetics: phthalates https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductsIngredients/Ingredients/ucm128250.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  37. 37
    FDA. Cosmetic Labeling Guide https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/labeling/regulations/ucm126444.htm#clgl (accessed Sep 17, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  38. 38
    OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration). Hazard communication standard: Safety Data Sheets https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3514.html (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  39. 39
    EPA. Exposure Factors Handbook ; 2011.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  40. 40
    Mintel. Nail Color and Care: US, January 2016 ; 2016.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  41. 41
    2017 Big Book Statistics. NAILS Magazine . 2018.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  42. 42
    Buckley, J. P.; Palmieri, R. T.; Matuszewski, J. M.; Herring, A. H.; Baird, D. D.; Hartmann, K. E.; Hoppin, J. A. Consumer Product Exposures Associated with Urinary Phthalate Levels in Pregnant Women. J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2012, 22 (5), 468– 475,  DOI: 10.1038/jes.2012.33
    Google Scholar
    42
    Consumer product exposures associated with urinary phthalate levels in pregnant women
    Buckley, Jessie P.; Palmieri, Rachel T.; Matuszewski, Jeanine M.; Herring, Amy H.; Baird, Donna D.; Hartmann, Katherine E.; Hoppin, Jane A.
    Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2012), 22 (5), 468-475CODEN: JESEBS; ISSN:1559-0631. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Human phthalate exposure is ubiquitous, but little is known regarding predictors of urinary phthalate levels. To explore this, 50 pregnant women aged 18-38 years completed two questionnaires on potential phthalate exposures and provided a first morning void. Urine samples were analyzed for 12 phthalate metabolites. Assocns. with questionnaire items were evaluated via Wilcoxon tests and t-tests, and r-squared values were calcd. in multiple linear regression models. Few measured factors were statistically significantly assocd. with phthalate levels. Individuals who used nail polish had higher levels of mono-Bu phthalate (P=0.048) than non-users. Mono-benzyl phthalate levels were higher among women who used eye makeup (P=0.034) or used makeup on a regular basis (P=0.004). Women who used cologne or perfume had higher levels of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites. Household products, home flooring or paneling, and other personal care products were also assocd. with urinary phthalates. The proportion of variance in metabolite concns. explained by questionnaire items ranged between 0.31 for mono-Et phthalate and 0.42 for mono-n-Me phthalate. Although personal care product use may be an important predictor of urinary phthalate levels, most of the variability in phthalate exposure was not captured by our relatively comprehensive set of questionnaire items. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiol. (2012) 22, 468-475; doi:10.1038/jes.2012.33; published online 4 July 2012.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1GjtrjN&md5=9fefccf71d12fcd2d5318b9cc2365fb6
  43. 43
    Hines, E. P.; Calafat, A. M.; Silva, M. J.; Mendola, P.; Fenton, S. E. Concentrations of Phthalate Metabolites in Milk, Urine, Saliva, and Serum of Lactating North Carolina Women. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117 (1), 86– 92,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11610
    Google Scholar
    43
    Concentrations of phthalate metabolites in milk, urine, saliva, and serum of lactating North Carolina women
    Hines, Erin P.; Calafat, Antonia M.; Silva, Manori J.; Mendola, Pauline; Fenton, Suzanne E.
    Environmental Health Perspectives (2009), 117 (1), 86-92CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
    Phthalates are ubiquitous in the environment, but concns. in multiple media from breast-feeding U.S. women have not been evaluated. The objective of this study was to accurately measure and compare the concns. of oxidative monoester phthalate metabolites in milk and surrogate fluids (serum, saliva, and urine) of 33 lactating North Carolina women. We analyzed serum, saliva, urine, and milk for the oxidative phthalate metabolites mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate using isotope-diln. high-performance liq. chromatog. tandem mass spectroscopy. Because only urine lacks esterases, we analyzed it for the hydrolytic phthalate monoesters. We detected phthalate metabolites in few milk (< 10%) and saliva samples. MECPP was detected in > 80% of serum samples, but other metabolites were less common (3-22%). Seven of the 10 urinary metabolites were detectable in ≥ 85% of samples. Monoethyl phthalate had the highest mean concn. in urine. Metabolite concns. differed by body fluid (urine > serum > milk and saliva). Questionnaire data suggest that frequent nail polish use, IgA, and fasting serum glucose and triglyceride levels were increased among women with higher concns. of urinary and/or serum phthalate metabolites; motor vehicle age was inversely correlated with certain urinary phthalate concns. Our data suggest that phthalate metabolites are most frequently detected in urine of lactating women and are less often detected in serum, milk, or saliva. Urinary phthalate concns. reflect maternal exposure and do not represent the concns. of oxidative metabolites in other body fluids, esp. milk.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXhvV2nt7k%253D&md5=8ff89074500ababe804c2fff2f6ac779
  44. 44
    Hines, C. J.; Nilsen Hopf, N. B.; Deddens, J. A.; Calafat, A. M.; Silva, M. J.; Grote, A. A.; Sammons, D. L. Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Concentrations among Workers in Selected Industries: A Pilot Biomonitoring Study. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2009, 53 (1), 1– 17,  DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/men066
    Google Scholar
    44
    Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Concentrations among Workers in Selected Industries: A Pilot Biomonitoring Study
    Hines, Cynthia J.; Nilsen Hopf, Nancy B.; Deddens, James A.; Calafat, Antonia M.; Silva, Manori J.; Grote, Ardith A.; Sammons, Deborah L.
    Annals of Occupational Hygiene (2009), 53 (1), 1-17CODEN: AOHYA3; ISSN:0003-4878. (Oxford University Press)
    Phthalates are used as plasticizers and solvents in industrial, medical and consumer products; however, occupational exposure information is limited. We sought to obtain preliminary information on occupational exposures to di-Et phthalate (DEP), di-Bu phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) by analyzing for their metabolites in urine samples collected from workers in a cross-section of industries. We also obtained data on metabolites of di-Me phthalate (DMP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BzBP), di-iso-Bu phthalate and di-isononyl phthalate. We recruited 156 workers in 2003-2005 from eight industry sectors. We assessed occupational contribution by comparing end-shift metabolite concns. to the US general population. Evidence of occupational exposure to DEHP was strongest in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film manufg., PVC compounding and rubber boot manufg. where geometric mean (GM) end-shift concns. of DEHP metabolites exceeded general population levels by 8-, 6- and 3-fold, resp. Occupational exposure to DBP was most evident in rubber gasket, phthalate (raw material) and rubber hose manufg., with DBP metabolite concns. exceeding general population levels by 26-, 25- and 10-fold, resp., whereas DBP exposure in nail-only salons (manicurists) was only 2-fold higher than in the general population. Concns. of DEP and DMP metabolites in phthalate manufg. exceeded general population levels by 4- and >1000-fold, resp. We also found instances where GM end-shift concns. of some metabolites exceeded general population concns. even when no workplace use was reported, e.g. BzBP in rubber hose and rubber boot manufg. In summary, using urinary metabolites, we successfully identified workplaces with likely occupational phthalate exposure. Addnl. work is needed to distinguish occupational from non-occupational sources in low-exposure workplaces.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXhtVegtrw%253D&md5=fa504e65beacfc575e4e3b41b8751a5b
  45. 45
    John, E. M.; Savitz, D. A.; Shy, C. M. Spontaneous Abortions among Cosmetologists. Epidemiology 1994, 5 (2), 147– 155,  DOI: 10.1097/00001648-199403000-00004
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  46. 46
    Quach, T.; Von Behren, J.; Goldberg, D.; Layefsky, M.; Reynolds, P. Adverse Birth Outcomes and Maternal Complications in Licensed Cosmetologists and Manicurists in California. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2015, 88 (7), 823– 833,  DOI: 10.1007/s00420-014-1011-0
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  47. 47
    Tran, T. M.; Kannan, K. Occurrence of Phthalate Diesters in Particulate and Vapor Phases in Indoor Air and Implications for Human Exposure in Albany, New York, USA. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2015, 68 (3), 489– 499,  DOI: 10.1007/s00244-015-0140-0
    Google Scholar
    47
    Occurrence of Phthalate Diesters in Particulate and Vapor Phases in Indoor Air and Implications for Human Exposure in Albany, New York, USA
    Tran, Tri Manh; Kannan, Kurunthachalam
    Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2015), 68 (3), 489-499CODEN: AECTCV; ISSN:0090-4341. (Springer)
    Phthalate diesters are used as plasticizers in a wide range of consumer products. Because phthalates have been shown in lab. animal studies to be toxic, human exposure to these chems. is a matter of concern. Nevertheless, little is known about inhalation exposure to phthalates in the United States. In this study, occurrence of nine phthalates was detd. in 60 indoor air samples collected in 2014 in Albany, New York, USA. Airborne particulate and vapor phase samples were collected from various sampling locations by use of a low-vol. air sampler. The median concns. of nine phthalates in air samples collected from homes, offices, labs., schools, salons (hair and nail salons), and public places were 732, 143, 170, 371, 2600, and 354 ng/m3, resp. Di-Et phthalate (DEP) was found at the highest concns., which ranged from 4.83 to 2250 ng/m3 (median 152) followed by di-Bu phthalate, which ranged from 4.05 to 1170 ng/m3 (median 63.3). The median inhalation exposure dose to phthalates was estd. at 0.845, 0.423, 0.203, 0.089, and 0.070 μg/kg-bw/d for infants, toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults, resp. Inhalation is an important pathway of human exposure to DEP.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjt1aktb0%253D&md5=7ddbce90b29899e79783cc823fb4ec48
  48. 48
    Weschler, C. J.; Bekö, G.; Koch, H. M.; Salthammer, T.; Schripp, T.; Toftum, J.; Clausen, G. Transdermal Uptake of Diethyl Phthalate and Di(n-Butyl) Phthalate Directly from Air: Experimental Verification. Environ. Health Perspect. 2015, 123 (10), 928– 934,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1409151
    Google Scholar
    48
    Transdermal uptake of diethyl phthalate and di(n-butyl) phthalate directly from air: experimental verification
    Weschler, Charles J.; Beko, Gabriel; Koch, Holger M.; Salthammer, Tunga; Schripp, Tobias; Toftum, Joern; Clausen, Geo
    Environmental Health Perspectives (2015), 123 (10), 928-934CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:1552-9924. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health)
    Background: Fundamental considerations indicate that, for certain phthalate esters, dermal absorption from air is an uptake pathway that is comparable to or greater than inhalation. Yet this pathway has not been exptl. evaluated and has been largely overlooked when assessing uptake of phthalate esters. OBjectives: This study investigated transdermal uptake, directly from air, of di-Et phthalate (DEP) and di(n-butyl) phthalate (DnBP) in humans. Methods: In a series of expts., six human participants were exposed for 6 h in a chamber contg. deliberately elevated air concns. of DEP and DnBP. The participants either wore a hood and breathed air with phthalate concns. substantially below those in the chamber or did not wear a hood and breathed chamber air. All urinations were collected from initiation of exposure until 54 h later. Metabolites of DEP and DnBP were measured in these samples and extrapolated to parent phthalate intakes, cor. for background and hood air exposures. Results: For DEP, the median dermal uptake directly from air was 4.0 μg/(μg/m3 in air) compared with an inhalation intake of 3.8 μg/(μg/m3 in air). For DnBP, the median dermal uptake from air was 3.1 μg/(μg/m3 in air) compared with an inhalation intake of 3.9 μg/(μg/m3 in air). Conclusions: This study shows that dermal uptake directly from air can be a meaningful exposure pathway for DEP and DnBP. For other semivolatile org. compds. (SVOCs) whose mol. wt. and lipid/air partition coeff. are in the appropriate range, direct absorption from air is also anticipated to be significant.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXls1Smsr0%253D&md5=9fd358f98c03275e58bf98976fdbdf16
  49. 49
    Weschler, C. J.; Nazaroff, W. W. Semivolatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Environments. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (40), 9018– 9040,  DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.052
    Google Scholar
    49
    Semivolatile organic compounds in indoor environments
    Weschler, Charles J.; Nazaroff, William W.
    Atmospheric Environment (2008), 42 (40), 9018-9040CODEN: AENVEQ; ISSN:1352-2310. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Semivolatile org. compds. (SVOCs) are ubiquitous in indoor environments, redistributing from their original sources to all indoor surfaces. Exposures resulting from their indoor presence contribute to detectable body burdens of diverse SVOCs, including pesticides, plasticizers, and flame retardants. This paper critically examines equil. partitioning of SVOCs among indoor compartments. It proceeds to evaluate kinetic constraints on sorptive partitioning to org. matter on fixed surfaces and airborne particles. Analyses indicate that equil. partitioning is achieved faster for particles than for typical indoor surfaces; indeed, for a strongly sorbing SVOC and a thick sorptive reservoir, equil. partitioning is never achieved. Mass-balance considerations are used to develop phys.-science-based models that connect source- and sink-rates to airborne concns. for commonly encountered situations, such as the application of a pesticide or the emission of a plasticizer or flame retardant from its host material. Calcns. suggest that many SVOCs have long indoor persistence, even after the primary source is removed. If the only removal mechanism is ventilation, moderately sorbing compds. (K oa > 1010) may persist indoors for hundreds to thousands of hours, while strongly sorbing compds. (K oa > 1012) may persist for years. The paper concludes by applying the newly developed framework to explore exposure pathways of building occupants to indoor SVOCs. Accumulation of SVOCs as a consequence of direct air-to-human transport is shown to be potentially large, with a max. indoor-air processing rate of 10-20 m3/h for SVOC uptake by human skin, hair and clothing. Levels on human skin calcd. with a simple model of direct air-to-skin transfer agree remarkably well with levels measured in dermal hand wipes for SVOCs possessing a wide range of octanol-air partition coeffs.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhsVSqtrnE&md5=13951f3772d946437b6bc08e9773c36e
  50. 50
    Bui, H. S.; Li, C.; Fairneny, S.; Ortega, L.; Kanji, M.; Hariharan, R. Nitrocellulose-Free Nail Polish Compositions. 9713588, 2011.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  51. 51
    Crescimanno, S. Low Haze Film Formers for Top Coat Nail Polish. 9603786, 2016.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  52. 52
    Homma, M.; Homma, V. Nail Polish Composition. 9050272, 2014.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  53. 53
    McFadden, D.; Steffier, L. Nail Polish Composition and Method of Making a Nail Polish. 9248091, 2014.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  54. 54
    Ortega, L.; Bui, H. S.; Hariharan, R.; Kanji, M. Nitrocellulose-Free Nail Polish Compositions. 9517360, 2010.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  55. 55
    Jefferson, J.; Rich, P. Update on Nail Cosmetics. Dermatol. Ther. 2012, 25 (6), 481– 490,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2012.01543.x
    Google Scholar
    55
    Update on nail cosmetics
    Jefferson Julie; Rich Phoebe
    Dermatologic therapy (2012), 25 (6), 481-90 ISSN:.
    Nail cosmetics are used by millions of people worldwide who desire smooth, lustrous nails. The nail cosmetic industry continues to expand to meet increasing consumer demand. In 2011 alone, consumers spent $6.6 billion on nail salon services. Although nail cosmetics are relatively safe, poor application techniques can promote disease, deformity, and allergic and irritant contact dermatitis. The foundation for managing nail cosmetic problems is prevention through education. Familiarity with the procedures and materials used in the nail cosmetic industry is necessary in order to recommend safe nail care strategies.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3s7ptVKktw%253D%253D&md5=fef0f0611ce9da009cbb5e3599df28b1
  56. 56
    OSHA. Appendix A to §1910.1200 - health hazard criteria (mandatory) https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10100 (accessed Mar 1, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  57. 57
    BPHC (Boston Public Health Commission). Choose Green & Clean for your next mani-pedi http://www.bphc.org/onlinenewsroom/Blog/Lists/Posts/Post.aspx?List=24ee0d58-2a85-4a4a-855b-f5af9d781627&ID=969&Web=03126e14-4972-4333-b8a3-800cbc1cafce (accessed May 7, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  58. 58
    Cal EPA. Healthy Nail Salon Recognition Program Guidelines ; 2018.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  59. 59
    California Healthy Nail Salon Collaborative. What is a healthy nail salon? https://cahealthynailsalons.org/what-is-a-healthy-salon-1/ (accessed May 7, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  60. 60
    King County Healthy Nail Salon Recognition Program. Healthy nail salon recognition program: application form 4–5 stars http://www.hazwastehelp.org/health/nail-salons-recog.aspx (accessed May 4, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  61. 61
    Oregon OSHA. Nail salons http://osha.oregon.gov/OSHAPubs/4783e.pdf (accessed May 4, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  62. 62
    OSHA. Health hazards in nail salons https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/nailsalons/chemicalhazards.html (accessed Mar 1, 2018).
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  63. 63
    ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). Toxicological profile for di(e-ethylhexyl)phthalate; 2012.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  64. 64
    Fong, J. P.; Lee, F. J.; Lu, I. S.; Uang, S. N.; Lee, C. C. Estimating the contribution of inhalation exposure to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) for PVC production workers, using personal air sampling and urinary metabolite monitoring. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2014, 217 (1), 102– 109,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.04.002
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  65. 65
    Kurahashi, N.; Kondo, T.; Omura, M.; Umemura, T.; Ma, M.; Kishi, R. The effects of subacute inhalation of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on the testes of prepubertal Wistar rats. J. Occup. Health 2005, 47 (5), 437– 444,  DOI: 10.1539/joh.47.437
    Google Scholar
    65
    The effects of subacute inhalation of Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on the testes of prepubertal Wistar rats
    Kurahashi, Norie; Kondo, Tomoko; Omura, Minoru; Umemura, Tomohiro; Ma, Mingyue; Kishi, Reiko
    Journal of Occupational Health (2005), 47 (5), 437-444CODEN: JOCHFV; ISSN:1341-9145. (Japan Society for Occupational Health)
    In animal studies using oral dosing for short periods, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is well known for its reproductive toxicity, esp. for its testicular toxicity. However, extending the period of DEHP exposure in prepubertal rats resulted in significant increases in testosterone. This suggests that the reproductive effect of DEHP might be assocd. with the timing and the term of exposure. Moreover, the route of exposure may induce differences in its effect because tissue levels of metabolites of DEHP after inhalation are thought to be different from those after oral administration. We researched the effects of inhalation of DEHP on testes of prepubertal rats. These results showed that inhalation of DEHP by 4-wk-old male Wistar rats at doses of 5 or 25 mg/m3, 6 h per day, for 4 and 8 wk significantly increased the concn. of plasma testosterone and wt. of seminal vesicles. However, the concn. of LH, follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) and the expression of mRNAs of androgen biosynthesis enzyme, cytochrome P 450 cholesterol side-chain-cleavage enzyme (P450scc), 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), cytochrome P 450 17α-hydroxylase/17, 20 lyase (CYP17) and aromatase (CYP19) did not change. Rats with precocious testes did not increase in any of the DEHP groups. We also found that the estd. ED in this study was less than those reported in previous studies which used oral dosing. Our study showed that inhaled DEHP increased plasma testosterone concns. in prepubertal rats and suggested that their effects were more sensitive to inhalation of DEHP than oral dosing.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXhtFyqtLzJ&md5=fa004cd6b4cdcae4ddcaafb23bcea62e
  66. 66
    Rasmussen, L. M.; Sen, N.; Vera, J. C.; Liu, X.; Craig, Z. R. Effects of in Vitro Exposure to Dibutyl Phthalate, Mono-Butyl Phthalate, and Acetyl Tributyl Citrate on Ovarian Antral Follicle Growth and Viability. Biol. Reprod. 2017, 96 (5), 1105– 1117,  DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.116.144691
    Google Scholar
    66
    Effects of in vitro exposure to dibutyl phthalate, mono-butyl phthalate, and acetyl tributyl citrate on ovarian antral follicle growth and viability
    Rasmussen Lindsay M; Sen Nivedita; Vera Jahaira C; Liu Xiaosong; Craig Zelieann R
    Biology of reproduction (2017), 96 (5), 1105-1117 ISSN:.
    Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is present in consumer products and the coating of some oral medications. Acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) has been proposed as an alternative to DBP because DBP causes endocrine disruption in animal models. Following ingestion, DBP is converted to its main metabolite mono-butyl phthalate (MBP) which has been detected in >90% of human follicular fluid samples. Previous studies show that DBP reduces the number of antral follicles present in the ovaries of mice. Thus, this study was designed to evaluate the effects of DBP, MBP, and ATBC on in vitro growth and viability of mouse ovarian antral follicles. Antral follicles were isolated from CD-1 females (PND32-37) and treated with vehicle, DBP, MBP, or ATBC (starting at 0.001 and up to 1000 μg/ml for DBP; 24-72 h). Follicle diameter, ATP production, qPCR, and TUNEL were used to measure follicle growth, viability, cell cycle and apoptosis gene expression, and cell death-associated DNA fragmentation, respectively. While MBP did not cause toxicity, DBP exposure at ≥10 μg/ml resulted in growth inhibition followed by cytoxicity at ≥500 μg/ml. ATBC increased the number of nongrowing follicles at 0.01 μg/ml and did not affect ATP production, but increased TUNEL positive area in treated follicles. Gene expression results suggest that cytotoxicity in DBP-treated follicles occurs via activation of cell cycle arrest prior to follicular death. These findings suggest that concentrations of DBP ≥10 μg/ml are detrimental to antral follicles and that ATBC should be examined further as it may disrupt antral follicle function at low concentrations.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1crlsFWrsg%253D%253D&md5=5a976d3870376017fb50a5797d3b8813
  67. 67
    Rasmussen, L. M.; Sen, N.; Liu, X.; Craig, Z. R. Effects of Oral Exposure to the Phthalate Substitute Acetyl Tributyl Citrate on Female Reproduction in Mice. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2017, 37 (6), 668– 675,  DOI: 10.1002/jat.3413
    Google Scholar
    67
    Effects of oral exposure to the phthalate substitute acetyl tributyl citrate on female reproduction in mice
    Rasmussen, Lindsay M.; Sen, Nivedita; Liu, Xiaosong; Craig, Zelieann R.
    Journal of Applied Toxicology (2017), 37 (6), 668-675CODEN: JJATDK; ISSN:0260-437X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
    Acetyl tri-Bu citrate (ATBC), is a phthalate substitute used in food and medical plastics, cosmetics and toys. Although systemically safe up to 1000 mg kg-1 day-1, its ability to cause reproductive toxicity in females at levels below 50 mg kg-1 day-1 has not been examd. This study evaluated the effects of lower ATBC exposures on female reprodn. using mice. Adult CD-1 females (n = 7-8 per treatment) were dosed orally with tocopherol-stripped corn oil (vehicle), 5 or 10 mg kg-1 day-1 ATBC daily for 15 days, and then bred with a proven breeder male. ATBC exposure did not alter body wts., estrous cyclicity, and gestational and litter parameters. Relative spleen wt. was slightly increased in the 5 mg kg-1 day-1 group. ATBC at 10 mg kg-1 day-1 targeted ovarian follicles and decreased the no. of primordial, primary and secondary follicles present in the ovary. These findings suggest that low levels of ATBC may be detrimental to ovarian function, thus, more information is needed to understand better the impact of ATBC on female reprodn.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvVymt7vK&md5=a59ef5ba3325f3abff3b9b419b179a1a
  68. 68
    Strajhar, P.; Tonoli, D.; Jeanneret, F.; Imhof, R. M.; Malagnino, V.; Patt, M.; Kratschmar, D. V.; Boccard, J.; Rudaz, S.; Odermatt, A. Steroid Profiling in H295R Cells to Identify Chemicals Potentially Disrupting the Production of Adrenal Steroids. Toxicology 2017, 381, 51– 63,  DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.02.010
    Google Scholar
    68
    Steroid profiling in H295R cells to identify chemicals potentially disrupting the production of adrenal steroids
    Strajhar, Petra; Tonoli, David; Jeanneret, Fabienne; Imhof, Raphaella M.; Malagnino, Vanessa; Patt, Melanie; Kratschmar, Denise V.; Boccard, Julien; Rudaz, Serge; Odermatt, Alex
    Toxicology (2017), 381 (), 51-63CODEN: TXCYAC; ISSN:0300-483X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    The validated OECD test guideline 456 based on human adrenal H295R cells promotes measurement of testosterone and estradiol prodn. as read-out to identify potential endocrine disrupting chems. This study aimed to establish optimal conditions for using H295R cells to detect chems. interfering with the prodn. of key adrenal steroids. H295R cells' supernatants were characterized by liq. chromatog.-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based steroid profiling, and the influence of exptl. conditions including time and serum content was assessed. Steroid profiles were detd. before and after incubation with ref. compds. and chems. to be tested for potential disruption of adrenal steroidogenesis. The H295R cells cultivated according to the OECD test guideline produced progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and adrenal androgens but only very low amts. of testosterone. However, testosterone contained in Nu-serum was metabolized during the 48 h incubation. Thus, inclusion of pos. and neg. controls and a steroid profile of the complete medium prior to the expt. (t = 0 h) was necessary to characterize H295R cells' steroid prodn. and indicate alterations caused by exposure to chems. Among the tested chems., octyl methoxycinnamate and acetyl tributylcitrate resembled the corticosteroid induction pattern of the pos. control torcetrapib. Gene expression anal. revealed that octyl methoxycinnamate and acetyl tributylcitrate enhanced CYP11B2 expression, although less pronounced than torcetrapib. Further expts. need to assess the toxicol. relevance of octyl methoxycinnamate- and acetyl tributylcitrate-induced corticosteroid prodn. In conclusion, the extended profiling and appropriate controls allow detecting chems. that act on steroidogenesis and provide initial mechanistic evidence for prioritizing chems. for further investigations.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXjsl2lsb8%253D&md5=2e9cb701d5814d8597fa3b0c51d8dc38
  69. 69
    Takeshita, A.; Igarashi-Migitaka, J.; Nishiyama, K.; Takahashi, H.; Takeuchi, Y.; Koibuchi, N. Acetyl Tributyl Citrate, the Most Widely Used Phthalate Substitute Plasticizer, Induces Cytochrome p450 3a through Steroid and Xenobiotic Receptor. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 123 (2), 460– 470,  DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr178
    Google Scholar
    69
    Acetyl Tributyl Citrate, the Most Widely Used Phthalate Substitute Plasticizer, Induces through Steroid and Xenobiotic Receptor
    Takeshita, Akira; Igarashi-Migitaka, Junko; Nishiyama, Kazusa; Takahashi, Hideyo; Takeuchi, Yasuhiro; Koibuchi, Noriyuki
    Toxicological Sciences (2011), 123 (2), 460-470CODEN: TOSCF2; ISSN:1096-0929. (Oxford University Press)
    Steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) is activated by endogenous and exogenous chems. including steroids, bile acids, and prescription drugs. SXR is highly expressed in the liver and intestine, where it regulates cytochrome P 450 3A4 (CYP3A4), which in turn controls xenobiotic and endogenous steroid hormone metab. However, it is unclear whether Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved plasticizers exert such activity. In the present study, the authors evaluated the effects of FDA-approved plasticizers on SXR-mediated transcription in vitro by luciferase reporter, SXR-coactivator interaction, quant. real-time PCR anal. of CYP3A4 expression, CYP3A4 enzyme activity assays, and SXR knockdown. Rats, treated with gavage and i.p. injection of compds., were examd. for CYP3A1 expression in vivo. The authors found that 4 of 8 FDA-approved plasticizers increased SXR-mediated transcription. In particular, acetyl tri-Bu citrate (ATBC), an industrial plasticizer widely used in products such as food wrap, vinyl toys, and pharmaceutical excipients, strongly activated human and rat SXR. ATBC increased CYP3A4 mRNA levels and enzyme activity in the human intestinal cells but not in human liver cells. Similarly, CYP3A1 mRNA levels were increased in the intestine but not the liver of ATBC-treated rats. These in vitro and in vivo results suggest that ATBC specifically induces CYP3A in the intestine by activating SXR. We suggest that ATBC-contg. products be used cautiously because they may alter metab. of endogenous steroid hormones and prescription drugs.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXht1eiu7jN&md5=8e776e514982e1fb73fbb0c8dc3874cd
  70. 70
    Baran, R. Nail Cosmetics: Allergies and Irritations. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2002, 3 (8), 547– 555,  DOI: 10.2165/00128071-200203080-00005
    Google Scholar
    70
    Nail cosmetics: allergies and irritations
    Baran Robert
    American journal of clinical dermatology (2002), 3 (8), 547-55 ISSN:1175-0561.
    Recent precise figures are not available for the number of adverse reactions related to the use of nail care products. Reactions to nail cosmetic procedures may be divided into reactions at the site of application to the nail itself and ectopic reactions, when the hand transfers a small amount of nail cosmetic to other areas of the skin. Fingernail coatings encompass two types: coatings that harden upon evaporation (nail enamel, base coat, top coat); and coatings that polymerize (sculptured nails, light-curing gels, preformed artificial nails, nail mending and nail wrapping). The test battery enables us to distinguish allergic reactions from irritant reactions. Interestingly, some reactions, such as distant allergic contact dermatitis, are more frequent with nail enamel than with coatings that polymerize. On the other hand, the latter are greater offenders in the nail area. Nail hardeners may just be modified nail enamels containing nylon fibers, acrylate resin and hydrolyzed proteins. Others may contain up to 5% formaldehyde tissue fixative (which can have adverse effects on the nail), but are designed in the US to be applied only to the free edge of the nail while the skin is shielded. Caution is necessary in interpreting formaldehyde patch testing reactions.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD38vpslCguw%253D%253D&md5=5a487679f1251f0f4caaafbaca41501a
  71. 71
    EPA. Design for the Environment Program Alternatives Assessment Criteria for Hazard Evaluation ; 2011.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.

Cited By

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

This article is cited by 70 publications.

  1. Tianqi Jia, Arturo A. Keller, Lirong Gao, Wenbin Liu, Sasha Liu, Xiaotian Xu, Fei Yin, Yunchen He, Tianao Mao, Jinglin Deng, Javid Hussain, Chunci Chen. Assessing the Risk of Organophosphate Esters from Nail Polish: Indoor Emissions, Fate Modeling, and Health Risk Assessment. ACS ES&T Air 2024, 1 (7) , 704-713. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestair.4c00042
  2. Linh V. Nguyen, Miriam L. Diamond, Sheila Kalenge, Tracy L. Kirkham, D. Linn Holness, Victoria H. Arrandale. Response to Comment on “Occupational Exposure of Canadian Nail Salon Workers to Plasticizers Including Phthalates and Organophosphate Esters”. Environmental Science & Technology 2022, 56 (19) , 14212-14213. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c05598
  3. Jessie P. Buckley, Jordan R. Kuiper, Deborah H. Bennett, Emily S. Barrett, Tracy Bastain, Carrie V. Breton, Sridhar Chinthakindi, Anne L. Dunlop, Shohreh F. Farzan, Julie B. Herbstman, Margaret R. Karagas, Carmen J. Marsit, John D. Meeker, Rachel Morello-Frosch, Thomas G. O’Connor, Megan E. Romano, Susan Schantz, Rebecca J. Schmidt, Deborah J. Watkins, Hongkai Zhu, Edo D. Pellizzari, Kurunthachalam Kannan, Tracey J. Woodruff. Exposure to Contemporary and Emerging Chemicals in Commerce among Pregnant Women in the United States: The Environmental influences on Child Health Outcome (ECHO) Program. Environmental Science & Technology 2022, 56 (10) , 6560-6573. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c08942
  4. Linh V. Nguyen, Miriam L. Diamond, Sheila Kalenge, Tracy L. Kirkham, D. Linn Holness, Victoria H. Arrandale. Occupational Exposure of Canadian Nail Salon Workers to Plasticizers Including Phthalates and Organophosphate Esters. Environmental Science & Technology 2022, 56 (5) , 3193-3203. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04974
  5. Long Jin, Stephen M. Griffith, Zhihan Sun, Jian Zhen Yu, Wan Chan. On the Flip Side of Mask Wearing: Increased Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds and a Risk-Reducing Solution. Environmental Science & Technology 2021, 55 (20) , 14095-14104. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04591
  6. Shuqin Tang, Yukun Chen, Guixian Song, Xiaotu Liu, Yumeng Shi, Qitong Xie, Da Chen. A Cocktail of Industrial Chemicals in Lipstick and Nail Polish: Profiles and Health Implications. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 2021, 8 (9) , 760-765. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00512
  7. Hongkai Zhu, Maha M. Al-Bazi, Taha A. Kumosani, Kurunthachalam Kannan. Occurrence and Profiles of Organophosphate Esters in Infant Clothing and Raw Textiles Collected from the United States. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 2020, 7 (6) , 415-420. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00221
  8. Jessica A. Craig, Diana M. Ceballos, Victoria Fruh, Zoe E. Petropoulos, Joseph G. Allen, Antonia M. Calafat, Maria Ospina, Heather M. Stapleton, Stephanie Hammel, Rebecca Gray, Thomas F. Webster. Exposure of Nail Salon Workers to Phthalates, Di(2-ethylhexyl) Terephthalate, and Organophosphate Esters: A Pilot Study. Environmental Science & Technology 2019, 53 (24) , 14630-14637. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b02474
  9. Zhenwu Tang, Miao Chai, Jiali Cheng, Yuwen Wang, Qifei Huang. Occurrence and Distribution of Phthalates in Sanitary Napkins from Six Countries: Implications for Women’s Health. Environmental Science & Technology 2019, 53 (23) , 13919-13928. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b03838
  10. Okon Dominic Ekpe, Haeran Moon, JongCheol Pyo, Jeong-Eun Oh. Prioritization of monitoring compounds from SNTS identified organic micropollutants in contaminated groundwater using a machine learning optimized ToxPi model. Water Research 2025, 270 , 122824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122824
  11. Parviel Chirsir, Emma H. Palm, Sivani Baskaran, Emma L. Schymanski, Zhanyun Wang, Raoul Wolf, Sarah E. Hale, Hans Peter H. Arp. Grouping strategies for assessing and managing persistent and mobile substances. Environmental Sciences Europe 2024, 36 (1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00919-4
  12. Tianqi Jia, Arturo A. Keller, Lirong Gao, Wenbin Liu, Sasha Liu, Xiaotian Xu, Fei Yin, Yunchen He, Tianao Mao, Jinglin Deng, Javid Hussain, Chunci Chen. Organophosphate ester exposure in nail salons: Health implications for workers. Environmental Pollution 2024, 362 , 125013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.125013
  13. Chunrong Jia, Xianqiang Fu, Thomas F. Webster, Diana M. Ceballos. Fragrance chemicals in nail salons: Personal inhalation exposures and potential sources. Atmospheric Pollution Research 2024, 15 (9) , 102236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2024.102236
  14. Chang-Feng Ou-Yang, Yi-Jun Chen, Hsin-Cheng Hsieh, Chung-Te Lee, Kai-Hsien Chi, Neng-Huei Lin, Chih-Chung Chang, Jia-Lin Wang. Identification of organic constituents on atmospheric particulate matter in the East Asian background air of free troposphere by GC×GC-TOFMS. Chemosphere 2024, 364 , 143095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.143095
  15. Diptimayee Behera, Dharia Chetan, Ambili Anoop. Organic matter sources and distribution along land-use gradient in a Himalayan foothills River: Insights from molecular markers. Environmental Research 2024, 252 , 118909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.118909
  16. Johanna R. Rochester, Carol F. Kwiatkowski, Iva Neveux, Shaun Dabe, Katherine M. Hatcher, Michael Kupec Lathrop, Eric J. Daza, Brenda Eskenazi, Joseph J. Grzymski, Jenna Hua. A Personalized Intervention to Increase Environmental Health Literacy and Readiness to Change in a Northern Nevada Population: Effects of Environmental Chemical Exposure Report-Back. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2024, 21 (7) , 905. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070905
  17. Abdul Qadeer, Muhammad Anis, Genoa R. Warner, Courtney Potts, Georgios Giovanoulis, Samia Nasr, Denisse Archundia, Qinghuan Zhang, Zeeshan Ajmal, Anthony C. Tweedale, Wang Kun, Pengfei Wang, Ren Haoyu, Xia Jiang, Wang Shuhang. Global environmental and toxicological data of emerging plasticizers: current knowledge, regrettable substitution dilemma, green solution and future perspectives. Green Chemistry 2024, 26 (10) , 5635-5683. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3GC03428C
  18. Rosana Lazzarini, Bruna Barravieira Masselli, Mariana de Figueiredo da Silva Hafner. Allergic contact dermatitis to toluene-sulfonamide-formaldehyde resin: still relevant?. Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia 2024, 99 (3) , 436-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2023.04.009
  19. Okon Dominic Ekpe, Gyojin Choo, Jin-Kyu Kang, Seong-Taek Yun, Jeong-Eun Oh. Identification of organic chemical indicators for tracking pollution sources in groundwater by machine learning from GC-HRMS-based suspect and non-target screening data. Water Research 2024, 252 , 121130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121130
  20. R. Gill, Q. Wang, S. Takaku-Pugh, E. Lytle, M. Wang, D.H. Bennett, J. Park, M. Petreas. Trends in flame retardant levels in upholstered furniture and children's consumer products after regulatory action in California. Chemosphere 2024, 351 , 141152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141152
  21. Mandy Goldberg, Che-Jung Chang, Kemi Ogunsina, Katie M. O’Brien, Kyla W. Taylor, Alexandra J. White, Dale P. Sandler. Personal Care Product Use during Puberty and Incident Breast Cancer among Black, Hispanic/Latina, and White Women in a Prospective US-Wide Cohort. Environmental Health Perspectives 2024, 132 (2) https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13882
  22. Thuy Minh Le, Huong Le Quang, Anh Hai Tran, Minh Bui Quang, Nam Duc Vu, Huong Nguyen Thi, Hoa Vu Khanh, Kurunthachalam Kannan, Tri Manh Tran. Co-occurrence of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and cyclic volatile methylsiloxanes (cVMSs) in fine particulate matter (PM0.5 and PM0.1) collected from an industrial area in Vietnam. Environmental Research 2023, 237 , 117018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.117018
  23. Hui Gao, Yi Zhang, Li-wen Chen, Hong Gan, Meng-juan Lu, Binbin Huang, Juan Tong, Meng-long Geng, Kun Huang, Cheng Zhang, Bei-bei Zhu, Shan-shan Shao, Peng Zhu, Fang-biao Tao. Associating phthalate exposure during pregnancy with preschooler's FMI, ABSI and BRI trajectories via putative mechanism pathways. Chemosphere 2023, 337 , 139300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139300
  24. E. Zhao, Xiong Xiong, Hongjuan Hu, Xin Li, Chenxi Wu. Phthalates in plastic stationery in China and their exposure risks to school-aged children. Chemosphere 2023, 339 , 139763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139763
  25. Goitsemang Keretetse, Gill Nelson, Derk Brouwer. Exposure of formal and informal nail technicians to organic solvents found in nail products. Frontiers in Public Health 2023, 11 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1147204
  26. Jia-Yong Lao, Yuefei Ruan, Kenneth M. Y. Leung, Eddy Y. Zeng, Paul K. S. Lam. Review on age-specific exposure to organophosphate esters: Multiple exposure pathways and microenvironments. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 2023, 53 (7) , 803-826. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2022.2087428
  27. Dibakar BORTHAKUR, Rajesh KUMAR, Neerja RANI, Rima DADA. Novel Osteo Refurbishment Method and Choice of Colouring Materials for Anatomy Specimens. Medeniyet Medical Journal 2023, 38 (1) , 54-62. https://doi.org/10.4274/MMJ.galenos.2023.38275
  28. Jun Xiang, Rongfa Xu, Dongwei Du, Bin Tang, Miao Yi, Fengshan Cai, Xiao Yan, Jing Zheng, Guiying Li, Taicheng An. The pollution characteristics, source identification and health risks of multiple classes atmospheric SVOCs with complex emission sources of the petrochemical plant and other industries. Atmospheric Environment 2023, 296 , 119590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.119590
  29. Roser Esplugas, Victoria Linares, Montserrat Bellés, José L. Domingo, Marta Schuhmacher. In vitro neurotoxic potential of emerging flame retardants on neuroblastoma cells in an acute exposure scenario. Toxicology in Vitro 2023, 87 , 105523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105523
  30. Nour Abdo, Hana Al-Khalaileh, Marwan Alajlouni, Jehan Hamadneh, Abdalmajeed M. Alajlouni. Screening for phthalates biomarkers and its potential role in infertility outcomes in Jordan. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 2023, 33 (2) , 273-282. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-022-00517-7
  31. Anna S. Young, Nicholas Herkert, Heather M. Stapleton, Brent A. Coull, Russ Hauser, Thomas Zoeller, Peter A. Behnisch, Emiel Felzel, Abraham Brouwer, Joseph G. Allen. Hormone receptor activities of complex mixtures of known and suspect chemicals in personal silicone wristband samplers worn in office buildings. Chemosphere 2023, 315 , 137705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137705
  32. Chia-Ling Chang, Hui-Tzu Chen, Chung-Yu Chen, En-Yu Chen, Kuan-Ting Lin, Chien-Cheng Jung. Gas-phase and PM2.5-bound phthalates in nail salons: characteristics, exposure via inhalation, and influencing factors. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2023, 30 (3) , 6146-6158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22606-8
  33. Faith L. Anderson, Meghan L. Bucher, Yunjia Lai, Jocelyn Dicent, Gary W. Miller. Using the exposome to understand the role of the environment in gender- and sex-specific medicine. 2023, 89-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-88534-8.00035-3
  34. Megan E. Romano, Lisa Gallagher, Brett T. Doherty, Dabin Yeum, Sunmi Lee, Mari Takazawa, Kim A. Anderson, Kurunthachalam Kannan, Margaret R. Karagas. Inter-method reliability of silicone exposome wristbands and urinary biomarker assays in a pregnancy cohort. Environmental Research 2022, 214 , 113981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113981
  35. Petra Stuchlík Fišerová, Lisa Melymuk, Klára Komprdová, Elena Domínguez-Romero, Martin Scheringer, Jiří Kohoutek, Petra Přibylová, Lenka Andrýsková, Pavel Piler, Holger M. Koch, Martin Zvonař, Marta Esteban-López, Argelia Castaño, Jana Klánová. Personal care product use and lifestyle affect phthalate and DINCH metabolite levels in teenagers and young adults. Environmental Research 2022, 213 , 113675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113675
  36. Inkyu Han, Jin Young Seo, Dana Boyd Barr, Parinya Panuwet, Volha Yakimavets, Priya Esilda D’Souza, Heyreoun An-Han, Masoud Afshar, Ying-Yu Chao. Evaluating Indoor Air Phthalates and Volatile Organic Compounds in Nail Salons in the Greater New York City Area: A Pilot Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022, 19 (19) , 12411. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912411
  37. Hongxiu Liu, Yuyan Wang, Kurunthachalam Kannan, Mengling Liu, Hongkai Zhu, Yu Chen, Linda G. Kahn, Melanie H. Jacobson, Bo Gu, Shilpi Mehta-Lee, Sara G. Brubaker, Akhgar Ghassabian, Leonardo Trasande. Determinants of phthalate exposures in pregnant women in New York City. Environmental Research 2022, 212 , 113203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113203
  38. Jessica L. Levasseur, Kate Hoffman, Nicholas J. Herkert, Ellen Cooper, Duncan Hay, Heather M. Stapleton. Characterizing firefighter's exposure to over 130 SVOCs using silicone wristbands: A pilot study comparing on-duty and off-duty exposures. Science of The Total Environment 2022, 834 , 155237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155237
  39. Veronica van der Schyff, Lenka Suchánková, Katerina Kademoglou, Lisa Melymuk, Jana Klánová. Parabens and antimicrobial compounds in conventional and “green” personal care products. Chemosphere 2022, 297 , 134019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134019
  40. Gwyndolin M. Vail, Sabrina N. Walley, Ali Yasrebi, Angela Maeng, Thomas J. Degroat, Kristie M. Conde, Troy A. Roepke. Implications of estrogen receptor alpha (ERa) with the intersection of organophosphate flame retardants and diet-induced obesity in adult mice. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 2022, 85 (10) , 397-413. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2022.2026849
  41. Gwyndolin M. Vail, Sabrina N. Walley, Ali Yasrebi, Angela Maeng, Thomas J. Degroat, Kristie M. Conde, Troy A. Roepke. Implications of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARY) with the intersection of organophosphate flame retardants and diet-induced obesity in adult mice. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 2022, 85 (9) , 381-396. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2021.2023716
  42. Yu-Qi Huang, Yuan Zeng, Tao Wang, She-Jun Chen, Yu-Feng Guan, Bi-Xian Mai. PM2.5-bound phthalates and phthalate substitutes in a megacity of southern China: spatioseasonal variations, source apportionment, and risk assessment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2022, 29 (25) , 37737-37747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18784-0
  43. Aaron J. Specht, Xinxin Zhang, Anna Young, Vy T. Nguyen, David C. Christiani, Diana M. Ceballos, Joseph G. Allen, Jennifer Weuve, Linda H. Nie, Marc G. Weisskopf. Validation of in vivo toenail measurements of manganese and mercury using a portable X-ray fluorescence device. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 2022, 32 (3) , 427-433. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00358-w
  44. En-Yu Chen, Kuan-Ting Lin, Chien-Cheng Jung, Chia-Ling Chang, Chung-Yu Chen. Characteristics and influencing factors of airborne microplastics in nail salons. Science of The Total Environment 2022, 806 , 151472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151472
  45. Chutima Limmatvapirat, Sontaya Limmatvapirat, Siraprapa Chansatidkosol, Wantanwa Krongrawa, Napasorn Liampipat, Sarocha Leechaiwat, Patipat Lamaisri, Lawan Siangjong, Paranee Meetam, Kuntontip Tiankittumrong, . Preparation and Properties of Anti-Nail-Biting Lacquers Containing Shellac and Bitter Herbal Extract. International Journal of Polymer Science 2021, 2021 , 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8537544
  46. Daniel Mota-Rojas, Chiara Mariti, Andrea Zdeinert, Giacomo Riggio, Patricia Mora-Medina, Alondra del Mar Reyes, Angelo Gazzano, Adriana Domínguez-Oliva, Karina Lezama-García, Nancy José-Pérez, Ismael Hernández-Ávalos. Anthropomorphism and Its Adverse Effects on the Distress and Welfare of Companion Animals. Animals 2021, 11 (11) , 3263. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11113263
  47. Jayanta Dolai, Haydar Ali, Nikhil R. Jana. Selective capturing and fluorescence “turn on” detection of dibutyl phthalate using a molecular imprinted nanocomposite. New Journal of Chemistry 2021, 45 (40) , 19088-19096. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1NJ04169J
  48. Jiawen Yang, Wenjin Zhao, Yu Li. Human Health Risk Regulation of Reproductive Toxicity, Neurotoxicity, and Endocrine Disruption in Special Populations Exposed to Organophosphorus Flame Retardants. Exposure and Health 2021, 13 (3) , 551-566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-021-00402-y
  49. Hongkai Zhu, Sridhar Chinthakindi, Kurunthachalam Kannan. A method for the analysis of 121 multi-class environmental chemicals in urine by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A 2021, 1646 , 462146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462146
  50. Katherine S. Carlos, Lowri S. de Jager, Timothy H. Begley. Determination of phthalate concentrations in paper-based fast food packaging available on the U.S. market. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 2021, 38 (3) , 501-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2020.1859623
  51. Sheila Kalenge, Tracy L Kirkham, Linh V Nguyen, D Linn Holness, Victoria H Arrandale. Skin Exposure to Acrylates in Nail Salons. Annals of Work Exposures and Health 2021, 65 (2) , 162-166. https://doi.org/10.1093/annweh/wxaa063
  52. Diana M. Ceballos, Anna S. Young, Joseph G. Allen, Aaron J. Specht, Vy T. Nguyen, Jessica A. Craig, Melissa Miller, Thomas F. Webster. Exposures in nail salons to trace elements in nail polish from impurities or pigment ingredients – A pilot study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 2021, 232 , 113687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113687
  53. Yulian Sun, Hongkai Zhu. A pilot study of organophosphate esters in surface soils collected from Jinan City, China: implications for risk assessments. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2021, 28 (3) , 3344-3353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10730-2
  54. Cheryl Fairfield Estill, Alexander Mayer, Jonathan Slone, I-Chen Chen, Michael Zhou, Mark J. La Guardia, Nayana Jayatilaka, Maria Ospina, Antonia Calafat. Assessment of triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) exposure to nail salon workers by air, hand wipe, and urine analysis. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 2021, 231 , 113630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113630
  55. Gwyndolin M Vail, Troy A Roepke. Organophosphate Flame Retardants Excite Arcuate Melanocortin Circuitry and Increase Neuronal Sensitivity to Ghrelin in Adult Mice. Endocrinology 2020, 161 (11) https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqaa168
  56. Maria Lteif, Marylene Samia El Hayek, Hayat Azouri, Diane Antonios. Assessment of work-related symptoms, perceived knowledge, and attitude among nail salon technicians. Toxicology and Industrial Health 2020, 36 (11) , 852-862. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233720951294
  57. Muhammad Bilal Tahir, Anam Ahmad, Tahir Iqbal, Mohsin Ijaz, Shabbir Muhammad, Saifeldin M. Siddeeg. Advances in photo-catalysis approach for the removal of toxic personal care product in aqueous environment. Environment, Development and Sustainability 2020, 22 (7) , 6029-6052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00495-1
  58. Maria Lteif, Marylene Samia El Hayek, Hayat Azouri, Diane Antonios. Knowledge and Attitude Among Lebanese Women Toward Hazardous Chemicals Used in Nail Cosmetics. Journal of Community Health 2020, 45 (5) , 922-931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10900-020-00810-2
  59. Brett T. Doherty, John L. Pearce, Kim A. Anderson, Margaret R. Karagas, Megan E. Romano. Assessment of Multipollutant Exposures During Pregnancy Using Silicone Wristbands. Frontiers in Public Health 2020, 8 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.547239
  60. Ranjit Gill, Susan Hurley, Reber Brown, Darcy Tarrant, Joginder Dhaliwal, Roshni Sarala, June-Soo Park, Sharyle Patton, Myrto Petreas. Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether and Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Canadian Fire Station Dust. Chemosphere 2020, 253 , 126669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126669
  61. Gwyndolin M. Vail, Sabrina N. Walley, Ali Yasrebi, Angela Maeng, Kristie M. Conde, Troy A. Roepke. The interactions of diet-induced obesity and organophosphate flame retardant exposure on energy homeostasis in adult male and female mice. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 2020, 83 (11-12) , 438-455. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2020.1777235
  62. Xiaoxiang Wang, Rui Zhang, Chao Song, Doug Crump. Computational evaluation of interactions between organophosphate esters and nuclear hormone receptors. Environmental Research 2020, 182 , 108982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.108982
  63. Zana Percy, Mark J. La Guardia, Yingying Xu, Robert C. Hale, Kim N. Dietrich, Bruce P. Lanphear, Kimberly Yolton, Ann M. Vuong, Kim M. Cecil, Joseph M. Braun, Changchun Xie, Aimin Chen. Concentrations and loadings of organophosphate and replacement brominated flame retardants in house dust from the home study during the PBDE phase-out. Chemosphere 2020, 239 , 124701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124701
  64. Paul C. Turkeltaub, Richard F. Lockey, Katie Holmes, Erika Friedmann. Asthma and/or hay fever as predictors of fertility/impaired fecundity in U.S. women: National Survey of Family Growth. Scientific Reports 2019, 9 (1) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55259-8
  65. Alexander S. Tagg, Juliana A. Ivar do Sul. Is this your glitter? An overlooked but potentially environmentally-valuable microplastic. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2019, 146 , 50-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.05.068
  66. Masahiro Tokumura, Makiko Seo, Qi Wang, Yuichi Miyake, Takashi Amagai, Masakazu Makino. Dermal exposure to plasticizers in nail polishes: An alternative major exposure pathway of phosphorus-based compounds. Chemosphere 2019, 226 , 316-320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.03.108
  67. Diana M. Ceballos, Jessica Craig, Xianqiang Fu, Chunrong Jia, David Chambers, MyDzung T. Chu, Alai T. Fernandez, Victoria Fruh, Zoe E. Petropoulos, Joseph G. Allen, Jose Vallarino, Lydia Thornburg, Thomas F. Webster. Biological and environmental exposure monitoring of volatile organic compounds among nail technicians in the Greater Boston area. Indoor Air 2019, 16 https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12564
  68. José Grau, Juan L. Benedé, Javier Serrano, Andrea Segura, Alberto Chisvert. Stir bar sorptive-dispersive microextraction for trace determination of triphenyl and diphenyl phosphate in urine of nail polish users. Journal of Chromatography A 2019, 1593 , 9-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2019.02.014
  69. Un-Jung Kim, Yu Wang, Wenhui Li, Kurunthachalam Kannan. Occurrence of and human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants/plasticizers in indoor air and dust from various microenvironments in the United States. Environment International 2019, 125 , 342-349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.01.065
  70. Mohiuddin AK. Cosmetics in use: a pharmacological review. Journal of Dermatology & Cosmetology 2019, 3 (2) , 50-67. https://doi.org/10.15406/jdc.2019.03.00115
Download PDF
Go to Environmental Science & Technology
Get e-Alerts
Get e-Alerts

Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 21, 12841–12850
Click to copy citationCitation copied!
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b04495
Published October 10, 2018

Copyright © 2018 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under these Terms of Use.

Request reuse permissions

Article Views

17k

Altmetric

-

Citations

70
Learn about these metrics

Article Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.

Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.

The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated.

  • Abstract

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Product label definitions for investigated nail polish product lines. Note: The blue color represents the ingredients that are removed from the product line, according to the label. Potential plasticizer ingredients are underlined. Nonplasticizer ingredients are not underlined. No. of nail polish brands refers to the number of brands that had a nail polish product line with that particular product label. *These two ingredients were reported to count as one exclusion. **Fragrances can contain plasticizer chemicals.

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Side-by-side comparison of concentrations (μg/g) of TPHP (top) vs DEHP (bottom) for 40 nail polish samples.

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

  • References

    This article references 71 other publications.

    1. 1
      Houlihan, J.; Brody, C.; Schwan, B. Not Too Pretty: Phthalates, Beauty Products, & the FDA ; 2002.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    2. 2
      Houlihan, J.; Wiles, R. Beauty Secrets: Does a Common Chemical in Nail Polish Pose Risks to Human Health? ; 2000.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    3. 3
      Kwapniewski, R.; Kozaczka, S.; Hauser, R.; Silva, M. J.; Calafat, A. M.; Duty, S. M. Occupational Exposure to Dibutyl Phthalate among Manicurists. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2008, 50 (6), 705– 711,  DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181651571
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    4. 4
      Schlossman, M. L. Modern Nail Enamel Technology. J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 1980, 31, 29– 36
      4
      Modern nail enamel technology
      Schlossman, Mitchell L.
      Journal of the Society of Cosmetic Chemists (1980), 31 (1), 29-36CODEN: JSCCA5; ISSN:0037-9832.
      Nail lacquer constituents and the basis for their selection are reviewed with 6 refs. together with properties, formulation and manufg. techniques, equipment and plant requirements, manufg. problems, dermatolog. considerations, as well as quality control testing of nail enamels. Techniques described for the evaluation of nail enamels include adhesion, color matching, flow characteristics, and wear resistance.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL3cXitVegsL0%253D&md5=cc4e662639fb08bedd70ac55459a07e7
    5. 5
      Foster, P. M. D.; Thomas, L. V.; Cook, M. W.; Gangolli, S. D. Study of the Testicular Effects and Changes in Zinc Excretion Produced by Some N-Alkyl Phthalates in the Rat. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1980, 54 (3), 392– 398,  DOI: 10.1016/0041-008X(80)90165-9
      5
      Study of the testicular effects and changes in zinc excretion produced by some n-alkyl phthalates in the rat
      Foster, Paul M. D.; Thomas, Lucy V.; Cook, Melvyn W.; Gangolli, Sharat D.
      Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology (1980), 54 (3), 392-8CODEN: TXAPA9; ISSN:0041-008X.
      A study was made of the comparative effects of treatment with phthalates [I, R = Me, Et, Pr, (CH2)4Me, (CH2)6Me, or (CH2)7Me] on testicular tissue and Zn excretion in the rat. I were given orally, at 7.2 mmol/kg/day, equiv. to 2 g/kg/day of I (R = Bu) (II) for 4 days to young male rats. I [R = (CH2)4Me and (CH2)5Me] produced testicular atrophy similar to II. In addn., the 2 agents also induced an increase in urinary Zn excretion together with a lowering of testicular Zn content. The other I investigated did not damage the testes and had no effect on the Zn urinary excretion or testicular Zn content.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaL3cXlt1Kmtbc%253D&md5=8658b52ad4b7f1c3c5eacde370a72bd4
    6. 6
      Heindel, J. J.; Powell, C. J. Phthalate Ester Effects on Rat Sertoli Cell Function in Vitro: Effects of Phthalate Side Chain and Age of Animal. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992, 115 (1), 116– 123,  DOI: 10.1016/0041-008X(92)90374-2
      6
      Phthalate ester effects on rat Sertoli cell function in vitro: effects of phthalate side chain and age of animal
      Heindel, Jerrold J.; Powell, Cassandra J.
      Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology (1992), 115 (1), 116-23CODEN: TXAPA9; ISSN:0041-008X.
      The effect of animal age and phthalate monoester on the Sertoli cell FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation, lactate secretion, and ATP levels were examd. to det. if these effects are part of the mechanism of action of phthalate esters in vivo. Mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP), monobutyl and monopentyl phthalates but not the monoethyl, monomethyl, or monopropyl phthalates inhibited FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation, a segregation which matches the in vivo toxicity potential of these agents. MEHP and monopentyl, but not monobutyl phthalates, also stimulated Sertoli cell lactate secretion. The effect of the active phthalates on FSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation and lactate secretion is not dependent on the age of the animal over a range of 13-80 days, suggesting that the age-related toxicity in vivo may be related to differences in metab. and disposition rather than tissue sensitivity. Since the ED50 of MEHP inhibition of cAMP accumulation and lactate secretion is similar, these two effects may be related to a common initial effect of the active phthalates. Inhibition of intracellular ATP levels is specific for MEHP and is lost with age (>28 days of age) and thus is not likely to be an essential part of the in vivo mechanism of action of phthalate diesters.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaK38XlvVKitL8%253D&md5=ab5e5534d9d5645b40fd5ad93159494d
    7. 7
      Shiota, K.; Chou, M. J.; Nishimura, H. Embryotoxic Effects of Di-2-Ethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) and Di-N-Butyl Phthalate (DBP) in Mice. Environ. Res. 1980, 22 (1), 245– 253,  DOI: 10.1016/0013-9351(80)90136-X
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    8. 8
      Blount, B. C.; Silva, M. J.; Caudill, S. P.; Needham, L. L.; Pirkle, J. L.; Sampson, E. J.; Lucier, G. W.; Jackson, R. J.; Brock, J. W. Levels of Seven Urinary Phthalate Metabolites in a Human Reference Population. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108 (10), 979– 982,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.00108979
      8
      Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population
      Blount, Benjamin C.; Silva, Manori J.; Caudill, Samuel P.; Needham, Larry L.; Pirkle, Jim L.; Sampson, Eric J.; Lucier, George W.; Jackson, Richard J.; Brock, John W.
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2000), 108 (10), 979-982CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences)
      Using a novel and highly selective technique, we measured monoester metabolites of seven commonly used phthalates in urine samples from a ref. population of 289 adult humans. This anal. approach allowed us to directly measure the individual phthalate metabolites responsible for the animal reproductive and developmental toxicity while avoiding contamination from the ubiquitous parent compds. The monoesters with the highest urinary levels found were monoethyl phthalate (95th percentile, 3750 ppb, 2610 μg/g creatinine), monobutyl phthalate (95th percentile, 294 ppb, 162 μg/g creatinine), and monobenzyl phthalate (95th percentile, 137 ppb, 92 μg/g creatinine), reflecting exposure to di-Et phthalate, di-Bu phthalate, and benzyl Bu phthalate. Women of reproductive age (20-40 yr) were found to have significantly higher levels of monobutyl phthalate, a reproductive and developmental toxicant in rodents, than other age/gender groups (p < 0.005). Current scientific and regulatory attention on phthalates has focused almost exclusively on health risks from exposure to only two phthalates, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di-isononyl phthalate. These findings strongly suggest that health-risk assessments for phthalate exposure in humans should include di-Et, di-Bu, and benzyl Bu phthalates.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3cXotVWrur4%253D&md5=2adfffcb7645d6b657b2146596db9b99
    9. 9
      Kohn, M. C.; Parham, F.; Masten, S. A.; Portier, C. J.; Shelby, M. D.; Brock, J. W.; Needham, L. L. Human Exposure Estimates for Phthalates. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108 (10), A440– 2,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.108-a440b
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    10. 10
      EU (European Union). Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on Cosmetic Products ; 2016.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    11. 11
      Breskey, J. D. California Again Leading the Way: Cosmetics Safety and Worker Health. Calif. J. Heal. Promot. 2013, 11 (1), vi– viii
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    12. 12
      Cal EPA (California Environmental Protection Agency). Summary of Data and Findings from Testing of a Limited Number of Nail Products ; 2012.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    13. 13
      EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Toluene Hazard Summary ; 2012.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    14. 14
      IARC. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: List of Classifications, Volumes 1–121; 2018.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    15. 15
      Nir, S. M. Perfect Nails, Poisoned Workers. New York Times ; 2015.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    16. 16
      Casals-Casas, C.; Desvergne, B. Endocrine Disruptors: From Endocrine to Metabolic Disruption. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 2011, 73, 135– 162,  DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-012110-142200
      16
      Endocrine disruptors: from endocrine to metabolic disruption
      Casals-Casas, Cristina; Desvergne, Beatrice
      Annual Review of Physiology (2011), 73 (), 135-162CODEN: ARPHAD; ISSN:0066-4278. (Annual Reviews Inc.)
      A review. Synthetic chems. currently used in a variety of industrial and agricultural applications are leading to widespread contamination of the environment. Even though the intended uses of pesticides, plasticizers, antimicrobials, and flame retardants are beneficial, effects on human health are a global concern. These so-called endocrine-disrupting chems. (EDCs) can disrupt hormonal balance and result in developmental and reproductive abnormalities. New in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiol. studies link human EDC exposure with obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. Here we review the main chem. compds. that may contribute to metabolic disruption. We then present their demonstrated or suggested mechanisms of action with respect to nuclear receptor signaling. Finally, we discuss the difficulties of fairly assessing the risks linked to EDC exposure, including developmental exposure, problems of high- and low-dose exposure, and the complexity of current chem. environments.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXktVKjtb8%253D&md5=3cbdf6eb334add87c80f2c53fccfeb2d
    17. 17
      Ferguson, K. K.; McElrath, T. F.; Meeker, J. D. Environmental Phthalate Exposure and Preterm Birth. JAMA Pediatr. 2014, 168 (1), 61– 67,  DOI: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.3699
      17
      Environmental phthalate exposure and preterm birth
      Ferguson Kelly K; Meeker John D; McElrath Thomas F
      JAMA pediatrics (2014), 168 (1), 61-67 ISSN:.
      IMPORTANCE: Preterm birth is a leading cause of neonatal mortality, with a variety of contributing causes and risk factors. Environmental exposures represent a group of understudied, but potentially important, factors. Phthalate diesters are used extensively in a variety of consumer products worldwide. Consequently, exposure in pregnant women is highly prevalent. OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between phthalate exposure during pregnancy and preterm birth. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This nested case-control study was conducted at Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts. Women were recruited for a prospective observational cohort study from 2006-2008. Each provided demographic data, biological samples, and information about birth outcomes. From within this group, we selected 130 cases of preterm birth and 352 randomly assigned control participants, and we analyzed urine samples from up to 3 time points during pregnancy for levels of phthalate metabolites. EXPOSURE: Phthalate exposure during pregnancy. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: We examined associations between average levels of phthalate exposure during pregnancy and preterm birth, defined as fewer than 37 weeks of completed gestation, as well as spontaneous preterm birth, defined as preterm preceded by spontaneous preterm labor or preterm premature rupture of the membranes (n = 57). RESULTS: Geometric means of the di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) metabolites mono-(2-ethyl)-hexyl phthalate (MEHP) and mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), as well as mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP), were significantly higher in cases compared with control participants. In adjusted models, MEHP, MECPP, and Σ DEHP metabolites were associated with significantly increased odds of preterm birth. When spontaneous preterm births were examined alone, MEHP, mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate, MECPP, Σ DEHP, MBP, and mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate metabolite levels were all associated with significantly elevated odds of prematurity. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Women exposed to phthalates during pregnancy have significantly increased odds of delivering preterm. Steps should be taken to decrease maternal exposure to phthalates during pregnancy.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC2c7otFSqsQ%253D%253D&md5=39f19c2df37fcc4042b2d7150f905216
    18. 18
      Hauser, R.; Meeker, J. D.; Duty, S.; Silva, M. J.; Calafat, A. M. Altered Semen Quality in Relation to Urinary Concentrations of Phthalate Monoester and Oxidative Metabolites. Epidemiology 2006, 17 (6), 682– 691,  DOI: 10.1097/01.ede.0000235996.89953.d7
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    19. 19
      Huang, P.; Kuo, P.; Guo, Y.; Liao, P.; Lee, C. Associations between Urinary Phthalate Monoesters and Thyroid Hormones in Pregnant Women. Hum. Reprod. 2007, 22 (10), 2715– 2722,  DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dem205
      19
      Associations between urinary phthalate monoesters and thyroid hormones in pregnant women
      Huang, Po-Chin; Kuo, Pao-Lin; Guo, Yue-Liang; Liao, Pao-Chi; Lee, Ching-Chang
      Human Reproduction (2007), 22 (10), 2715-2722CODEN: HUREEE; ISSN:0268-1161. (Oxford University Press)
      Background: Maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy can cause adverse effects in the fetus. Scientific evidence has shown that probable thyroid-like function of some phthalates in vitro and in vivo, and phthalates exposure, can begin in utero. This study investigated the assocn. between phthalate exposure and thyroid hormones in pregnant women. Methods: Serum and spot urine samples were collected from 76 Taiwanese pregnant women at second trimester. Thyroid hormones, including TSH (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) and free T4 (FT4) were analyzed in serum samples, and five urinary phthalate monoesters, including mono Bu phthalate (MBP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP) and mono ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP), were measured. Results: Urinary MBP, MEP and MEHP, the median levels of which were 81.8, 27.7 and 20.6 ng/mL, resp., were the predominant substances in the urinary phthalate monoesters. Significant mild neg. correlations were found between T4 and urinary MBP (R = -0.248, P < 0.05), and between FT4 and urinary MBP (R = -0.368, P < 0.05). After adjusting for age, BMI and gestation, urinary MBP levels showed neg. assocns. with FT4 and T4 (FT4: β = -0.110, P < 0.001; T4: β = -0.112, P = 0.003). Conclusions: Exposure to di-Bu phthalate (DBP) may affect thyroid activity in pregnant women, but how DBP affects thyroid function is unclear. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism of action and to investigate whether any other factors related to DBP exposure alter the thyroid function.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXhtlekt77O&md5=944437691f53b7d157f5b566e292b558
    20. 20
      Schug, T. T.; Janesick, A.; Blumberg, B.; Heindel, J. J. Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Disease Susceptibility. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2011, 127, 204– 215,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.08.007
      20
      Endocrine disrupting chemicals and disease susceptibility
      Schug, Thaddeus T.; Janesick, Amanda; Blumberg, Bruce; Heindel, Jerrold J.
      Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (2011), 127 (3-5), 204-215CODEN: JSBBEZ; ISSN:0960-0760. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      A review. Environmental chems. have significant impacts on biol. systems. Chem. exposures during early stages of development can disrupt normal patterns of development and thus dramatically alter disease susceptibility later in life. Endocrine disrupting chems. (EDCs) interfere with the body's endocrine system and produce adverse developmental, reproductive, neurol., cardiovascular, metabolic and immune effects in humans. A wide range of substances, both natural and man-made, are thought to cause endocrine disruption, including pharmaceuticals, dioxin and dioxin-like compds., polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT and other pesticides, and components of plastics such as bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates. EDCs are found in many everyday products - including plastic bottles, metal food cans, detergents, flame retardants, food additives, toys, cosmetics, and pesticides. EDCs interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, activity, or elimination of natural hormones. This interference can block or mimic hormone action, causing a wide range of effects. This review focuses on the mechanisms and modes of action by which EDCs alter hormone signaling. It also includes brief overviews of select disease endpoints assocd. with endocrine disruption.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhsFSksrnE&md5=4c95fa724875f3e63ebcd3ff3442d678
    21. 21
      Swan, S. H.; Main, K. M.; Liu, F.; Stewart, S. L.; Kruse, R. L.; Calafat, A. M.; Mao, C. S.; Redmon, J. B.; Ternand, C. L.; Sullivan, S.; Teague, J. L. the Study for Future Families Research Team. Decrease in Anogenital Distance among Male Infants with Prenatal Phthalate Exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113 (8), 1056– 1061,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.8100
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    22. 22
      EWG (Environmental Working Group). Skin Deep Cosmetic Database http://www.ewg.org/skindeep (accessed Feb 5, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    23. 23
      Mendelsohn, E.; Hagopian, A.; Hoffman, K.; Butt, C. M.; Lorenzo, A.; Congleton, J.; Webster, T. F.; Stapleton, H. M. Nail Polish as a Source of Exposure to Triphenyl Phosphate. Environ. Int. 2016, 86, 45– 51,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.10.005
      23
      Nail polish as a source of exposure to triphenyl phosphate
      Mendelsohn, Emma; Hagopian, Audrey; Hoffman, Kate; Butt, Craig M.; Lorenzo, Amelia; Congleton, Johanna; Webster, Thomas F.; Stapleton, Heather M.
      Environment International (2016), 86 (), 45-51CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Tri-Ph phosphate (TPHP) is primarily used as either a flame retardant or plasticizer, and is listed as an ingredient in nail polishes. However, the concn. of TPHP in nail polish and the extent of human exposure following applications have not been previously studied. We measured TPHP in ten different nail polish samples purchased from department stores and pharmacies in 2013-2014. Concns. up to 1.68% TPHP by wt. were detected in eight samples, including two that did not list TPHP as an ingredient. Two cohorts (n = 26 participants) were recruited to assess fingernail painting as a pathway of TPHP exposure. Participants provided urine samples before and after applying one brand of polish contg. 0.97% TPHP by wt. Di-Ph phosphate (DPHP), a TPHP metabolite, was then measured in urine samples (n = 411) and found to increase nearly seven-fold 10-14 h after fingernail painting (p < 0.001). To det. relative contributions of inhalation and dermal exposure, ten participants also painted their nails and painted synthetic nails adhered to gloves on two sep. occasions, and collected urine for 24 h following applications. Urinary DPHP was significantly diminished when wearing gloves, suggesting that the primary exposure route is dermal. Our results indicate that nail polish may be a significant source of short-term TPHP exposure and a source of chronic exposure for frequent users or those occupationally exposed.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhslWisr7E&md5=a390d01ba0c50afece646a084b844f2e
    24. 24
      Carignan, C. C.; Mínguez-Alarcón, L.; Butt, C. M.; Williams, P. L.; Meeker, J. D.; Stapleton, H. M.; Toth, T. L.; Ford, J. B.; Hauser, R. Urinary Concentrations of Organophosphate Flame Retardant Metabolites and Pregnancy Outcomes among Women Undergoing in Vitro Fertilization for the EARTH Study Team. Environ. Health Perspect. 2017, 125 (8), 8,  DOI: 10.1289/EHP1021
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    25. 25
      Liu, C.; Wang, Q.; Liang, K.; Liu, J.; Zhou, B.; Zhang, X.; Liu, H.; Giesy, J. P.; Yu, H. Effects of tris(1,3-Dichloro-2-Propyl) Phosphate and Triphenyl Phosphate on Receptor-Associated mRNA Expression in Zebrafish Embryos/larvae. Aquat. Toxicol. 2013, 128–129, 147– 157,  DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2012.12.010
      25
      Effects of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate and triphenyl phosphate on receptor-associated mRNA expression in zebrafish embryos/larvae
      Liu, Chunsheng; Wang, Qiangwei; Liang, Kang; Liu, Jingfu; Zhou, Bingsheng; Zhang, Xiaowei; Liu, Hongling; Giesy, John P.; Yu, Hongxia
      Aquatic Toxicology (2013), 128-129 (), 147-157CODEN: AQTODG; ISSN:0166-445X. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) and tri-Ph phosphate (TPP) are frequently detected in biota, including fish. However, knowledge of the toxicol. and mol. effects of these currently used flame retardants is limited. In the present study, an in vivo screening approach was developed to evaluate effects of TDCPP and TPP on developmental endpoints and receptor-assocd. expression of mRNA in zebrafish embryos/larvae. Exposure to TDCPP or TPP resulted in significantly smaller rates of hatching and survival, in dose- and time-dependent manners. The median lethal concn. (LC50) was 7.0 mg/L for TDCPP and 29.6 mg/L for TPP at 120 h post-fertilization (hpf). Real-time PCR revealed alterations in expression of mRNAs involved in aryl hydrocarbon receptors (AhRs)-, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα)-, estrogenic receptors (ERs)-, thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TRα)-, glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-, and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR)-centered gene networks. Exposure to pos. control chems. significantly altered abundances of mRNA in corresponding receptor-centered gene networks, a result that suggests that it is feasible to use zebrafish embryos/larvae to evaluate effects of chems. on mRNA expression in these gene networks. Exposure to TDCPP altered transcriptional profiles in all six receptor-centered gene networks, thus exerting multiple toxic effects. TPP was easily metabolized and its potency to change expression of mRNA involved in receptor-centered gene networks was weaker than that of TDCPP. The PPARα- and TRα-centered gene networks might be the primary pathways affected by TPP. Taken together, these results demonstrated that TDCPP and TPP could alter mRNA expression of genes involved in the six receptor-centered gene networks in zebrafish embryos/larvae, and TDCPP seemed to have higher potency in changing the mRNA expression of these genes.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1CjsLk%253D&md5=33025295f1a38a4c45cd602605c29ee4
    26. 26
      Meeker, J. D.; Stapleton, H. M. House Dust Concentrations of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Relation to Hormone Levels and Semen Quality Parameters. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118 (3), 318– 323,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.0901332
      26
      House dust concentrations of organophosphate flame retardants in relation to hormone levels and semen quality parameters
      Meeker, John D.; Stapleton, Heather M.
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2010), 118 (3), 318-323CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
      Background: Organophosphate (OP) compds., such as tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) and tri-Ph phosphate (TPP), are commonly used as additive flame retardants and plasticizers in a wide range of materials. Although widespread human exposure to OP flame retardants is likely, there is a lack of human and animal data on potential health effects. Objective: We explored relationships of TDCPP and TPP concns. in house dust with hormone levels and semen quality parameters. Methods: We analyzed house dust from 50 men recruited through a U.S. infertility clinic for TDCPP and TPP. Relationships with reproductive and thyroid hormone levels, as well as semen quality parameters, were assessed using crude and multivariable linear regression. Results: TDCPP and TPP were detected in 96% and 98% of samples, resp., with widely varying concns. up to 1.8 mg/g. In models adjusted for age and body mass index, an interquartile range (IQR) increase in TDCPP was assocd. with a 3% [95% confidence interval (CI), -5% to -1%) decline in free thyroxine and a 17% (95% CI, 4-32%) increase in prolactin. There was a suggestive inverse assocn. between TDCPP and free androgen index that became less evident in adjusted models. In the adjusted models, an IQR increase in TPP was assocd. with a 10% (95% CI, 2-19%) increase in prolactin and a 19% (95% CI, -30% to -5%) decrease in sperm concn. Conclusion: OP flame retardants may be assocd. with altered hormone levels and decreased semen quality in men. More research on sources and levels of human exposure to OP flame retardants and assocd. health outcomes are needed.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXksVyltrk%253D&md5=e2b4fce9dd40b375ff120863b3a2a4d8
    27. 27
      Meeker, J. D.; Cooper, E. M.; Stapleton, H. M.; Hauser, R. Exploratory Analysis of Urinary Metabolites of Phosphorus-Containing Flame Retardants in Relation to Markers of Male Reproductive Health. Endocr. Disruptors 2013, 1 (1), e26306,  DOI: 10.4161/endo.26306
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    28. 28
      Preston, E. V.; McClean, M. D.; Claus Henn, B.; Stapleton, H. M.; Braverman, L. E.; Pearce, E. N.; Makey, C. M.; Webster, T. F. Associations between Urinary Diphenyl Phosphate and Thyroid Function. Environ. Int. 2017, 101, 158– 164,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.01.020
      28
      Associations between urinary diphenyl phosphate and thyroid function
      Preston, Emma V.; McClean, Michael D.; Claus Henn, Birgit; Stapleton, Heather M.; Braverman, Lewis E.; Pearce, Elizabeth N.; Makey, Colleen M.; Webster, Thomas F.
      Environment International (2017), 101 (), 158-164CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Tri-Ph phosphate (TPHP) is a commonly used organophosphate flame retardant and plasticizer with widespread human exposure. Data on health effects of TPHP are limited. Recent toxicol. studies suggest TPHP may alter thyroid function. We used repeated measures to assess the temporal variability in urinary concns. of the TPHP metabolite, di-Ph phosphate (DPHP), and to examine relationships between DPHP concns. and thyroid hormones. We sampled 51 adults at months 1, 6, and 12 from 2010 to 2011. Urine samples were analyzed for DPHP. Serum samples were analyzed for free and total thyroxine (fT4, TT4), total triiodothyronine (TT3), and TSH (TSH). We assessed variability in DPHP using intraclass correlation coeffs. (ICCs) and kappa statistics. We used linear mixed-effects models to examine assocns. between DPHP and thyroid hormones. DPHP was detected in 95% of urine samples. Mean DPHP concns. were 43% higher in women than men. DPHP showed high within-subject variability (ICC range, 0.13-0.39; kappa range, 0.16-0.39). High vs. low (≥ 2.65 vs. < 2.65 ng/mL) DPHP in all participants was assocd. with a 0.43 μg/dL (95% confidence interval: 0.15, 0.72) increase in mean TT4 levels. In sex-stratified analyses, high vs. low DPHP was assocd. with a 0.91 μg/dL (95% CI: 0.47, 1.36) increase in mean TT4 in women. The assocn. was attenuated in men (βeta = 0.19; 95% CI: - 0.15, 0.52). We found no significant assocns. between DPHP and fT4, TT3, or TSH. We found evidence that TPHP exposure may be assocd. with increased TT4 levels, esp. in women.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXitlKltr0%253D&md5=c0aeb1a55cbc13aec7c5e4be4694e724
    29. 29
      Scherer, L. D.; Maynard, A.; Dolinoy, D. C.; Fagerlin, A.; Zikmund-Fisher, B. J. The Psychology of “Regrettable Substitutions”: Examining Consumer Judgements of Bisphenol A and Its Alternatives. Health. Risk Soc. 2014, 16 (7–8), 649– 666,  DOI: 10.1080/13698575.2014.969687
      29
      The psychology of 'regrettable substitutions': Examining consumer judgements of Bisphenol A and its alternatives
      Scherer Laura D; Maynard Andrew; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J; Maynard Andrew; Dolinoy Dana C; Fagerlin Angela; Fagerlin Angela; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J; Fagerlin Angela; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J; Fagerlin Angela; Zikmund-Fisher Brian J
      Health, risk & society (2014), 16 (7-8), 649-666 ISSN:1369-8575.
      Bisphenol A is a chemical used to make certain types of plastics and is found in numerous consumer products. Because scientific studies have raised concerns about Bisphenol A's potential impact on human health, it has been removed from some (but not all) products. What many consumers do not know, however, is that Bisphenol A is often replaced with other, less-studied chemicals whose health implications are virtually unknown. This type of situation is known as a potential 'regrettable substitution', because the substitute material might actually be worse than the material that it replaces. Regrettable substitutions are a common concern among policymakers, and they are a real-world manifestation of the tension that can exist between the desire to avoid risk (known possible consequences that might or might not occur) and ambiguity (second-order uncertainty), which is itself aversive. In this article we examine how people make such trade-offs using the example of Bisphenol A. Using data from Study 1, we show that people have inconsistent preferences toward these alternatives and that choice is largely determined by irrelevant contextual factors such as the order in which the alternatives are evaluated. Using data from Study 2 we further demonstrate that when people are informed of the presence of substitute chemicals, labeling the alternative product as 'free' of Bisphenol A causes them to be significantly more likely to choose the alternative despite its ambiguity. We discuss the relevance of these findings for extant psychological theories as well as their implications for risk, policy and health communication.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1MvlvF2mtA%253D%253D&md5=06643cf2b9777361ffa8fb34dc4e7564
    30. 30
      Zimmerman, J. B.; Anastas, P. T. Toward Substitution with No Regrets. Science 2015, 347 (6227), 1198– 1199,  DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa0812
      30
      Toward substitution with no regrets
      Zimmerman, Julie B.; Anastas, Paul T.
      Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2015), 347 (6227), 1198-1199CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
      There is no expanded citation for this reference.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXls1Squ7Y%253D&md5=4539fc1fe159ead2954d6dadcdab4078
    31. 31
      FDA (Food and Drug Administration). Cosmetics: FDA authority over cosmetics: how cosmetics are not FDA-approved, but are FDA-regulated https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/GuidanceRegulation/LawsRegulations/ucm074162.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    32. 32
      FDA. Cosmetics: prohibited & restricted ingredients https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/GuidanceRegulation/LawsRegulations/ucm127406.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    33. 33
      FDA. About FDA: Part II: 1938, Food, Drug, Cosmetic Act https://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/FOrgsHistory/EvolvingPowers/ucm054826.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    34. 34
      FTC (Federal Trade Commission). Rule 16 CFR Part 260: Guides for the use of environmental marketing claims https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=ddcda39ef66f41f82d4b3910f7d5082a&mc=true&node=pt16.1.260&rgn=div5 (accessed Sep 17, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    35. 35
      FDA. Cosmetics: fragrances in cosmetics https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductsIngredients/Ingredients/ucm388821.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    36. 36
      FDA. Cosmetics: phthalates https://www.fda.gov/Cosmetics/ProductsIngredients/Ingredients/ucm128250.htm (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    37. 37
      FDA. Cosmetic Labeling Guide https://www.fda.gov/cosmetics/labeling/regulations/ucm126444.htm#clgl (accessed Sep 17, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    38. 38
      OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration). Hazard communication standard: Safety Data Sheets https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3514.html (accessed Feb 25, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    39. 39
      EPA. Exposure Factors Handbook ; 2011.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    40. 40
      Mintel. Nail Color and Care: US, January 2016 ; 2016.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    41. 41
      2017 Big Book Statistics. NAILS Magazine . 2018.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    42. 42
      Buckley, J. P.; Palmieri, R. T.; Matuszewski, J. M.; Herring, A. H.; Baird, D. D.; Hartmann, K. E.; Hoppin, J. A. Consumer Product Exposures Associated with Urinary Phthalate Levels in Pregnant Women. J. Exposure Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2012, 22 (5), 468– 475,  DOI: 10.1038/jes.2012.33
      42
      Consumer product exposures associated with urinary phthalate levels in pregnant women
      Buckley, Jessie P.; Palmieri, Rachel T.; Matuszewski, Jeanine M.; Herring, Amy H.; Baird, Donna D.; Hartmann, Katherine E.; Hoppin, Jane A.
      Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2012), 22 (5), 468-475CODEN: JESEBS; ISSN:1559-0631. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Human phthalate exposure is ubiquitous, but little is known regarding predictors of urinary phthalate levels. To explore this, 50 pregnant women aged 18-38 years completed two questionnaires on potential phthalate exposures and provided a first morning void. Urine samples were analyzed for 12 phthalate metabolites. Assocns. with questionnaire items were evaluated via Wilcoxon tests and t-tests, and r-squared values were calcd. in multiple linear regression models. Few measured factors were statistically significantly assocd. with phthalate levels. Individuals who used nail polish had higher levels of mono-Bu phthalate (P=0.048) than non-users. Mono-benzyl phthalate levels were higher among women who used eye makeup (P=0.034) or used makeup on a regular basis (P=0.004). Women who used cologne or perfume had higher levels of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate metabolites. Household products, home flooring or paneling, and other personal care products were also assocd. with urinary phthalates. The proportion of variance in metabolite concns. explained by questionnaire items ranged between 0.31 for mono-Et phthalate and 0.42 for mono-n-Me phthalate. Although personal care product use may be an important predictor of urinary phthalate levels, most of the variability in phthalate exposure was not captured by our relatively comprehensive set of questionnaire items. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiol. (2012) 22, 468-475; doi:10.1038/jes.2012.33; published online 4 July 2012.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xht1GjtrjN&md5=9fefccf71d12fcd2d5318b9cc2365fb6
    43. 43
      Hines, E. P.; Calafat, A. M.; Silva, M. J.; Mendola, P.; Fenton, S. E. Concentrations of Phthalate Metabolites in Milk, Urine, Saliva, and Serum of Lactating North Carolina Women. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117 (1), 86– 92,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.11610
      43
      Concentrations of phthalate metabolites in milk, urine, saliva, and serum of lactating North Carolina women
      Hines, Erin P.; Calafat, Antonia M.; Silva, Manori J.; Mendola, Pauline; Fenton, Suzanne E.
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2009), 117 (1), 86-92CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
      Phthalates are ubiquitous in the environment, but concns. in multiple media from breast-feeding U.S. women have not been evaluated. The objective of this study was to accurately measure and compare the concns. of oxidative monoester phthalate metabolites in milk and surrogate fluids (serum, saliva, and urine) of 33 lactating North Carolina women. We analyzed serum, saliva, urine, and milk for the oxidative phthalate metabolites mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate using isotope-diln. high-performance liq. chromatog. tandem mass spectroscopy. Because only urine lacks esterases, we analyzed it for the hydrolytic phthalate monoesters. We detected phthalate metabolites in few milk (< 10%) and saliva samples. MECPP was detected in > 80% of serum samples, but other metabolites were less common (3-22%). Seven of the 10 urinary metabolites were detectable in ≥ 85% of samples. Monoethyl phthalate had the highest mean concn. in urine. Metabolite concns. differed by body fluid (urine > serum > milk and saliva). Questionnaire data suggest that frequent nail polish use, IgA, and fasting serum glucose and triglyceride levels were increased among women with higher concns. of urinary and/or serum phthalate metabolites; motor vehicle age was inversely correlated with certain urinary phthalate concns. Our data suggest that phthalate metabolites are most frequently detected in urine of lactating women and are less often detected in serum, milk, or saliva. Urinary phthalate concns. reflect maternal exposure and do not represent the concns. of oxidative metabolites in other body fluids, esp. milk.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXhvV2nt7k%253D&md5=8ff89074500ababe804c2fff2f6ac779
    44. 44
      Hines, C. J.; Nilsen Hopf, N. B.; Deddens, J. A.; Calafat, A. M.; Silva, M. J.; Grote, A. A.; Sammons, D. L. Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Concentrations among Workers in Selected Industries: A Pilot Biomonitoring Study. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2009, 53 (1), 1– 17,  DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/men066
      44
      Urinary Phthalate Metabolite Concentrations among Workers in Selected Industries: A Pilot Biomonitoring Study
      Hines, Cynthia J.; Nilsen Hopf, Nancy B.; Deddens, James A.; Calafat, Antonia M.; Silva, Manori J.; Grote, Ardith A.; Sammons, Deborah L.
      Annals of Occupational Hygiene (2009), 53 (1), 1-17CODEN: AOHYA3; ISSN:0003-4878. (Oxford University Press)
      Phthalates are used as plasticizers and solvents in industrial, medical and consumer products; however, occupational exposure information is limited. We sought to obtain preliminary information on occupational exposures to di-Et phthalate (DEP), di-Bu phthalate (DBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) by analyzing for their metabolites in urine samples collected from workers in a cross-section of industries. We also obtained data on metabolites of di-Me phthalate (DMP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BzBP), di-iso-Bu phthalate and di-isononyl phthalate. We recruited 156 workers in 2003-2005 from eight industry sectors. We assessed occupational contribution by comparing end-shift metabolite concns. to the US general population. Evidence of occupational exposure to DEHP was strongest in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film manufg., PVC compounding and rubber boot manufg. where geometric mean (GM) end-shift concns. of DEHP metabolites exceeded general population levels by 8-, 6- and 3-fold, resp. Occupational exposure to DBP was most evident in rubber gasket, phthalate (raw material) and rubber hose manufg., with DBP metabolite concns. exceeding general population levels by 26-, 25- and 10-fold, resp., whereas DBP exposure in nail-only salons (manicurists) was only 2-fold higher than in the general population. Concns. of DEP and DMP metabolites in phthalate manufg. exceeded general population levels by 4- and >1000-fold, resp. We also found instances where GM end-shift concns. of some metabolites exceeded general population concns. even when no workplace use was reported, e.g. BzBP in rubber hose and rubber boot manufg. In summary, using urinary metabolites, we successfully identified workplaces with likely occupational phthalate exposure. Addnl. work is needed to distinguish occupational from non-occupational sources in low-exposure workplaces.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXhtVegtrw%253D&md5=fa504e65beacfc575e4e3b41b8751a5b
    45. 45
      John, E. M.; Savitz, D. A.; Shy, C. M. Spontaneous Abortions among Cosmetologists. Epidemiology 1994, 5 (2), 147– 155,  DOI: 10.1097/00001648-199403000-00004
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    46. 46
      Quach, T.; Von Behren, J.; Goldberg, D.; Layefsky, M.; Reynolds, P. Adverse Birth Outcomes and Maternal Complications in Licensed Cosmetologists and Manicurists in California. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2015, 88 (7), 823– 833,  DOI: 10.1007/s00420-014-1011-0
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    47. 47
      Tran, T. M.; Kannan, K. Occurrence of Phthalate Diesters in Particulate and Vapor Phases in Indoor Air and Implications for Human Exposure in Albany, New York, USA. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2015, 68 (3), 489– 499,  DOI: 10.1007/s00244-015-0140-0
      47
      Occurrence of Phthalate Diesters in Particulate and Vapor Phases in Indoor Air and Implications for Human Exposure in Albany, New York, USA
      Tran, Tri Manh; Kannan, Kurunthachalam
      Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2015), 68 (3), 489-499CODEN: AECTCV; ISSN:0090-4341. (Springer)
      Phthalate diesters are used as plasticizers in a wide range of consumer products. Because phthalates have been shown in lab. animal studies to be toxic, human exposure to these chems. is a matter of concern. Nevertheless, little is known about inhalation exposure to phthalates in the United States. In this study, occurrence of nine phthalates was detd. in 60 indoor air samples collected in 2014 in Albany, New York, USA. Airborne particulate and vapor phase samples were collected from various sampling locations by use of a low-vol. air sampler. The median concns. of nine phthalates in air samples collected from homes, offices, labs., schools, salons (hair and nail salons), and public places were 732, 143, 170, 371, 2600, and 354 ng/m3, resp. Di-Et phthalate (DEP) was found at the highest concns., which ranged from 4.83 to 2250 ng/m3 (median 152) followed by di-Bu phthalate, which ranged from 4.05 to 1170 ng/m3 (median 63.3). The median inhalation exposure dose to phthalates was estd. at 0.845, 0.423, 0.203, 0.089, and 0.070 μg/kg-bw/d for infants, toddlers, children, teenagers, and adults, resp. Inhalation is an important pathway of human exposure to DEP.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXjt1aktb0%253D&md5=7ddbce90b29899e79783cc823fb4ec48
    48. 48
      Weschler, C. J.; Bekö, G.; Koch, H. M.; Salthammer, T.; Schripp, T.; Toftum, J.; Clausen, G. Transdermal Uptake of Diethyl Phthalate and Di(n-Butyl) Phthalate Directly from Air: Experimental Verification. Environ. Health Perspect. 2015, 123 (10), 928– 934,  DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1409151
      48
      Transdermal uptake of diethyl phthalate and di(n-butyl) phthalate directly from air: experimental verification
      Weschler, Charles J.; Beko, Gabriel; Koch, Holger M.; Salthammer, Tunga; Schripp, Tobias; Toftum, Joern; Clausen, Geo
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2015), 123 (10), 928-934CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:1552-9924. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health)
      Background: Fundamental considerations indicate that, for certain phthalate esters, dermal absorption from air is an uptake pathway that is comparable to or greater than inhalation. Yet this pathway has not been exptl. evaluated and has been largely overlooked when assessing uptake of phthalate esters. OBjectives: This study investigated transdermal uptake, directly from air, of di-Et phthalate (DEP) and di(n-butyl) phthalate (DnBP) in humans. Methods: In a series of expts., six human participants were exposed for 6 h in a chamber contg. deliberately elevated air concns. of DEP and DnBP. The participants either wore a hood and breathed air with phthalate concns. substantially below those in the chamber or did not wear a hood and breathed chamber air. All urinations were collected from initiation of exposure until 54 h later. Metabolites of DEP and DnBP were measured in these samples and extrapolated to parent phthalate intakes, cor. for background and hood air exposures. Results: For DEP, the median dermal uptake directly from air was 4.0 μg/(μg/m3 in air) compared with an inhalation intake of 3.8 μg/(μg/m3 in air). For DnBP, the median dermal uptake from air was 3.1 μg/(μg/m3 in air) compared with an inhalation intake of 3.9 μg/(μg/m3 in air). Conclusions: This study shows that dermal uptake directly from air can be a meaningful exposure pathway for DEP and DnBP. For other semivolatile org. compds. (SVOCs) whose mol. wt. and lipid/air partition coeff. are in the appropriate range, direct absorption from air is also anticipated to be significant.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXls1Smsr0%253D&md5=9fd358f98c03275e58bf98976fdbdf16
    49. 49
      Weschler, C. J.; Nazaroff, W. W. Semivolatile Organic Compounds in Indoor Environments. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (40), 9018– 9040,  DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.052
      49
      Semivolatile organic compounds in indoor environments
      Weschler, Charles J.; Nazaroff, William W.
      Atmospheric Environment (2008), 42 (40), 9018-9040CODEN: AENVEQ; ISSN:1352-2310. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Semivolatile org. compds. (SVOCs) are ubiquitous in indoor environments, redistributing from their original sources to all indoor surfaces. Exposures resulting from their indoor presence contribute to detectable body burdens of diverse SVOCs, including pesticides, plasticizers, and flame retardants. This paper critically examines equil. partitioning of SVOCs among indoor compartments. It proceeds to evaluate kinetic constraints on sorptive partitioning to org. matter on fixed surfaces and airborne particles. Analyses indicate that equil. partitioning is achieved faster for particles than for typical indoor surfaces; indeed, for a strongly sorbing SVOC and a thick sorptive reservoir, equil. partitioning is never achieved. Mass-balance considerations are used to develop phys.-science-based models that connect source- and sink-rates to airborne concns. for commonly encountered situations, such as the application of a pesticide or the emission of a plasticizer or flame retardant from its host material. Calcns. suggest that many SVOCs have long indoor persistence, even after the primary source is removed. If the only removal mechanism is ventilation, moderately sorbing compds. (K oa > 1010) may persist indoors for hundreds to thousands of hours, while strongly sorbing compds. (K oa > 1012) may persist for years. The paper concludes by applying the newly developed framework to explore exposure pathways of building occupants to indoor SVOCs. Accumulation of SVOCs as a consequence of direct air-to-human transport is shown to be potentially large, with a max. indoor-air processing rate of 10-20 m3/h for SVOC uptake by human skin, hair and clothing. Levels on human skin calcd. with a simple model of direct air-to-skin transfer agree remarkably well with levels measured in dermal hand wipes for SVOCs possessing a wide range of octanol-air partition coeffs.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhsVSqtrnE&md5=13951f3772d946437b6bc08e9773c36e
    50. 50
      Bui, H. S.; Li, C.; Fairneny, S.; Ortega, L.; Kanji, M.; Hariharan, R. Nitrocellulose-Free Nail Polish Compositions. 9713588, 2011.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    51. 51
      Crescimanno, S. Low Haze Film Formers for Top Coat Nail Polish. 9603786, 2016.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    52. 52
      Homma, M.; Homma, V. Nail Polish Composition. 9050272, 2014.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    53. 53
      McFadden, D.; Steffier, L. Nail Polish Composition and Method of Making a Nail Polish. 9248091, 2014.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    54. 54
      Ortega, L.; Bui, H. S.; Hariharan, R.; Kanji, M. Nitrocellulose-Free Nail Polish Compositions. 9517360, 2010.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    55. 55
      Jefferson, J.; Rich, P. Update on Nail Cosmetics. Dermatol. Ther. 2012, 25 (6), 481– 490,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2012.01543.x
      55
      Update on nail cosmetics
      Jefferson Julie; Rich Phoebe
      Dermatologic therapy (2012), 25 (6), 481-90 ISSN:.
      Nail cosmetics are used by millions of people worldwide who desire smooth, lustrous nails. The nail cosmetic industry continues to expand to meet increasing consumer demand. In 2011 alone, consumers spent $6.6 billion on nail salon services. Although nail cosmetics are relatively safe, poor application techniques can promote disease, deformity, and allergic and irritant contact dermatitis. The foundation for managing nail cosmetic problems is prevention through education. Familiarity with the procedures and materials used in the nail cosmetic industry is necessary in order to recommend safe nail care strategies.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3s7ptVKktw%253D%253D&md5=fef0f0611ce9da009cbb5e3599df28b1
    56. 56
      OSHA. Appendix A to §1910.1200 - health hazard criteria (mandatory) https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10100 (accessed Mar 1, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    57. 57
      BPHC (Boston Public Health Commission). Choose Green & Clean for your next mani-pedi http://www.bphc.org/onlinenewsroom/Blog/Lists/Posts/Post.aspx?List=24ee0d58-2a85-4a4a-855b-f5af9d781627&ID=969&Web=03126e14-4972-4333-b8a3-800cbc1cafce (accessed May 7, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    58. 58
      Cal EPA. Healthy Nail Salon Recognition Program Guidelines ; 2018.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    59. 59
      California Healthy Nail Salon Collaborative. What is a healthy nail salon? https://cahealthynailsalons.org/what-is-a-healthy-salon-1/ (accessed May 7, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    60. 60
      King County Healthy Nail Salon Recognition Program. Healthy nail salon recognition program: application form 4–5 stars http://www.hazwastehelp.org/health/nail-salons-recog.aspx (accessed May 4, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    61. 61
      Oregon OSHA. Nail salons http://osha.oregon.gov/OSHAPubs/4783e.pdf (accessed May 4, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    62. 62
      OSHA. Health hazards in nail salons https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/nailsalons/chemicalhazards.html (accessed Mar 1, 2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    63. 63
      ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). Toxicological profile for di(e-ethylhexyl)phthalate; 2012.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    64. 64
      Fong, J. P.; Lee, F. J.; Lu, I. S.; Uang, S. N.; Lee, C. C. Estimating the contribution of inhalation exposure to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) for PVC production workers, using personal air sampling and urinary metabolite monitoring. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2014, 217 (1), 102– 109,  DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.04.002
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    65. 65
      Kurahashi, N.; Kondo, T.; Omura, M.; Umemura, T.; Ma, M.; Kishi, R. The effects of subacute inhalation of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on the testes of prepubertal Wistar rats. J. Occup. Health 2005, 47 (5), 437– 444,  DOI: 10.1539/joh.47.437
      65
      The effects of subacute inhalation of Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on the testes of prepubertal Wistar rats
      Kurahashi, Norie; Kondo, Tomoko; Omura, Minoru; Umemura, Tomohiro; Ma, Mingyue; Kishi, Reiko
      Journal of Occupational Health (2005), 47 (5), 437-444CODEN: JOCHFV; ISSN:1341-9145. (Japan Society for Occupational Health)
      In animal studies using oral dosing for short periods, di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is well known for its reproductive toxicity, esp. for its testicular toxicity. However, extending the period of DEHP exposure in prepubertal rats resulted in significant increases in testosterone. This suggests that the reproductive effect of DEHP might be assocd. with the timing and the term of exposure. Moreover, the route of exposure may induce differences in its effect because tissue levels of metabolites of DEHP after inhalation are thought to be different from those after oral administration. We researched the effects of inhalation of DEHP on testes of prepubertal rats. These results showed that inhalation of DEHP by 4-wk-old male Wistar rats at doses of 5 or 25 mg/m3, 6 h per day, for 4 and 8 wk significantly increased the concn. of plasma testosterone and wt. of seminal vesicles. However, the concn. of LH, follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) and the expression of mRNAs of androgen biosynthesis enzyme, cytochrome P 450 cholesterol side-chain-cleavage enzyme (P450scc), 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), cytochrome P 450 17α-hydroxylase/17, 20 lyase (CYP17) and aromatase (CYP19) did not change. Rats with precocious testes did not increase in any of the DEHP groups. We also found that the estd. ED in this study was less than those reported in previous studies which used oral dosing. Our study showed that inhaled DEHP increased plasma testosterone concns. in prepubertal rats and suggested that their effects were more sensitive to inhalation of DEHP than oral dosing.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXhtFyqtLzJ&md5=fa004cd6b4cdcae4ddcaafb23bcea62e
    66. 66
      Rasmussen, L. M.; Sen, N.; Vera, J. C.; Liu, X.; Craig, Z. R. Effects of in Vitro Exposure to Dibutyl Phthalate, Mono-Butyl Phthalate, and Acetyl Tributyl Citrate on Ovarian Antral Follicle Growth and Viability. Biol. Reprod. 2017, 96 (5), 1105– 1117,  DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.116.144691
      66
      Effects of in vitro exposure to dibutyl phthalate, mono-butyl phthalate, and acetyl tributyl citrate on ovarian antral follicle growth and viability
      Rasmussen Lindsay M; Sen Nivedita; Vera Jahaira C; Liu Xiaosong; Craig Zelieann R
      Biology of reproduction (2017), 96 (5), 1105-1117 ISSN:.
      Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is present in consumer products and the coating of some oral medications. Acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC) has been proposed as an alternative to DBP because DBP causes endocrine disruption in animal models. Following ingestion, DBP is converted to its main metabolite mono-butyl phthalate (MBP) which has been detected in >90% of human follicular fluid samples. Previous studies show that DBP reduces the number of antral follicles present in the ovaries of mice. Thus, this study was designed to evaluate the effects of DBP, MBP, and ATBC on in vitro growth and viability of mouse ovarian antral follicles. Antral follicles were isolated from CD-1 females (PND32-37) and treated with vehicle, DBP, MBP, or ATBC (starting at 0.001 and up to 1000 μg/ml for DBP; 24-72 h). Follicle diameter, ATP production, qPCR, and TUNEL were used to measure follicle growth, viability, cell cycle and apoptosis gene expression, and cell death-associated DNA fragmentation, respectively. While MBP did not cause toxicity, DBP exposure at ≥10 μg/ml resulted in growth inhibition followed by cytoxicity at ≥500 μg/ml. ATBC increased the number of nongrowing follicles at 0.01 μg/ml and did not affect ATP production, but increased TUNEL positive area in treated follicles. Gene expression results suggest that cytotoxicity in DBP-treated follicles occurs via activation of cell cycle arrest prior to follicular death. These findings suggest that concentrations of DBP ≥10 μg/ml are detrimental to antral follicles and that ATBC should be examined further as it may disrupt antral follicle function at low concentrations.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC1crlsFWrsg%253D%253D&md5=5a976d3870376017fb50a5797d3b8813
    67. 67
      Rasmussen, L. M.; Sen, N.; Liu, X.; Craig, Z. R. Effects of Oral Exposure to the Phthalate Substitute Acetyl Tributyl Citrate on Female Reproduction in Mice. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2017, 37 (6), 668– 675,  DOI: 10.1002/jat.3413
      67
      Effects of oral exposure to the phthalate substitute acetyl tributyl citrate on female reproduction in mice
      Rasmussen, Lindsay M.; Sen, Nivedita; Liu, Xiaosong; Craig, Zelieann R.
      Journal of Applied Toxicology (2017), 37 (6), 668-675CODEN: JJATDK; ISSN:0260-437X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
      Acetyl tri-Bu citrate (ATBC), is a phthalate substitute used in food and medical plastics, cosmetics and toys. Although systemically safe up to 1000 mg kg-1 day-1, its ability to cause reproductive toxicity in females at levels below 50 mg kg-1 day-1 has not been examd. This study evaluated the effects of lower ATBC exposures on female reprodn. using mice. Adult CD-1 females (n = 7-8 per treatment) were dosed orally with tocopherol-stripped corn oil (vehicle), 5 or 10 mg kg-1 day-1 ATBC daily for 15 days, and then bred with a proven breeder male. ATBC exposure did not alter body wts., estrous cyclicity, and gestational and litter parameters. Relative spleen wt. was slightly increased in the 5 mg kg-1 day-1 group. ATBC at 10 mg kg-1 day-1 targeted ovarian follicles and decreased the no. of primordial, primary and secondary follicles present in the ovary. These findings suggest that low levels of ATBC may be detrimental to ovarian function, thus, more information is needed to understand better the impact of ATBC on female reprodn.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvVymt7vK&md5=a59ef5ba3325f3abff3b9b419b179a1a
    68. 68
      Strajhar, P.; Tonoli, D.; Jeanneret, F.; Imhof, R. M.; Malagnino, V.; Patt, M.; Kratschmar, D. V.; Boccard, J.; Rudaz, S.; Odermatt, A. Steroid Profiling in H295R Cells to Identify Chemicals Potentially Disrupting the Production of Adrenal Steroids. Toxicology 2017, 381, 51– 63,  DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2017.02.010
      68
      Steroid profiling in H295R cells to identify chemicals potentially disrupting the production of adrenal steroids
      Strajhar, Petra; Tonoli, David; Jeanneret, Fabienne; Imhof, Raphaella M.; Malagnino, Vanessa; Patt, Melanie; Kratschmar, Denise V.; Boccard, Julien; Rudaz, Serge; Odermatt, Alex
      Toxicology (2017), 381 (), 51-63CODEN: TXCYAC; ISSN:0300-483X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The validated OECD test guideline 456 based on human adrenal H295R cells promotes measurement of testosterone and estradiol prodn. as read-out to identify potential endocrine disrupting chems. This study aimed to establish optimal conditions for using H295R cells to detect chems. interfering with the prodn. of key adrenal steroids. H295R cells' supernatants were characterized by liq. chromatog.-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based steroid profiling, and the influence of exptl. conditions including time and serum content was assessed. Steroid profiles were detd. before and after incubation with ref. compds. and chems. to be tested for potential disruption of adrenal steroidogenesis. The H295R cells cultivated according to the OECD test guideline produced progestins, glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and adrenal androgens but only very low amts. of testosterone. However, testosterone contained in Nu-serum was metabolized during the 48 h incubation. Thus, inclusion of pos. and neg. controls and a steroid profile of the complete medium prior to the expt. (t = 0 h) was necessary to characterize H295R cells' steroid prodn. and indicate alterations caused by exposure to chems. Among the tested chems., octyl methoxycinnamate and acetyl tributylcitrate resembled the corticosteroid induction pattern of the pos. control torcetrapib. Gene expression anal. revealed that octyl methoxycinnamate and acetyl tributylcitrate enhanced CYP11B2 expression, although less pronounced than torcetrapib. Further expts. need to assess the toxicol. relevance of octyl methoxycinnamate- and acetyl tributylcitrate-induced corticosteroid prodn. In conclusion, the extended profiling and appropriate controls allow detecting chems. that act on steroidogenesis and provide initial mechanistic evidence for prioritizing chems. for further investigations.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXjsl2lsb8%253D&md5=2e9cb701d5814d8597fa3b0c51d8dc38
    69. 69
      Takeshita, A.; Igarashi-Migitaka, J.; Nishiyama, K.; Takahashi, H.; Takeuchi, Y.; Koibuchi, N. Acetyl Tributyl Citrate, the Most Widely Used Phthalate Substitute Plasticizer, Induces Cytochrome p450 3a through Steroid and Xenobiotic Receptor. Toxicol. Sci. 2011, 123 (2), 460– 470,  DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr178
      69
      Acetyl Tributyl Citrate, the Most Widely Used Phthalate Substitute Plasticizer, Induces through Steroid and Xenobiotic Receptor
      Takeshita, Akira; Igarashi-Migitaka, Junko; Nishiyama, Kazusa; Takahashi, Hideyo; Takeuchi, Yasuhiro; Koibuchi, Noriyuki
      Toxicological Sciences (2011), 123 (2), 460-470CODEN: TOSCF2; ISSN:1096-0929. (Oxford University Press)
      Steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) is activated by endogenous and exogenous chems. including steroids, bile acids, and prescription drugs. SXR is highly expressed in the liver and intestine, where it regulates cytochrome P 450 3A4 (CYP3A4), which in turn controls xenobiotic and endogenous steroid hormone metab. However, it is unclear whether Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved plasticizers exert such activity. In the present study, the authors evaluated the effects of FDA-approved plasticizers on SXR-mediated transcription in vitro by luciferase reporter, SXR-coactivator interaction, quant. real-time PCR anal. of CYP3A4 expression, CYP3A4 enzyme activity assays, and SXR knockdown. Rats, treated with gavage and i.p. injection of compds., were examd. for CYP3A1 expression in vivo. The authors found that 4 of 8 FDA-approved plasticizers increased SXR-mediated transcription. In particular, acetyl tri-Bu citrate (ATBC), an industrial plasticizer widely used in products such as food wrap, vinyl toys, and pharmaceutical excipients, strongly activated human and rat SXR. ATBC increased CYP3A4 mRNA levels and enzyme activity in the human intestinal cells but not in human liver cells. Similarly, CYP3A1 mRNA levels were increased in the intestine but not the liver of ATBC-treated rats. These in vitro and in vivo results suggest that ATBC specifically induces CYP3A in the intestine by activating SXR. We suggest that ATBC-contg. products be used cautiously because they may alter metab. of endogenous steroid hormones and prescription drugs.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXht1eiu7jN&md5=8e776e514982e1fb73fbb0c8dc3874cd
    70. 70
      Baran, R. Nail Cosmetics: Allergies and Irritations. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 2002, 3 (8), 547– 555,  DOI: 10.2165/00128071-200203080-00005
      70
      Nail cosmetics: allergies and irritations
      Baran Robert
      American journal of clinical dermatology (2002), 3 (8), 547-55 ISSN:1175-0561.
      Recent precise figures are not available for the number of adverse reactions related to the use of nail care products. Reactions to nail cosmetic procedures may be divided into reactions at the site of application to the nail itself and ectopic reactions, when the hand transfers a small amount of nail cosmetic to other areas of the skin. Fingernail coatings encompass two types: coatings that harden upon evaporation (nail enamel, base coat, top coat); and coatings that polymerize (sculptured nails, light-curing gels, preformed artificial nails, nail mending and nail wrapping). The test battery enables us to distinguish allergic reactions from irritant reactions. Interestingly, some reactions, such as distant allergic contact dermatitis, are more frequent with nail enamel than with coatings that polymerize. On the other hand, the latter are greater offenders in the nail area. Nail hardeners may just be modified nail enamels containing nylon fibers, acrylate resin and hydrolyzed proteins. Others may contain up to 5% formaldehyde tissue fixative (which can have adverse effects on the nail), but are designed in the US to be applied only to the free edge of the nail while the skin is shielded. Caution is necessary in interpreting formaldehyde patch testing reactions.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD38vpslCguw%253D%253D&md5=5a487679f1251f0f4caaafbaca41501a
    71. 71
      EPA. Design for the Environment Program Alternatives Assessment Criteria for Hazard Evaluation ; 2011.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.

  • Supporting Information

    Supporting Information

    The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04495.

    • Detailed summary of methods for laboratory analysis (PDF)


    Terms & Conditions

    Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.