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Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris
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  • Nanna B. Hartmann*
    Nanna B. Hartmann
    Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
    *E-mail: [email protected]
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  • Thorsten Hüffer*
    Thorsten Hüffer
    Department of Environmental Geosciences, Environmental Science Research Network, and Research Platform Plastics in the Environment and Society (PLENTY), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, Vienna 1090, Austria
    *E-mail: [email protected]
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    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-5639-8789
  • Richard C. Thompson
    Richard C. Thompson
    School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, United Kingdom
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  • Martin Hassellöv
    Martin Hassellöv
    Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Kristineberg 566, Fiskebäckskil 45178, Sweden
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  • Anja Verschoor
    Anja Verschoor
    National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, Bilthoven 3721 MA, The Netherlands
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    Anders E. Daugaard
    Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Danish Polymer Centre, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads B227, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
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  • Sinja Rist
    Sinja Rist
    Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
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  • Therese Karlsson
    Therese Karlsson
    Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Kristineberg 566, Fiskebäckskil 45178, Sweden
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    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-4821-1697
  • Nicole Brennholt
    Nicole Brennholt
    Department Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Koblenz 56068, Germany
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  • Matthew Cole
    Matthew Cole
    Marine Ecology & Biodiversity, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, The Hoe, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United Kingdom
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  • Maria P. Herrling
    Maria P. Herrling
    Ovivo Switzerland AG, Hauptstrasse 192, Aesch 4147, Switzerland
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  • Maren C. Hess
    Maren C. Hess
    Department of Water Management and Water Protection, North Rhine Westphalia State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection, Postfach 101052, Recklinghausen 45610, Germany
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  • Natalia P. Ivleva
    Natalia P. Ivleva
    Institute of Hydrochemistry, Chair of Analytical Chemistry and Water Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Marchioninistr. 17, Munich 81377, Germany
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    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-7685-5166
  • Amy L. Lusher
    Amy L. Lusher
    Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Oslo 0349, Norway
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  • Martin Wagner*
    Martin Wagner
    Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway
    *E-mail: [email protected]
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    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-4402-3234
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 3, 1039–1047
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b05297
Published January 4, 2019

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Abstract

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The accumulation of plastic litter in natural environments is a global issue. Concerns over potential negative impacts on the economy, wildlife, and human health provide strong incentives for improving the sustainable use of plastics. Despite the many voices raised on the issue, we lack a consensus on how to define and categorize plastic debris. This is evident for microplastics, where inconsistent size classes are used and where the materials to be included are under debate. While this is inherent in an emerging research field, an ambiguous terminology results in confusion and miscommunication that may compromise progress in research and mitigation measures. Therefore, we need to be explicit on what exactly we consider plastic debris. Thus, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a unified terminology, propose a definition and categorization framework, and highlight areas of uncertainty. Going beyond size classes, our framework includes physicochemical properties (polymer composition, solid state, solubility) as defining criteria and size, shape, color, and origin as classifiers for categorization. Acknowledging the rapid evolution of our knowledge on plastic pollution, our framework will promote consensus building within the scientific and regulatory community based on a solid scientific foundation.

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Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society

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1. Introduction

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Plastic pollution is a substantial environmental problem. Plastic debris, that is, plastic items occurring in natural environments without fulfilling an intended function, is persistent, mobile, and ubiquitous in terrestrial and aquatic environments, including urban, rural, and remote locations. Large plastic litter is readily visible and adversely affects wildlife species through entanglement, ingestion, and lacerations. (1) Microscopic plastic debris (i.e., microplastics) has, until recently, largely been an overlooked part of plastic pollution. This has changed in the past decade, over which time growing scientific, public, and political interest has focused on the smaller size fractions, in particular those in the micrometer size range. (2) Today, research into the formation, features, further fragmentation, chemical interactions, environmental fate, and potential impacts of microplastics is increasingly abundant. (3)
The term “microlitter” was used in 2003 to describe the fine fraction of marine plastic litter with sizes of 63–500 μm. (3) Similarly, mesolitter, macrolitter, and megalitter were defined as having sizes of <5 to 10 mm, <10 to 15 cm, or measuring decimeters or more across, respectively. (4) In 2004, the term “microplastics” was popularized to describe truly microscopic plastic fragments with typical diameters down to ∼20 μm. (5) While this paper described the accumulation of microplastics in the seas around the United Kingdom, it did not define them. In 2008, experts attending a meeting hosted by NOAA proposed a working definition in which microplastics are all plastic particles <5 mm in diameter, (6) which has become the most frequently used definition. Although not yet detected in environmental samples, submicron sized particles are expected to form in the environment through fragmentation of larger plastics. (7,8) These have been termed nanoplastics. (9,10) Due to the evolving research on plastic debris, a certain nomenclature has developed. Nonetheless, the terminology remains ambiguous and conflicting, for instance, regarding the size classes (Figure 1). So far, “[t]here is no internationally agreed definition of the size below which a small piece of plastic should be called a microplastic”. (11)

Figure 1

Figure 1. Examples of differences in the categorization of plastic debris according to size as applied (and/or defined) in scientific literature and in institutional reports. It should be noted that this does not represent an exhaustive overview of all used size classes. ()

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In the context of this paper, categorization refers to a systematic division of plastic debris into groups according to pre-established criteria. Hereby, plastic objects are grouped on the basis of similarity. A commonly used categorization system is based on size using the prefixes of mega, macro, meso, micro, and nano. In addition, plastic debris can also be categorized on the basis of their origin, shape, and polymer type. (12) However, a systematic framework for categorizing plastic debris is currently missing.
While most of the discourse on what makes a plastic item, for instance, a “microplastic” focuses on size as the only criterion, (13) we first need to revisit the question of what plastics actually are. This is important because, apart from the commodity polymers, there is no consensus on which materials to include in the term “plastics”. For instance, some studies consider cellophane, i.e., regenerated cellulose, as plastics (14,15) while it can be argued that it is not. In addition, definition criteria from polymer sciences are not stringently applicable to plastic debris. For instance, rubber is not plastic according to some polymer chemistry definitions. (16) Yet, environmental researchers consider rubber-containing tire wear a major component of microplastic pollution. (17,18) The same is true for paint particles. To clarify, we discuss basic physicochemical properties as “definition criteria” before considering size, shape, color, and origin as “classification criteria” for the categorization of plastic debris.

2. Do We Need a Common Terminology?

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The lack of consensus on a definition and categorization of plastic debris results in an ambiguous communication and the generation of incomparable data. While this situation inevitably calls for a harmonization, we need to keep in mind the implications of such a framework. Categorizing plastic debris into different classes (e.g., sizes) implicitly suggests that the items within one category have some “likeness” whereas plastics in different categories are somehow different. This may be perceived as similarity in hazardous properties or environmental behavior. Such connotation has emerged for the term microplastics, using size as a key feature, already. (19) On the downside, this may point research toward properties that are irrelevant and result in neglecting features that are potentially important. A framework can, thus, shape the research field and affect current and future mitigation measures based on how it frames the problem. This will also affect the risk perception and the hypotheses generated to examine it. (20)
In the area of engineered nanomaterials, the process of agreeing on a common terminology has been ongoing for more than a decade and is under continuous debate (21,22) and revision. (23) For nanomaterials, the European Commission “Recommendation on a Definition of Nanomaterials” states that “an upper limit of 100 nm is commonly used by general consensus, but there is no scientific evidence to support the appropriateness of this value”. (24) It has been further specified that “clear [size] boundaries were primarily introduced with the regulatory purpose of the definition in mind rather than for scientific reasons”. (23) Hence, the size boundaries are not scientifically justified but rather based on pragmatic reasons and general consensus. As behavior and toxicity will also depend on properties other than size, a purely scientific definition of nanomaterials may never be achieved, at least not if it shall have any practical value.
For plastic debris, similar considerations do apply: There is no clear scientific justification for the currently applied size boundaries. The 5 mm upper limit for microplastics proposed by NOAA (6) is somewhat biologically informed as particles of this size were considered more likely to be ingested compared to larger items. Still, the decision on size limits is not based on actual evidence but rather on pragmatism. (11)
Ultimately, the question whether to establish a definition/categorization framework for plastic debris is at the heart of two conflicting points of view. On the one hand, there is the notion to refute any attempt to unify the terminology as this restricts scientific freedom and narrows down the scientific focus to what is included in the definition. On the other hand, there is the view that a globally accepted definition is an essential prerequisite to tackle the issue, especially from a regulatory perspective. (25) As environmental scientists, we work in the space between these poles and can ignore neither the importance of academic freedom nor our obligation to support science-based policy making. While we acknowledge that a flexible, adaptive, and continuously updated framework would be ideal for science, we recognize that this conflicts with regulatory needs and processes. For instance, the control of microplastic emissions will depend on a common definition. Accordingly, the discourse needs to focus on developing a pragmatic and workable framework enabling effective regulation while not restraining scientific freedom.

3. Guiding Principles for Formulating a Definition/Categorization Framework

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When developing a framework for defining and categorizing plastic debris, we considered the following guiding principles, assumptions, and disclaimers:
(1)

A definition/categorization framework should not be tied to current methodological and analytical capabilities as these evolve constantly.

(2)

A definition/categorization framework should not be limited to size as the sole criterion as properties other than size contribute to the impacts of plastic debris.

(3)

A definition can be based on scientific criteria using the physical and chemical properties of materials to determine whether they are plastics.

(4)

A categorization cannot be purely science-based because the biologically relevant properties needed to categorize plastic objects are not well understood.

(5)

Accordingly, any categorization will, to some extent, be arbitrary and must be based on conventions formed by consensus and guided by pragmatism.

(6)

Thus, the proposed definition/categorization framework is a recommendation that aims at promoting consensus building on a common terminology.

(7)

Consensus building in academia is a dynamic process rather than a one-time decision. Thus, the proposed framework must be subjected to criticism and revision.

(8)

Regardless of the existence of this or any other definition/categorization framework, scientific data should always be reported in the most comprehensive way, that is, in accordance with the latest state of the science.

(9)

A material should not be excluded from the framework based on its degradability or state of degradation as even “degradable” materials will form smaller fragments before they mineralize.

(10)

The main audience of this framework are researchers, as a common terminology needs to form in the community producing the primary knowledge on plastic pollution. However, the framework can also serve as point of departure for policy makers and the regulatory community.

4. Recommendation of a Definition/Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris

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To structure the discussion on what plastic debris is, we propose a framework which differentiates between defining criteria that address basic properties and auxiliary criteria for categorizing plastic debris (principles 3 and 4, Figure 2). According to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, a definition is “a statement expressing the essential nature of something”. A good question to ask about any definition is therefore does it actually capture the property that we are trying to define? For plastic debris, we consider the following as relevant defining properties: chemical composition, solid state, and solubility (criteria I–III). These will determine whether a material classifies as “plastic” and, thus, “plastic debris” when found in natural environments. For further categorization, we discuss size, shape and structure, color, and origin (criteria IV–VII).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Proposed definition and categorization framework. Excl. = excluded; see Table 1 for details on criteria.

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4.1. Criterion I: Chemical Composition

The chemical composition is the most fundamental criterion for defining plastic debris. Some disagreement exists on which polymers should be considered “plastics”. For instance, according to ISO, plastic is a “material which contains as an essential ingredient a high molecular weight polymer and which, at some stage in its processing into finished products, can be shaped by flow”. (16) In contrast to thermoplastics and thermosets, some elastomers (e.g., rubbers) are excluded from this definition. This mirrors the industrial landscape and, thus, has historic rather than scientific reasons. Questions, therefore, arise whether materials derived from rubber or inorganic/hybrid polymers (e.g., silicone) qualify as plastics. Also, are plastics with a high content of low-molecular weight additives (e.g., polyvinyl chloride (PVC) containing >50% plasticizers) included? And should polymer composites fall under such a definition? Finally, should crystalline fibers, which are not shaped by flow, be excluded from a definition even though they are composed of the same polymers as other plastic debris? These questions reflect the different perspectives of material and environmental sciences.

4.1.1. Polymers (Ia)

As the ISO definition of plastics excludes certain materials, which are relevant in environmental terms (e.g., elastomers), we use a broader definition as point of departure. IUPAC defines a polymer as a “molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass”. (26) Typically, polymers have a molecular mass of >10 000 g mol–1. (27)
As a next level, we can use the origin of the polymer as a criterion and differentiate between natural and artificial (man-made, synthetic) polymers. With regard to the former, there is agreement that natural polymers (e.g., DNA, proteins, wool, silk, cellulose) are not plastics while synthetic polymers commonly are. Modified natural polymers, natural rubber, and cellulose further processed to make the final polymer (rayon and cellophane), for instance, represent a special case. Because these polymers are heavily modified, they can also be considered artificial and should be included in a definition of plastic debris.
The inclusion of natural polymers that have been slightly processed (e.g., dyed wool) is more difficult. This predominantly concerns polymer fibers used for textiles, and we do not have sufficient information to benchmark the occurrence and impacts of natural, modified natural, and synthetic fibers, respectively. However, because their essential ingredient is a natural polymer, we propose to exclude slightly modified natural fibers from a definition. (28)
Conventional plastics are petroleum-based and include the commodity plastics polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), and PVC. Recently, biobased plastics synthesized from nonfossil feedstock have entered the market. Biobased monomers can be used to make the conventional polymers (e.g., bio-PET, bio-PE) or biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid and polyhydroxyalkanoates. (29) A third type of plastics is mainly produced from inorganic monomers. These inorganic or hybrid polymers (silicone is the most prominent example) are usually excluded from plastics definitions, since they are elastomers. However, because all three polymer classes are synthetic and are emitted to the environment, we recommend including them in a definition of plastic debris.

4.1.2. Additives (Ib)

Plastics can contain a broad range of low molecular weight additives to improve their processability, properties, and performance. They are, thus, an essential part of the formulation. The major classes of additives include plasticizers, stabilizers, flame retardants, flow modifiers, processing aids, impact modifiers, and antioxidants. (30,31) In addition, pigments, biocides, and fragrances can be added. Additives and other small molecules present in plastics (e.g., monomer residues or byproducts formed during production) may be toxicologically relevant when leaching from the material. Nonetheless, they are not of specific importance for a definition because the polymer backbone, not its additive content, defines a plastic material. Polymers containing high amounts of additives (e.g., PVC) represent a special case. According to REACH, (32) substances with an additive content of >50% are not polymers. In contrast, we propose to exclude the additive content as a criterion because it will change continuously after the release into the environment.

4.1.3. Copolymers (Ic)

Some synthetic polymers are produced “from more than one species of monomer”. (26) These include copolymers of acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS), ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA), and styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR). ABS and EVA are thermoplastic polymers (i.e., “plastics” according to ISO) and, thus, can be considered plastic debris when found in the environment. The same argument can be applied to thermoplastic elastomers, such as styrenic block copolymers, thermoplastic olefins, and thermoplastic polyurethanes, which are widely used in automotive manufacturing. In line with the arguments made above, SBR (also an elastomer) and other synthetic rubber copolymers should be included in a definition.

4.1.4. Composites (Id)

Polymer composites consist of at least two components: the polymer matrix and (non)polymeric reinforcement. Classical thermoset composites include glass fiber-reinforced polyester or graphite reinforced epoxy, both used, for instance, for boat hulls. This also includes thermoplastics filled with various inorganic materials to reduce costs or improve properties. Likewise, polyester textiles are often mixed with cotton or wool. We recommend including composites into a definition of plastic debris because synthetic polymers are an essential ingredient. However, it remains unknown whether setting a minimum polymer content of a material to qualify as plastics is appropriate and feasible.
4.1.4.1. Special Case 1: Surface Coatings
One special case of composites are paint particles found in the environment. Surface coatings (such as paints) are applied as a thin layer to a surface for aesthetic or protective reasons. (33) Coatings are formulated, multicomponent systems consisting of binders, pigments, fillers and extenders, solvents, and additives. Polymers are used as film formers and include (modified) natural resins, curing coating systems (e.g., polyester, alkyds, epoxy resin, urethane resins), and physically drying systems (acryl and vinyl (co)polymers). (33)
The central question for including coating particles in a definition is whether the synthetic polymers used in surface coatings are considered plastics. Recent government reports argue that they should be. (34,35) Indeed, particles originating from dried paints and lacquers containing cured thermosets can be considered plastic debris. Examples are coatings based on polyesters, vinyl esters, and polyurethanes as well as epoxy, phenolic, acrylic resins, and alkyd. (34) Accordingly, particles derived from paints and surface coatings containing synthetic polymers as an essential ingredient should be included in a definition. However, as in the case of composites, setting a threshold for a minimal polymer content is currently not possible.
4.1.4.2. Special Case 2: Tire Wear Particles
Driving vehicles releases particles due to the abrasion of tires, termed tire wear particles (TWP). Some agencies have considered TWP to be “microplastics” (34,36−38) because tires usually contain 40–60% of synthetic polymers (e.g., SBR or polybutadiene rubber). The exact composition of tires depends on their application. (18) To classify TWP as plastic debris, two questions need to be addressed: First, are rubbers plastics? Here, we argue that they should be covered by the proposed definition (see criterion Ic). Second, do we need to take into account a changing chemical and material composition during weathering? As an example, TWP will aggregate with road particles and form tire wear and road particles (TWRP) with a lower total polymer content. We argue it is not feasible to determine the polymer content of TWRP as this would need to happen for each individual particle. This is also true for other plastic particles forming heteroaggregates with other particulate matter. Accordingly, we propose to refer to the original material and to include TWP/TWRP in the definition because synthetic polymers are an essential ingredient of tires.

4.2. Criterion II: Solid State

While it might be common sense that plastics are solid materials, some polymers can be wax-like, semisolid, or liquid. According to the Global Harmonized System for Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), a solid substance or mixture “does not meet the definitions of liquid or gas”. As most polymers have a vapor pressure of <300 kPa (at 50 °C) and an initial melting point of >20 °C (Tm at 101.3 kPa), they are solid. (39) For most materials, the Tm determines the difference between the solid and the liquid state. However, amorphous and semicrystalline plastics will behave differently when heated. Amorphous polymers (e.g., poly(methyl methacrylate), ABS, PS) are hard, brittle materials below their glass transition temperature (Tg), whereas they become viscous and free-flowing above. Semicrystalline polymers (e.g., polyamide, polycarbonate, PE, PET, PP, PVC) have both a Tg and a Tm. These polymers will be hard and brittle below their Tg but be ductile and soft and form-stable below their Tm and be liquid above.
Plastics are used both as hard and brittle as well as softer and more ductile materials (plasticized PVC, PE, PP) and depending on molecular weight exist as waxy, semisolids over a broad temperature range. For some polymers (e.g., rubber, PE, PP, PVC), Tg is relatively low. Accordingly, they are soft solids at ambient temperatures. Nevertheless, semicrystalline polymers have a Tm high enough to classify them as solid according to GHS and can be included in a definition of plastic debris.
In contrast, amorphous polymers lack a specific Tm. Therefore, we propose to consider the Tg as a defining value. Accordingly, amorphous polymers with a Tg > 20 °C should be included in a definition. Here, the properties of the bulk materials should be considered. However, the question remains whether wax-like polymers with a Tg < 20 °C should be included as well. In this regard, the combination with other physicochemical properties, such as viscosity, modulus of elasticity, or tension at constant elongation, might be helpful.

4.2.1. Special Case 3: Polymer Gels

Polymer gels are often perceived as liquid rather than solid, due to their high liquid content and their soft and flexible appearance. However, in macromolecular science, a gel is indeed “a solid composed of at least two components, one of which (polymer) forms a three-dimensional network [...] in the medium of the other component (liquid)”. (40) Polymer gels come from a natural (e.g., gelatin, agarose) or synthetic feedstock (polyacrylamide, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), low molecular weight polyethylene glycol (PEG)) and are used in a wide variety of applications. For instance, polyacrylamide copolymers are used as flocculation agents during wastewater treatment. While these gels are “solid” from a chemical perspective, they will become soft and viscous in water. Although this does not make them benign per se (we simply do not know), we argue that polymer gels are not particulate matter once in aquatic environments and should, therefore, be excluded from a definition and treated as an independent category of environmental polymers.

4.3. Criterion III: Solubility

Another important aspect is the polymer’s solubility. Most conventional polymers are poorly soluble in water, but some synthetic polymers readily dissolve in water (e.g., PVA or low molecular weight PEG). We propose using solubility as a criterion to define plastic debris and apply the REACH guidance provided by ECHA. Here, a substance is considered poorly soluble if its water solubility is <1 mg L–1 at 20 °C. (41) Polymers that are poorly soluble according to REACH should be included in a definition of plastic debris.

4.4. Criterion IV: Size

Size is the criterion most frequently used to categorize plastic debris, with size classes typically attributed to the nomenclature of nano-, micro-, meso-, and macroplastics. Particle size will be of major ecological relevance because it is one important factor determining the item’s interaction with biota and its environmental fate. (42−44) Currently, there is no clear consensus on the use of size categories (Figure 1). Often, size limits are operationally defined by the sampling method. As an example, some authors set the lower size limit of microplastics to 333 μm because a 333 μm mesh plankton net is used for sampling. (6)
From a nomenclature point of view, it is intuitive to categorize the plastics based on the conventional units of size. Accordingly, plastics with sizes in the nanometer scale (1–1000 nm) should be nanoplastics. Following this reasoning and using the SI prefixes for length, microplastics would have sizes of 1–1000 μm, followed by milliplastics (1–10 mm), centiplastics (1–10 cm), and deciplastics (1–10 dm). This, however, conflicts with the current terminology. For example, nanoplastics and microplastics are typically considered to be 1–100 nm and 1–5000 μm in size, respectively. (45) Accordingly, new size categories, fully consistent with the SI nomenclature, would have little chance of being adopted by the scientific community. As a pragmatic compromise, we propose the following categories: (i) nanoplastics: 1 to <1000 nm (to conform to existing definitions of nanomaterials, a subdivision in nanoplastics (1 to <100 nm) and submicron-plastics (100 to <1000 nm) can be made); (ii) microplastics: 1 to <1000 μm; (iii) mesoplastics: 1 to <10 mm; (iv) macroplastics: 1 cm and larger.
Another important question relates to the dimensions of the plastic item. Is it sufficient that it possesses the given size in one, two, or three dimensions to fall into one of the categories? Current size classes for microplastics refer to the largest dimension of the item. This is straightforward for relatively spherical particles but more ambiguous for irregular particles and fibers. (45) For example, should a fiber with a diameter (i.e., two dimensions) of 500 μm and a length (i.e., one dimension) of 2 cm be classified as microplastic or macroplastic? If two dimensions in the micrometer range would be sufficient to qualify as a microplastic, this would theoretically imply that a thin thread of infinite length would still be a microplastic. This would correspond to the current practice of determining size by filtration through a net of a certain mesh size or by microscopy, whereby two dimensions are considered. However, a classification should not be based on current practices, which may change as the methodology advances. We, therefore, propose to use the largest dimension as classifier for the size category. The rationale behind this is that the largest dimension of an item will mainly determine the ingestion by biota. For fibers, we do recognize that the diameter may be more relevant and suggest that the dimensions used for categorization should then be defined in the specific study.

4.5. Criterion V: Shape and Structure

Aside from size, plastic debris is commonly categorized on the basis of shape, structure, and color. Frequent descriptors of shape are spheres, beads, pellets, foams, fibers, fragments, films, and flakes. (46−49) These are worth revisiting in order to apply a more stringent classification. The first three (spheres, pellets, beads) are often used synonymously. Additionally, the terms “beads” and “pellets” hints toward the origin of the particles, such as microbeads in cosmetics and preproduction pellets used for plastic manufacturing. If the origin of the specific particle can indeed be elucidated, this would be an appropriate terminology. However, as this is often challenging, it is instead beneficial to adopt more neutral descriptors, such as “spheres” for particles with every point on its surface having the same distance from its center. The terms “spheroids” and “cylindrical pellets” can be used for approximate spheres and cylindrical shapes, respectively.
“Fragments” also represent a rather ambiguous category. It is commonly adopted to describe particles with irregular shape. The term, however, implies that these have been formed by fragmentation in the environment, which is not necessarily the case. For instance, irregular abrasives used in cosmetics are produced as such (50−52) and cannot be distinguished from particles generated by secondary fragmentation. While the category “fragment” is likely to persist in the literature, an alternative and more accurate term is “irregular particles”.
The category of “films” is rather straightforward as this includes planar objects which are considerably smaller in one dimension than in the other two. It is useful to classify films separately, and it is often feasible to make that distinction for items >300 μm. Smaller objects tend to overlap and, due to practical constraints, may be pooled with “irregular particles”.
Plastics that are significantly longer in one than wide in two dimensions (length-to-diameter ratio) are commonly (and interchangeably) described as fibers or filaments, with both terms describing thread-like structures. Within toxicology, there is a long-standing tradition of referring to such structures as fibers rather than filaments.
For some types of fibers, their aspect ratio has been found to determine toxicological responses, for example, in the case of asbestos and carbon nanotubes. Hence, from a toxicological perspective, it makes sense to distinguish between different shapes of plastic debris using the neutral terminology described above. Additional information on the structure (e.g., material porosity) can be included when relevant and only when it can be established with certainty. For example, the descriptor “foams” can draw unwanted parallels to styrofoam even though several plastic types can be visually similar. A more neutral descriptor for this type of porous materials would be “expanded cellular plastics”.

4.6. Criterion VI: Color

Categorizing plastic debris according to color is useful to identify potential sources as well as potential contaminations during sample preparation. As with shape, the color of an object cannot easily be used to deduce the origin. Importantly, color information can be biased as brighter colors are spotted more easily during visual inspection. In contrast, dark, transparent, or translucent particles may be underrepresented. In addition, discoloration can take place during weathering as well as sample preparation, which should be considered in data reporting and interpretation. While we do not find color to be crucial in a categorization framework, it can make sense to include color as an additional descriptor. This can be the case in a biological context, where depending on an organism’s feeding preferences, some colored plastic objects may be more or less likely to be mistaken as food. (53) As attributing colors may be subjective, the use of a standardized color palette, such as the Pantone Color Matching System, is preferable.

4.7. Optional Criterion VII: Origin

The origin of plastic debris is commonly used as a classifier, especially for microplastics, which are categorized in “primary” and “secondary” microplastics. In the predominant view, “primary” refers to microplastics intentionally produced in that size range whereas “secondary” microplastics are formed in the environment through fragmentation or through wear and tear of plastic-containing items, such as TWP and fibers released from textiles during use. (11) An alternative perspective is that “primary” also includes microplastics that are inherent byproducts of the use of a product (“primary sources”), (35,37) such as TWP. In that view, secondary microplastics would originate from fragmentation during weathering only. Since it is challenging, if not impossible, to determine whether a particle has been generated by fragmentation during intentional use or in the environment, we prefer to use the former classification.
From a regulatory point of view, it is relevant to distinguish between primary and secondary origin. This has consequences for risk management (25,54) as it may enable one to assign responsibilities and apply the polluter pays principle. However, from a biological perspective, it does not matter if the plastic object encountered by an organism is intentionally manufactured. In addition, while primary microplastics tend to be more uniform and homogeneous (e.g., microbeads), this is not always the case. (50) A subsequent weathering will further change the appearance, often rendering a clear-cut distinction between primary 565 and secondary (micro)plastics infeasible. Because of this ambiguity, we suggest not to use “origin” to categorize plastics unless the primary origin of plastic debris can be established convincingly. One such case is the detection of microbeads originating from ion exchange resins from a specific production site. (55)

5. Moving toward a Workable Terminology for Plastic Debris

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The research on plastics in the environment is still in its infancy. This makes it an exciting and dynamic field but inevitably entails a certain scientific immaturity with regards to the hypotheses, concepts, and methods applied. This is also true in terms of the terminology we use. To promote consensus building, we provide a framework for defining and further categorizing “plastic debris”. We identify three defining criteria and four classifiers that can be used in such a framework. On the basis of this, we propose to define “plastic debris” as objects consisting of synthetic or heavily modified natural polymers as an essential ingredient (criterion I) that, when present in natural environments without fulfilling an intended function, are solid (II) and insoluble (III) at 20 °C. We further recommend using the criteria size (IV), shape (V), color (VI), and origin (VII) to further categorize plastic debris (Table 1, Figure 2). Each criterion covers aspects on which consensus is likely as well as elements which are more debatable. Accordingly, the content of the framework cannot be fixed but may be revised as the field evolves. Thus, we welcome critical input by the readers and encourage a broader debate of this matter in the scientific community.
Table 1. Overview of the Recommendations for a Definition and Classification of Plastic Debris

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Authors
    • Nanna B. Hartmann - Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark;  Email: [email protected]
    • Thorsten Hüffer - Department of Environmental Geosciences, Environmental Science Research Network, and Research Platform Plastics in the Environment and Society (PLENTY), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, Vienna 1090, Austria;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-5639-8789;  Email: [email protected]
    • Martin Wagner - Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-4402-3234;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Richard C. Thompson - School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, United Kingdom
    • Martin Hassellöv - Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Kristineberg 566, Fiskebäckskil 45178, Sweden
    • Anja Verschoor - National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, Bilthoven 3721 MA, The Netherlands
    • Anders E. Daugaard - Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Danish Polymer Centre, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads B227, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
    • Sinja Rist - Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, Kgs. Lyngby 2800, Denmark
    • Therese Karlsson - Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Kristineberg 566, Fiskebäckskil 45178, Sweden;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-4821-1697
    • Nicole Brennholt - Department Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Koblenz 56068, Germany
    • Matthew Cole - Marine Ecology & Biodiversity, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, The Hoe, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United Kingdom
    • Maria P. Herrling - Ovivo Switzerland AG, Hauptstrasse 192, Aesch 4147, Switzerland
    • Maren C. Hess - Department of Water Management and Water Protection, North Rhine Westphalia State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection, Postfach 101052, Recklinghausen 45610, Germany
    • Natalia P. Ivleva - Institute of Hydrochemistry, Chair of Analytical Chemistry and Water Chemistry, Technical University of Munich, Marchioninistr. 17, Munich 81377, Germany;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-7685-5166
    • Amy L. Lusher - Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Oslo 0349, Norway
  • Author Contributions

    N.B.H., M.W., and T.H. conceived and wrote the manuscript and produced the figures. All coauthors critically discussed the ideas and concepts presented in, commented on, and reviewed the manuscript. All authors commit to organize and support the postpublication consultation.

  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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The German Water Chemistry Society supports the expert group “Plastics in the aquatic environment,” whose members (T.H., N.B., M.P.H., M.C.H., N.P.I., M.W.) coauthored the manuscript. M.W. has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 660306, the German Federal Ministry for Transportation and Digital Infrastructure, and the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (02WRS1378, 01UU1603, 03F0789D).

References

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    A review. The contamination of marine and freshwater ecosystems with plastic, and esp. with microplastic (MP), is a global ecol. problem of increasing scientific concern. This has stimulated a great deal of research on the occurrence of MP, interaction of MP with chem. pollutants, the uptake of MP by aquatic organisms, and the resulting (neg.) impact of MP. Herein, we review the major issues of MP in aquatic environments, with the principal aims (1) to characterize the methods applied for MP anal. (including sampling, processing, identification and quantification), indicate the most reliable techniques, and discuss the required further improvements; (2) to est. the abundance of MP in marine/freshwater ecosystems and clarify the problems that hamper the comparability of such results; and (3) to summarize the existing literature on the uptake of MP by living organisms. Finally, we identify knowledge gaps, suggest possible strategies to assess environmental risks arising from MP, and discuss prospects to minimize MP abundance in aquatic ecosystems.
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    Environmental performance of bio-based and biodegradable plastics: the road ahead
    Lambert, Scott; Wagner, Martin
    Chemical Society Reviews (2017), 46 (22), 6855-6871CODEN: CSRVBR; ISSN:0306-0012. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
    A review. Future plastic materials will be very different from those that are used today. The increasing importance of sustainability promotes the development of bio-based and biodegradable polymers, sometimes misleadingly referred to as bioplastics. Because both terms imply green sources and clean removal, this paper aims at critically discussing the sometimes-conflicting terminol. as well as renewable sources with a special focus on the degrdn. of these polymers in natural environments. With regard to the former we review innovations in feedstock development (e.g. microalgae and food wastes). In terms of the latter, we highlight the effects that polymer structure, additives, and environmental variables have on plastic biodegradability. We argue that the biodegradable end-product does not necessarily degrade once emitted to the environment because chem. additives used to make them fit for purpose will increase the longevity. In the future, this trend may continue as the plastics industry also is expected to be a major user of nanocomposites. Overall, there is a need to assess the performance of polymer innovations in terms of their biodegradability esp. under realistic waste management and environmental conditions, to avoid the unwanted release of plastic degrdn. products in receiving environments.
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    Pfaendner, R. How will additives shape the future of plastics?. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2006, 91 (9), 2249– 2256,  DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.10.017
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    How will additives shape the future of plastics?
    Pfaendner, Rudolf
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    A review. Additives are essential components of plastic formulations providing maintenance and/or modification of polymer properties, performance and long-term use. The extension of polymer properties by additives has played a substantial role in the growth of plastics. At the beginning of the plastics age additives were used mainly to maintain polymer properties and to help plastics to survive heat treatment during transforming processes. The next generation of additives provided extension of service life as well as modification of mech. and phys. properties. These well-established additives - antioxidants, heat stabilizers, light stabilizers and others - cover the requirements of std. plastics and today's mass applications. The more recent developments of high-performance additives address more stringent or new requirements, more severe processing and use conditions and/or environmental concerns, but still with the main target of maintaining plastic properties. The future will introduce more and more new effects and functionalities through additives in plastic applications tailoring the properties of polymers and offering a vast potential of innovation in the plastics area. Recent examples of emerging technologies show that additives will not only modify the polymer itself and add new properties, but can also, when incorporated into the plastic, beneficially impact properties, which are of high value for the user. The paper shows the role of additives used in plastics from the past to the present with the focus on stabilization and performance of additives incorporated during melt processing, and outlines future trends.
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    Hahladakis, J. N.; Velis, C. A.; Weber, R.; Iacovidou, E.; Purnell, P. An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 2018, 344, 179– 199,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014
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    An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling
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    Journal of Hazardous Materials (2018), 344 (), 179-199CODEN: JHMAD9; ISSN:0304-3894. (Elsevier B.V.)
    A review is given. Over the last 60 yr plastics prodn. has increased manifold, owing to their inexpensive, multipurpose, durable and lightwt. nature. These characteristics have raised the demand for plastic materials that will continue to grow over the coming years. However, with increased plastic materials prodn., comes increased plastic material wastage creating a no. of challenges, as well as opportunities to the waste management industry. The present overview highlights the waste management and pollution challenges, emphasizing on the various chem. substances (known as additives) contained in all plastic products for enhancing polymer properties and prolonging their life. Despite how useful these additives are in the functionality of polymer products, their potential to contaminate soil, air, water and food is widely documented in literature and described herein. These additives can potentially migrate and undesirably lead to human exposure via e.g. food contact materials, such as packaging. They can, also, be released from plastics during the various recycling and recovery processes and from the products produced from recyclates. Thus, sound recycling has to be performed in such a way as to ensure that emission of substances of high concern and contamination of recycled products is avoided, ensuring environmental and human health protection, at all times.
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    Fate of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems: A modeling study
    Besseling, Ellen; Quik, Joris T. K.; Sun, Muzhi; Koelmans, Albert A.
    Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 540-548CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Riverine transport to the marine environment is an important pathway for microplastic. However, information on fate and transport of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems is lacking. Here we present scenario studies on the fate and transport of nano-to millimetre sized spherical particles like microbeads (100 nm-10 mm) with a state of the art spatiotemporally resolved hydrol. model. The model accounts for advective transport, homo- and heteroaggregation, sedimentation-resuspension, polymer degrdn., presence of biofilm and burial. Literature data were used to parameterize the model and addnl. the attachment efficiency for heteroaggregation was detd. exptl. The attachment efficiency ranged from 0.004 to 0.2 for 70 nm and 1050 nm polystyrene particles aggregating with kaolin or bentonite clays in natural freshwater. Modeled effects of polymer d. (1-1.5 kg/L) and biofilm formation were not large, due to the fact that variations in polymer d. are largely overwhelmed by excess mass of suspended solids that form heteroaggregates with microplastic. Particle size had a dramatic effect on the modeled fate and retention of microplastic and on the positioning of the accumulation hot spots in the sediment along the river. Remarkably, retention was lowest (18-25%) for intermediate sized particles of about 5 μm, which implies that the smaller submicron particles as well as larger micro- and millimetre sized plastic are preferentially retained. Our results suggest that river hydrodynamics affect microplastic size distributions with profound implications for emissions to marine systems.
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    Microplastic Exposure Assessment in Aquatic Environments: Learning from Similarities and Differences to Engineered Nanoparticles
    Huffer Thorsten; Praetorius Antonia; von der Kammer Frank; Hofmann Thilo; Praetorius Antonia; Hofmann Thilo; Wagner Stephan
    Environmental science & technology (2017), 51 (5), 2499-2507 ISSN:.
    Microplastics (MPs) have been identified as contaminants of emerging concern in aquatic environments and research into their behavior and fate has been sharply increasing in recent years. Nevertheless, significant gaps remain in our understanding of several crucial aspects of MP exposure and risk assessment, including the quantification of emissions, dominant fate processes, types of analytical tools required for characterization and monitoring, and adequate laboratory protocols for analysis and hazard testing. This Feature aims at identifying transferrable knowledge and experience from engineered nanoparticle (ENP) exposure assessment. This is achieved by comparing ENP and MPs based on their similarities as particulate contaminants, whereas critically discussing specific differences. We also highlight the most pressing research priorities to support an efficient development of tools and methods for MPs environmental risk assessment.
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    Scherer, C.; Brennholt, N.; Reifferscheid, G.; Wagner, M. Feeding type and development drive the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7 (1), 17006,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17191-7
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    Feeding type and development drive the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates
    Scherer Christian; Wagner Martin; Brennholt Nicole; Reifferscheid Georg; Wagner Martin
    Scientific reports (2017), 7 (1), 17006 ISSN:.
    Microscopic plastic items (microplastics) are ubiquitously present in aquatic ecosystems. With decreasing size their availability and potential to accumulate throughout food webs increase. However, little is known on the uptake of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates. To address this, we exposed species with different feeding strategies to 1, 10 and 90 μm fluorescent polystyrene spheres (3-3 000 particles mL(-1)). Additionally, we investigated how developmental stages and a co-exposure to natural particles (e.g., food) modulate microplastic ingestion. All species ingested microplastics in a concentration-dependent manner with Daphnia magna consuming up to 6 180 particles h(-1), followed by Chironomus riparius (226 particles h(-1)), Physella acuta (118 particles h(-1)), Gammarus pulex (10 particles h(-1)) and Lumbriculus variegatus (8 particles h(-1)). D. magna did not ingest 90 μm microplastics whereas the other species preferred larger microplastics over 1 μm in size. In C. riparius and D. magna, size preference depended on the life stage with larger specimens ingesting more and larger microplastics. The presence of natural particles generally reduced the microplastics uptake. Our results demonstrate that freshwater invertebrates have the capacity to ingest microplastics. However, the quantity of uptake depends on their feeding type and morphology as well as on the availability of microplastics.
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    International Organization for Standardization. Nanotechnologies - Vocabulary, Part 1: Core terms (ISO/TS 80004-1:2015); https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:ts:80004:-1:ed-2:v1:en (accessed 19.09.2016).
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    Hidalgo-Ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R. C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (6), 3060– 75,  DOI: 10.1021/es2031505
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    Microplastics in marine environment review of methods for identification and quantification
    Hidalgo-Ruz, Valeria; Gutow, Lars; Thompson, Richard C.; Thiel, Martin
    Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (6), 3060-3075CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, vol.-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: d. sepn., filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degrdn. stage, and color as criteria). Chem. and phys. characteristics (e.g., specific d.) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chem. compn. of microplastics is by IR spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance ests. are "items per m2" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m3" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance ests. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
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    Zhang, K.; Xiong, X.; Hu, H.; Wu, C.; Bi, Y.; Wu, Y.; Zhou, B.; Lam, P. K.; Liu, J. Occurrence and characteristics of microplastic pollution in Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (7), 3794– 3801,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00369
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    Occurrence and Characteristics of Microplastic Pollution in Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir, China
    Zhang, Kai; Xiong, Xiong; Hu, Hongjuan; Wu, Chenxi; Bi, Yonghong; Wu, Yonghong; Zhou, Bingsheng; Lam, Paul K. S.; Liu, Jiantong
    Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (7), 3794-3801CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Microplastic pollution in inland waters is receiving growing attentions. Reservoirs are suspected to be particularly vulnerable to microplastic pollution. However, very limited information is currently available on pollution characteristics of microplastics in reservoir ecosystems. This work studied the distribution and characteristics of microplastics in the backwater area of Xiangxi River, a typical tributary of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Microplastics were detected in both surface water and sediment with concns. ranging from 0.55 × 105 to 342 × 105 items km-2 and 80 to 864 items m-2, resp. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene were identified in surface water, whereas polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate, and pigments were obsd. in sediment. In addn., microplastics were also detected in the digestion tracts of 25.7% of fish samples, and polyethylene and nylon were identified. Redundancy anal. indicates a weak correlation between microplastics and water quality variables but a neg. correlation with water level of the reservoir and Secchi depth. Results from this study confirm the presence of high abundance microplastics in reservoir impacted tributaries, and suggest that water level regulated hydrodynamic condition and input of nonpoint sources are important regulators for microplastic accumulation and distribution in the backwater area of reservoir tributaries.
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    Lusher, A. L.; Welden, N. A.; Sobral, P.; Cole, M. Sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested by fish and invertebrates. Anal. Methods 2017, 9 (9), 1346– 1360,  DOI: 10.1039/C6AY02415G
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    MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter. Guidance on monitoring of marine litter in European seas - a guidance document within the common implementation strategy for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive; European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability: Luxembourg, 2013; p 128.
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    Fendall, L. S.; Sewell, M. A. Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial cleansers. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2009, 58 (8), 1225– 8,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025
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    Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers
    Fendall, Lisa S.; Sewell, Mary A.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2009), 58 (8), 1225-1228CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Plastics pollution in the ocean is an area of growing concern, with research efforts focusing on both the macroplastic (>5 mm) and microplastic (<5 mm) fractions. In the 1990s it was recognized that a minor source of microplastic pollution was derived from liq. hand-cleansers that would have been rarely used by the av. consumer. In 2009, however, the av. consumer is likely to be using microplastic-contg. products on a daily basis, as the majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene microplastics which are not captured by wastewater plants and will enter the oceans. Four microplastic-contg. facial cleansers available in New Zealand supermarkets were used to quantify the size of the polythelene fragments. Three-quarters of the brands had a modal size of <100 μ and could be immediately ingested by planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain. Over time the microplastics will be subject to UV-degrdn. and absorb hydrophobic materials such as PCBs, making them smaller and more toxic in the long-term. Marine scientists need to educate the public to the dangers of using products that pose an immediate and long-term threat to the health of the oceans and the food we eat.
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    Lei, K.; Qiao, F.; Liu, Q.; Wei, Z.; Qi, H.; Cui, S.; Yue, X.; Deng, Y.; An, L. Microplastics releasing from personal care and cosmetic products in China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 123 (1–2), 122– 126,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.016
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    Wardrop, P.; Shimeta, J.; Nugegoda, D.; Morrison, P. D.; Miranda, A.; Tang, M.; Clarke, B. O. Chemical Pollutants Sorbed to Ingested Microbeads from Personal Care Products Accumulate in Fish. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (7), 4037– 44,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b06280
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    Chemical Pollutants Sorbed to Ingested Microbeads from Personal Care Products Accumulate in Fish
    Wardrop, Peter; Shimeta, Jeff; Nugegoda, Dayanthi; Morrison, Paul D.; Miranda, Ana; Tang, Min; Clarke, Bradley O.
    Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (7), 4037-4044CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    The prevalence of microplastics (<5 mm) in natural environments has become a widely recognized global problem. Microplastics have been shown to sorb chem. pollutants from their surrounding environment, thus raising concern as to their role in the movement of these pollutants through the food chain. This expt. investigated whether org. pollutants sorbed to microbeads (MBs) from personal care products were assimilated by fish following particle ingestion. Rainbow fish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis) were exposed to MBs with sorbed polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs; BDE-28, -47, -100, -99, -153, -154, -183, 200 ng g-1; BDE-209, 2000 ng g-1) and sampled at 0, 21, 42, and 63 days along with two control treatments (food only and food + clean MBs). Exposed fish had significantly higher Σ8PBDE concns. than both control treatments after just 21 days, and continued exposure resulted in increased accumulation of the pollutants over the expt. (ca. 115 pg g-1 ww d-1). Lower brominated congeners showed the highest assimilation whereas higher brominated congeners did not appear to transfer, indicating they may be too strongly sorbed to the plastic or unable to be assimilated by the fish due to large mol. size or other factors. Seemingly against this trend, however, BDE-99 did not appear to bioaccumulate in the fish, which may be due to partitioning from the MBs or it being metabolized in vivo. This work provides evidence that MBs from personal care products are capable of transferring sorbed pollutants to fish that ingest them.
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    Ory, N. C.; Sobral, P.; Ferreira, J. L.; Thiel, M. Amberstripe scad Decapterus muroadsi (Carangidae) fish ingest blue microplastics resembling their copepod prey along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 586, 430– 437,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.175
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    53
    Amberstripe scad Decapterus muroadsi (Carangidae) fish ingest blue microplastics resembling their copepod prey along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the South Pacific subtropical gyre
    Ory, Nicolas Christian; Sobral, Paula; Ferreira, Joana Lia; Thiel, Martin
    Science of the Total Environment (2017), 586 (), 430-437CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
    An increasing no. of studies have described the presence of microplastics (≤ 5 mm) in many different fish species, raising ecol. concerns. The factors influencing the ingestion of microplastics by fish remain unclear despite their importance to a better understanding of the routes of microplastics through marine food webs. Here, we compare microplastics and planktonic organisms in surface waters and as food items of 20 Amberstripe scads (Decapterus muroadsi) captured along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) to assess the hypothesis that fish ingest microplastics resembling their natural prey. Sixteen (80%) of the scad had ingested one to five microplastics, mainly blue polyethylene fragments that were similar in color and size to blue copepod species consumed by the same fish. These results suggest that planktivorous fish, as a consequence of their feeding behavior as visual predators, are directly exposed to floating microplastics. This threat may be exacerbated in the clear oceanic waters of the subtropical gyres, where anthropogenic litter accumulates in great quantity. Our study highlights the menace of microplastic contamination on the integrity of fragile remote ecosystems and the urgent need for efficient plastic waste management.
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    Repeated detection of polystyrene microbeads in the lower Rhine River
    Mani, Thomas; Blarer, Pascal; Storck, Florian R.; Pittroff, Marco; Wernicke, Theo; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia
    Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 245 (), 634-641CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Microplastics are emerging pollutants in water bodies worldwide. The environmental entry areas must be studied to localise their sources and develop preventative and remedial solns. Rivers are major contributors to the marine microplastics load. Here, we focus on a specific type of plastic microbead (diam. 286-954 μ m, predominantly opaque, white-beige) that was repeatedly identified in substantial nos. between kilometres 677 and 944 of the Rhine River, one of Europe's main waterways. Specifically, we aimed (i) to confirm the reported abrupt increase in microbead concns. between the cities of Leverkusen and Duisburg and (ii) to assess the concn. gradient of these particles along this stretch at higher resoln. Furthermore, we set out (iii) to narrow down the putative entry stretch from 81.3 km, as reported in an earlier study, to less than 20 km according to our research design, and (iv) to identify the chem. compn. of the particles and possibly reveal their original purpose. Surface water filtration (mesh: 300 μ m, n = 9) at regular intervals along the focal river stretch indicated the concn. of these spherules increased from 0.05 to 8.3 particles m-3 over 20 km. This spot sampling approach was supported by nine suspended solid samples taken between 2014 and 2017, encompassing the river stretch between Leverkusen and Duisburg. Ninety-five percent of microbeads analyzed (202/212) were chem. identified as crosslinked polystyrene-divinylbenzene (PS-DVB, 146/212) or polystyrene (PS, 56/212) via Raman or Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy. Based on interpretation of polymer compn., surface structure, shape, size and color, the PS(-DVB) microbeads are likely to be used ion-exchange resins, which are commonly applied in water softening and various industrial purifn. processes. The reported beads contribute considerably to the surface microplastic load of the Rhine River and their potential riverine entry area was geog. narrowed down.
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    Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat
    Moore, Charles James
    Environmental Research (2008), 108 (2), 131-139CODEN: ENVRAL; ISSN:0013-9351. (Elsevier Inc.)
    A review is given. Synthetic polymers, commonly known as plastics, have been entering the marine environment in quantities paralleling their level of prodn. over the last half century. However, in the last 2 decades of the 20th Century, the deposition rate accelerated past the rate of prodn., and plastics are now one of the most common and persistent pollutants in ocean waters and beaches worldwide. Thirty years ago the prevailing attitude of the plastic industry was that plastic litter is a very small proportion of all litter and causes no harm to the environment except as an eyesore. Between 1960 and 2000, the world prodn. of plastic resins increased 25-fold, while recovery of the material remained <5%. Between 1970 and 2003, plastics became the fastest growing segment of the US municipal waste stream, increasing nine-fold, and marine litter is now 60-80% plastic, reaching 90-95% in some areas. While undoubtedly still an eyesore, plastic debris today is having significant harmful effects on marine biota. Albatross, fulmars, shearwaters and petrels mistake floating plastics for food, and many individuals of these species are affected; in fact, 44% of all seabird species are known to ingest plastic. Sea turtles ingest plastic bags, fishing line and other plastics, as do 26 species of cetaceans. In all, 267 species of marine organisms worldwide are known to have been affected by plastic debris, a no. that will increase as smaller organisms are assessed. The no. of fish, birds, and mammals that succumb each year to derelict fishing nets and lines in which they become entangled cannot be reliably known; but ests. are in the millions. We divide marine plastic debris into 2 categories: macro, >5 mm and micro, <5 mm. While macro-debris may sometimes be traced to its origin by object identification or markings, micro-debris, consisting of particles of 2 main varieties, (1) fragments broken from larger objects, and (2) resin pellets and powders, the basic thermoplastic industry feedstocks, are difficult to trace. Ingestion of plastic micro-debris by filter feeders at the base of the food web is known to occur, but has not been quantified. Ingestion of degraded plastic pellets and fragments raises toxicity concerns, since plastics are known to adsorb hydrophobic pollutants. The potential bioavailability of compds. added to plastics at the time of manuf., as well as those adsorbed from the environment are complex issues that merit more widespread investigation. The physiol. effects of any bioavailable compds. desorbed from plastics by marine biota are being directly investigated, since it was found 20 yr ago that the mass of ingested plastic in Great Shearwaters was pos. correlated with PCBs in their fat and eggs. Colonization of plastic marine debris by sessile organisms provides a vector for transport of alien species in the ocean environment and may threaten marine biodiversity. There is also potential danger to marine ecosystems from the accumulation of plastic debris on the sea floor. The accumulation of such debris can inhibit gas exchange between the overlying waters and the pore waters of the sediments, and disrupt or smother inhabitants of the benthos. The extent of this problem and its effects have recently begun to be investigated. A little more than half of all thermoplastics will sink in seawater.
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    Ryan, P. G.; Moore, C. J.; van Franeker, J. A.; Moloney, C. L. Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 2009, 364 (1526), 1999– 2012,  DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0207
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    Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment
    Ryan, Peter G.; Moore, Charles J.; van Franeker, Jan A.; Moloney, Coleen L.
    Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences (2009), 364 (1526), 1999-2012CODEN: PTRBAE; ISSN:0962-8436. (Royal Society)
    A review. Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amts. of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude ests. of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and compn. of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
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    Costa, M. F.; Ivar do Sul, J. A.; Silva-Cavalcanti, J. S.; Araujo, M. C.; Spengler, A.; Tourinho, P. S. On the importance of size of plastic fragments and pellets on the strandline: a snapshot of a Brazilian beach. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2010, 168 (1–4), 299– 304,  DOI: 10.1007/s10661-009-1113-4
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    Desforges, J. P.; Galbraith, M.; Dangerfield, N.; Ross, P. S. Widespread distribution of microplastics in subsurface seawater in the NE Pacific Ocean. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 79 (1–2), 94– 9,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.12.035
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    Widespread distribution of microplastics in subsurface seawater in the NE Pacific Ocean
    Desforges, Jean-Pierre W.; Galbraith, Moira; Dangerfield, Neil; Ross, Peter S.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2014), 79 (1-2), 94-99CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    We document the abundance, compn. and distribution of microplastics in sub-surface seawaters of the northeastern Pacific Ocean and coastal British Columbia. Samples were acid-digested and plastics were characterized using light microscopy by type (fibers or fragments) and size (<100, 100-500, 500-100 and >1000 μm). Microplastics concns. ranged from 8 to 9200 particles/m3; lowest concns. were in offshore Pacific waters, and increased 6, 12 and 27-fold in west coast Vancouver Island, Strait of Georgia, and Queen Charlotte Sound, resp. Fibers accounted for ∼75% of particles on av., although nearshore samples had more fiber content than offshore (p < 0.05). While elevated microplastic concns. near urban areas are consistent with land-based sources, the high levels in Queen Charlotte Sound appeared to be the result of oceanog. conditions that trap and conc. debris. This assessment of microplastics in the NE Pacific is of interest in light of the on-coming debris from the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami.
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    Wagner, M.; Scherer, C.; Alvarez-Munoz, D.; Brennholt, N.; Bourrain, X.; Buchinger, S.; Fries, E.; Grosbois, C.; Klasmeier, J.; Marti, T.; Rodriguez-Mozaz, S.; Urbatzka, R.; Vethaak, A. D.; Winther-Nielsen, M.; Reifferscheid, G. Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2014, 26 (1), 12,  DOI: 10.1186/s12302-014-0012-7
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    Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know
    Wagner Martin; Scherer Christian; Alvarez-Munoz Diana; Rodriguez-Mozaz Sara; Brennholt Nicole; Buchinger Sebastian; Reifferscheid Georg; Bourrain Xavier; Fries Elke; Grosbois Cecile; Klasmeier Jorg; Marti Teresa; Urbatzka Ralph; Vethaak A Dick; Winther-Nielsen Margrethe
    Environmental sciences Europe (2014), 26 (1), 12 ISSN:2190-4707.
    BACKGROUND: While the use of plastic materials has generated huge societal benefits, the 'plastic age' comes with downsides: One issue of emerging concern is the accumulation of plastics in the aquatic environment. Here, so-called microplastics (MP), fragments smaller than 5 mm, are of special concern because they can be ingested throughout the food web more readily than larger particles. Focusing on freshwater MP, we briefly review the state of the science to identify gaps of knowledge and deduce research needs. STATE OF THE SCIENCE: Environmental scientists started investigating marine (micro)plastics in the early 2000s. Today, a wealth of studies demonstrates that MP have ubiquitously permeated the marine ecosystem, including the polar regions and the deep sea. MP ingestion has been documented for an increasing number of marine species. However, to date, only few studies investigate their biological effects. The majority of marine plastics are considered to originate from land-based sources, including surface waters. Although they may be important transport pathways of MP, data from freshwater ecosystems is scarce. So far, only few studies provide evidence for the presence of MP in rivers and lakes. Data on MP uptake by freshwater invertebrates and fish is very limited. KNOWLEDGE GAPS: While the research on marine MP is more advanced, there are immense gaps of knowledge regarding freshwater MP. Data on their abundance is fragmentary for large and absent for small surface waters. Likewise, relevant sources and the environmental fate remain to be investigated. Data on the biological effects of MP in freshwater species is completely lacking. The accumulation of other freshwater contaminants on MP is of special interest because ingestion might increase the chemical exposure. Again, data is unavailable on this important issue. CONCLUSIONS: MP represent freshwater contaminants of emerging concern. However, to assess the environmental risk associated with MP, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed. Establishing such data critically depends on a collaborative effort by environmental scientists from diverse disciplines (chemistry, hydrology, ecotoxicology, etc.) and, unsurprisingly, on the allocation of sufficient public funding.
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    Andrady, A. L. Plastics and environmental sustainability; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, 2015; p 324.
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    All is not lost: deriving a top-down mass budget of plastic at sea
    Koelmans, Albert A.; Kooi, Merel; Law, Kara Lavender; van Sebille, Erik
    Environmental Research Letters (2017), 12 (11), 114028/1-114028/9CODEN: ERLNAL; ISSN:1748-9326. (IOP Publishing Ltd.)
    Understanding the global mass inventory is one of the main challenges in present research on plastic marine debris. Esp. the fragmentation and vertical transport processes of oceanic plastic are poorly understood. However, whereas fragmentation rates are unknown, information on plastic emissions, concns. of plastics in the ocean surface layer (OSL) and fragmentation mechanisms is available. Here, we apply a systems engineering anal. approach and propose a tentative 'whole ocean' mass balance model that combines emission data, surface area-normalized plastic fragmentation rates, estd. concns. in the OSL, and removal from the OSL by sinking. We simulate known plastic abundances in the OSL and calc. an av. whole ocean apparent surface area-normalized plastic fragmentation rate const., given representative radii for macroplastic and microplastic. Simulations show that 99.8% of the plastic that had entered the ocean since 1950 had settled below the OSL by 2016, with an addnl. 9.4 million tons settling per yr. In 2016, the model predicts that of the 0.309 million tons in the OSL, an estd. 83.7% was macroplastic, 13.8% microplastic, and 2.5% was <0.335 mm 'nanoplastic'. A zero future emission simulation shows that almost all plastic in the OSL would be removed within three years, implying a fast response time of surface plastic abundance to changes in inputs. The model complements current spatially explicit models, points to future expts. that would inform crit. model parameters, and allows for further validation when more exptl. and field data become available.
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    EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain Presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food, with particular focus on seafood. EFSA J. 2016, 14 (6), 4501,  DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4501
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  2. Sirui Pu, Chudong Wei, Lichun Zhang, Rui Liu, Yi Lv. Novel Pyrolysis-Assisted Cataluminescence System for Fingerprint Discrimination of Various Microplastics. Analytical Chemistry 2025, Article ASAP.
  3. Yucheng Ren, Hengzhi Zhu, Meng Jiang, Yuheng Cao, Chunlong Li, Yadong Yu, Dingjiang Chen, Ming Xu, Baohua Guo, Bing Zhu. Filling the Gaps: Tracing 12 Types of Non-commodity Plastics in China’s Plastic Socioeconomic Metabolism. Environmental Science & Technology 2025, 59 (10) , 5001-5011. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c01174
  4. Ewa Babkiewicz, Julita Nowakowska, Marcin L. Zebrowski, Selvaraj Kunijappan, Katarzyna Jarosińska, Rafał Maciaszek, Jacek Zebrowski, Krzysztof Jurek, Piotr Maszczyk. Microplastic Passage through the Fish and Crayfish Digestive Tract Alters Particle Surface Properties. Environmental Science & Technology 2025, Article ASAP.
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Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 3, 1039–1047
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Examples of differences in the categorization of plastic debris according to size as applied (and/or defined) in scientific literature and in institutional reports. It should be noted that this does not represent an exhaustive overview of all used size classes. ()

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Proposed definition and categorization framework. Excl. = excluded; see Table 1 for details on criteria.

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  • References

    This article references 64 other publications.

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      Kühn, S.; Bravo Rebolledo, E. L.; van Franeker, J. A. Deleterious effects of litter on marine life. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter; Bergmann, M., Gutow, L., Klages, M., Eds.; Springer: Cham, 2015; pp 75– 116.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    2. 2
      Sedlak, D. Three lessons for the microplastics voyage. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (14), 7747– 7748,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03340
      2
      Three Lessons for the Microplastics Voyage
      Sedlak, David
      Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (14), 7747-7748CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      A brief review and commentary. Microplastics are our newest emerging contaminant. Although scientists have expressed concerns about the impacts of plastic pollution for over four decades, microplastics did not become emerging contaminants until 2007. The issue gained momentum about five years later, when researchers reported the presence of microbeads from consumer products in wastewater effluent receiving waters. Facing neg. publicity for a nonessential ingredient, leading manufacturers voluntarily eliminated microbeads and accepted the decision to ban them in the United States in 2015. Now that we are into the second wave of research that will det. whether or not the remaining sources of microplastics will be controlled, it is worth considering lessons learned from other emerging contaminants. The first lesson is that occurrence data and lab. toxicol. studies alone are not enough to bring about action when the effects being studied do not involve humans. The second lesson is that contaminants are more likely to emerge if there is a reasonable possibility that their use is endangering human health. The third lesson is that the likelihood that society will control an emerging contaminant is inversely proportional to the cost of solving the problem as well as the degree to which blame can be affixed on a small no. of companies.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtFelu7jO&md5=c7bc28aa1467dfda9ac087788521f5f4
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      Blettler, M. C. M.; Abrial, E.; Khan, F. R.; Sivri, N.; Espinola, L. A. Freshwater plastic pollution: Recognizing research biases and identifying knowledge gaps. Water Res. 2018, 143, 416,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.06.015
      3
      Freshwater plastic pollution: Recognizing research biases and identifying knowledge gaps
      Blettler, Martin C. M.; Abrial, Elie; Khan, Farhan R.; Sivri, Nuket; Espinola, Luis A.
      Water Research (2018), 143 (), 416-424CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The overwhelming majority of research conducted to date on plastic pollution (all size fractions) has focused on marine ecosystems. In comparison, only a few studies provide evidence for the presence of plastic debris in freshwater environments. However, owing to the numerous differences between freshwater studies (including studied species and habitats, geog. locations, social and economic contexts, the type of data obtained and also the broad range of purposes), they show only fragments of the overall picture of freshwater plastic pollution. This highlights the lack of a holistic vision and evidences several knowledge gaps and data biases. Through a bibliometric anal. we identified such knowledge gaps, inconsistencies and survey trends of plastic pollution research within freshwater ecosystems. We conclude that there is a continued need to increase the field-data bases about plastics (all size fractions) in freshwater environments. This is particularly important to est. river plastic emissions to the world's oceans. Accordingly, data about macroplastics from most polluted and larger rivers are very scarce, although macroplastics represent a huge input in terms of plastics wt. In addn., submerged macroplastics may play an important role in transporting mismanaged plastic waste, however almost no studies exist. Although many of the most plastic polluted rivers are in Asia, only 14% of the reviewed studies were carried out in this continent (even though the major inland fisheries of the world are located in Asia's rivers). The potential damage caused by macroplastics on a wide range of freshwater fauna is as yet undetd., even though neg. impacts have been well documented in similar marine species. We also noted a clear supremacy of microplastic studies over macroplastic ones, even though there is no reason to assume that freshwater ecosystems remain unaffected by macro-debris. Finally, we recommend focusing monitoring efforts in most polluted rivers worldwide, but particularly in countries with rapid economic development and poor waste management.
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    4. 4
      Gregory, M. R.; Andrady, A. L. Plastics in the marine environment. In Plastics and the Environment; Andrady, A. L., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, 2003.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    5. 5
      Thompson, R. C.; Olsen, Y.; Mitchell, R. P.; Davis, A.; Rowland, S. J.; John, A. W. G.; McGonigle, D.; Russell, A. E. Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic?. Science 2004, 304 (5672), 838– 838,  DOI: 10.1126/science.1094559
      5
      Brevia: Lost at sea: Where is all the plastic?
      Thompson, Richard C.; Olsen, Yiva; Mitchell, Richard P.; Davis, Anthony; Rowland, Steven J.; John, Anthony W. G.; McGonigle, Daniel; Russell, Andrea E.
      Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2004), 304 (5672), 838CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
      Microscopic plastic fragments and fibers are widespread in the world ocean, accumulating in the pelagic zone and sedimentary habitats. Fragments appear to have resulted from degrdn. of larger items. Plastics of this size are ingested by marine organisms, but environmental consequences of this contamination are unknown. Due to its resistance to biodegrdn. but susceptibility to mech. action, there is considerable potential for large-scale accumulation of microscopic plastic debris. To quantify the abundance of micro-plastics, sediment was collected from beaches and estuarine and sub-tidal sediment near Plymouth, UK. Nine polymers were conclusively identified: acrylic, alkyd, poly(ethylene:propylene), polyamide (nylon), polyester, polyethylene, polymethylacrylate, polypropylene, and poly vinyl alc. Given their wide range of uses, it is suggested the fragments resulted from larger item breakdown. To further assess the extent of contamination, another 17 beaches were examd. Similar fibers were obsd., demonstrating that microscopic plastics are common in sedimentary habitats. To assess long-term trends of abundance, plankton samples collected regularly since the 1960s between Aberdeen and the Shetland Islands and from Sule Skerry to Iceland, were analyzed. Plastic was archived among plankton in samples back to the 1960s, but with a significant increase in abundance over time. Similar types of polymer in the water column and sediment suggested polymer d. was not a major factor affecting distribution. Some fragments were granular, but most were fibrous, ∼20 μm in diam., and brightly colored. Results demonstrated the broad spatial extent and accumulation of this type of contamination. Given the rapid increase in plastic prodn., its longevity and disposable nature, this contamination is likely to increase.
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    6. 6
      Arthur, C.; Baker, J.; Bamford, H. Proceedings of the international research workshop on the occurrence, effects and fate of microplastic marine debris, Sept 9–11, 2008; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: 2009.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    7. 7
      Koelmans, A. A.; Besseling, E.; Shim, W. J. Nanoplastics in the aquatic environment. Critical review. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter; Bergmann, M., Gutow, L., Klages, M., Eds.; Springer: Cham, 2015; pp 325– 340.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    8. 8
      Andrady, A. L. Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62 (8), 1596– 605,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.030
      8
      Microplastics in the marine environment
      Andrady, Anthony L.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2011), 62 (8), 1596-1605CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degrdn. of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorg. fines present in sea water, microplastics conc. persistent org. pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coeffs. for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favor of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.
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    9. 9
      Lambert, S.; Wagner, M. Characterisation of nanoplastics during the degradation of polystyrene. Chemosphere 2016, 145, 265– 8,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.11.078
      9
      Characterisation of nanoplastics during the degradation of polystyrene
      Lambert, Scott; Wagner, Martin
      Chemosphere (2016), 145 (), 265-268CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The release of plastics into the environment has been identified as an important issue for some time. Recent publications have suggested that the degrdn. of plastic materials will result in the release of nano-sized plastic particles to the environment. Nanoparticle tracking anal. was applied to characterize the formation of nanoplastics during the degrdn. of a polystyrene (PS) disposable coffee cup lid. The results clearly show an increase in the formation of nanoplastics over time. After 56 days' exposure the concn. of nanoplastics in the PS sample was 1.26 × 108 particles/mL (av. particles size 224 nm) compared to 0.41 × 108 particles/mL in the control.
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    10. 10
      Gigault, J.; Halle, A. T.; Baudrimont, M.; Pascal, P. Y.; Gauffre, F.; Phi, T. L.; El Hadri, H.; Grassl, B.; Reynaud, S. Current opinion: What is a nanoplastic?. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 235, 1030– 1034,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.01.024
      10
      Current opinion: What is a nanoplastic?
      Gigault, Julien; ter Halle, Alexandra; Baudrimont, Magalie; Pascal, Pierre-Yves; Gauffre, Fabienne; Phi, Thuy-Linh; El Hadri, Hind; Grassl, Bruno; Reynaud, Stephanie
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 235 (), 1030-1034CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      With the large amt. of attention being given to microplastics in the environment, several researchers have begun to consider the fragmentation of plastics down to lower scales (i.e., the sub-micrometer scale). The term "nanoplastics" is still under debate, and different studies have set the upper size limit at either 1000 nm or 100 nm. The aim of the present work is to propose a definition of nanoplastics, based on our recently published and unpublished research definition of nanoplastics. We define nanoplastics as particles unintentionally produced (i.e. from the degrdn. and the manufg. of the plastic objects) and presenting a colloidal behavior, within the size range from 1 to 1000 nm.
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    11. 11
      GESAMP. Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: a global assessment; IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/ UNEP/UNDP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection: 2015.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    12. 12
      Verschoor, A. J. Towards a definition of microplastics - Considerations for the specification of physico-chemical properties; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment: 2015; p 41.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    13. 13
      Frias, J. P. G. L.; Nash, R. Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 138, 145– 147,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.022
      13
      Microplastics: Finding a consensus on the definition
      Frias, J. P. G. L.; Nash, Roisin
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2019), 138 (), 145-147CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Polymer science is one of the most revolutionary research areas of the last century, instigated by the discovery of Bakelite, the first synthetic plastic. Plastic, once a revolutionary material, has gradually become a global environmental threat with ubiquitous distribution. The term 'microplastics' coined in 2004, is used to describe the smaller plastic particles recorded, however there is still no all-inclusive definition that accurately encompasses all criteria that could potentially describe what a microplastic is. Here, the authors focus on the currently reported methods for describing and identifying microplastics and propose a new definition that incorporates all the important descriptive properties of microplastics. This definition not only focuses on size and origin, but also considers phys. and chem. defining properties. While this manuscript may promote debate, it aims to reach a consensus on a definition for microplastics which can be useful for research, reporting and legislative purposes.
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    14. 14
      Yang, D.; Shi, H.; Li, L.; Li, J.; Jabeen, K.; Kolandhasamy, P. Microplastic pollution in table salts from China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (22), 13622– 7,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b03163
      14
      Microplastic Pollution in Table Salts from China
      Yang, Dongqi; Shi, Huahong; Li, Lan; Li, Jiana; Jabeen, Khalida; Kolandhasamy, Prabhu
      Environmental Science & Technology (2015), 49 (22), 13622-13627CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Microplastics have been found in seas all over the world. We hypothesize that sea salts might contain microplastics, because they are directly supplied by seawater. To test our hypothesis, we collected 15 brands of sea salts, lake salts, and rock/well salts from supermarkets throughout China. The microplastics content was 550-681 particles/kg in sea salts, 43-364 particles/kg in lake salts, and 7-204 particles/kg in rock/well salts. In sea salts, fragments and fibers were the prevalent types of particles compared with pellets and sheets. Microplastics measuring less than 200 μm represented the majority of the particles, accounting for 55% of the total microplastics, and the most common microplastics were polyethylene terephthalate, followed by polyethylene and cellophane in sea salts. The abundance of microplastics in sea salts was significantly higher than that in lake salts and rock/well salts. This result indicates that sea products, such as sea salts, are contaminated by microplastics. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on microplastic pollution in abiotic sea products.
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    15. 15
      Su, L.; Xue, Y.; Li, L.; Yang, D.; Kolandhasamy, P.; Li, D.; Shi, H. Microplastics in Taihu Lake, China. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 216, 711– 719,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.06.036
      15
      Microplastics in Taihu Lake, China
      Su, Lei; Xue, Yingang; Li, Lingyun; Yang, Dongqi; Kolandhasamy, Prabhu; Li, Daoji; Shi, Huahong
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 216 (), 711-719CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      In comparison with marine environments, the occurrence of microplastics in freshwater environments is less understood. In the present study, we investigated microplastic pollution levels during 2015 in Taihu Lake, the third largest Chinese lake located in one of the most developed areas of China. The abundance of microplastics reached 0.01 × 106-6.8 × 106 items/km2 in plankton net samples, 3.4-25.8 items/L in surface water, 11.0-234.6 items/kg dw in sediments and 0.2-12.5 items/g ww in Asian clams (Corbicula fluminea). The av. abundance of microplastics was the highest in plankton net samples from the southeast area of the lake and in the sediments from the northwest area of the lake. The northwest area of the lake was the most heavily contaminated area of the lake, as indicated by chlorophyll-α and total phosphorus. The microplastics were dominated by fiber, 100-1000 μm in size and cellophane in compn. To our best knowledge, the microplastic levels measured in plankton net samples collected from Taihu Lake were the highest found in freshwater lakes worldwide. The ratio of the microplastics in clams to each sediment sample ranged from 38 to 3810 and was neg. correlated to the microplastic level in sediments. In brief, our results strongly suggest that high levels of microplastics occurred not only in water but also in organisms in Taihu Lake.
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    16. 16
      International Organization for Standardization. Plastics - Vocabulary (ISO 472:2013); https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:472:ed-4:v1:en (accessed 16.09.2018).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    17. 17
      Kole, P. J.; Lohr, A. J.; Van Belleghem, F.; Ragas, A. M. J. Wear and tear of tyres: A stealthy source of microplastics in the environment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1265,  DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14101265
      17
      Wear and tear of tyres: a stealthy source of microplastics in the environment
      Kole, Pieter Jan; Loehr, Ansje J.; Van Belleghem, Frank G. A. J.; Ragas, Ad M. J.
      International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2017), 14 (10), 1265/1-1265/31CODEN: IJERGQ; ISSN:1660-4601. (MDPI AG)
      A review. Wear and tear from tyres significantly contributes to the flow of (micro-)plastics into the environment. This paper compiles the fragmented knowledge on tyre wear and tear characteristics, amts. of particles emitted, pathways in the environment, and the possible effects on humans. The estd. per capita emission ranges from 0.23 to 4.7 kg/yr, with a global av. of 0.81 kg/yr. The emissions from car tyres (100%) are substantially higher than those of other sources of microplastics, e.g., airplane tyres (2%), artificial turf (12-50%), brake wear (8%) and road markings (5%). Emissions and pathways depend on local factors like road type or sewage systems. The relative contribution of tyre wear and tear to the total global amt. of plastics ending up in our oceans is estd. to be 5-10%. In air, 3-7% of the particulate matter (PM2.5) is estd. to consist of tyre wear and tear, indicating that it may contribute to the global health burden of air pollution which has been projected by the World Health Organization (WHO) at 3 million deaths in 2012. The wear and tear also enters our food chain, but further research is needed to assess human health risks. It is concluded here that tyre wear and tear is a stealthy source of microplastics in our environment, which can only be addressed effectively if awareness increases, knowledge gaps on quantities and effects are being closed, and creative tech. solns. are being sought. This requires a global effort from all stakeholders; consumers, regulators, industry and researchers alike.
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    18. 18
      Wagner, S.; Huffer, T.; Klockner, P.; Wehrhahn, M.; Hofmann, T.; Reemtsma, T. Tire wear particles in the aquatic environment - A review on generation, analysis, occurrence, fate and effects. Water Res. 2018, 139, 83– 100,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.03.051
      18
      Tire wear particles in the aquatic environment - A review on generation, analysis, occurrence, fate and effects
      Wagner, Stephan; Hueffer, Thorsten; Kloeckner, Philipp; Wehrhahn, Maren; Hofmann, Thilo; Reemtsma, Thorsten
      Water Research (2018), 139 (), 83-100CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Tire wear particles (TWP), generated from tire material during use on roads have gained increasing attention as part of org. particulate contaminants, such as microplastic, in aquatic environments. The available information on properties and generation of TWP, anal. techniques to det. TWP, emissions, occurrence and behavior and ecotoxicol. effects of TWP are reviewed with a focus on surface water as a potential receptor. TWP emissions are traffic related and contribute 5-30% to non-exhaust emissions from traffic. The mass of TWP generated is estd. at 1,327,000t/a for the European Union, 1,120,000t/a for the United States and 133,000t/a for Germany. For Germany, this is equiv. to four times the amt. of pesticides used. The mass of TWP ultimately entering the aquatic environment strongly depends on the extent of collection and treatment of road runoff, which is highly variable. For the German highways it is estd. that up to 11,000t/a of TWP reach surface waters. Data on TWP concns. in the environment, including surface waters are fragmentary, which is also due to the lack of suitable anal. methods for their detn. Information on TWP properties such as d. and size distribution are missing; this hampers assessing the fate of TWP in the aquatic environment. Effects in the aquatic environment may stem from TWP itself or from compds. released from TWP. It is concluded that reliable knowledge on transport mechanism to surface waters, concns. in surface waters and sediments, effects of aging, environmental half-lives of TWP as well as effects on aquatic organisms are missing. These aspects need to be addressed to allow for the assessment of risk of TWP in an aquatic environment.
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    19. 19
      Kramm, J.; Volker, C.; Wagner, M. Superficial or substantial: Why care about microplastics in the Anthropocene?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (6), 3336– 3337,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b00790
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      Backhaus, T.; Wagner, M. Microplastics in the environment: Much ado about nothing? A debate. peerJ. Preprints 2018, 6, e26507v6,  DOI: 10.7287/peerj.preprints.26507v6
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      Maynard, A. D. Don’t define nanomaterials. Nature 2011, 475 (7354), 31– 31,  DOI: 10.1038/475031a
      21
      Don't define nanomaterials
      Maynard, Andrew D.
      Nature (London, United Kingdom) (2011), 475 (7354), 31CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)
      There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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    22. 22
      Stamm, H. Nanomaterials should be defined. Nature 2011, 476 (7361), 399– 399,  DOI: 10.1038/476399c
      22
      Risk factors: Nanomaterials should be defined
      Stamm, Hermann
      Nature (London, United Kingdom) (2011), 476 (7361), 399CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)
      There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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      Rauscher, H.; Roebben, G.; Sanfeliu, A. B.; Emons, H.; Gibson, N.; Koeber, R.; Linsinger, T.; Rasmussen, K.; Sintes, J. R.; Sokull-Klüttgen, B.; Stamm, H. Towards a review of the EC Recommendation for a definition of the term “nanomaterial”, Part 3: Scientific-technical evaluation of options to clarify the definition and to facilitate its implementation; European Commission Joint Research Centre: 2015.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      European Commission. Commission Recommendation of 18 October 2011 on the definition of nanomaterial (2011/696/EU). In Official Journal of the European Union; European Commission: 2011; p L 275/38.
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      Brennholt, N.; Heß, M.; Reifferscheid, G. Freshwater microplastics: Challenges for regulation and management. In Freshwater Microplastics; Wagner, M., Lambert, S., Eds.; Springer: Cham, 2018; pp 239– 272.
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      International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Compendium of polymer terminology and nomenclature: IUPAC recommendations, 2008; RSC Pub.: Cambridge, 2009; p 443.
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      Lechner, M. D.; Gehrke, K.; Nordmeier, E. H. Makromolekulare Chemie; Springer Spektrum: Berlin, Heidelberg, 2014.
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      Ivleva, N. P.; Wiesheu, A. C.; Niessner, R. Microplastic in Aquatic Ecosystems. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2017, 56 (7), 1720– 1739,  DOI: 10.1002/anie.201606957
      28
      Microplastic in Aquatic Ecosystems
      Ivleva, Natalia P.; Wiesheu, Alexandra C.; Niessner, Reinhard
      Angewandte Chemie, International Edition (2017), 56 (7), 1720-1739CODEN: ACIEF5; ISSN:1433-7851. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      A review. The contamination of marine and freshwater ecosystems with plastic, and esp. with microplastic (MP), is a global ecol. problem of increasing scientific concern. This has stimulated a great deal of research on the occurrence of MP, interaction of MP with chem. pollutants, the uptake of MP by aquatic organisms, and the resulting (neg.) impact of MP. Herein, we review the major issues of MP in aquatic environments, with the principal aims (1) to characterize the methods applied for MP anal. (including sampling, processing, identification and quantification), indicate the most reliable techniques, and discuss the required further improvements; (2) to est. the abundance of MP in marine/freshwater ecosystems and clarify the problems that hamper the comparability of such results; and (3) to summarize the existing literature on the uptake of MP by living organisms. Finally, we identify knowledge gaps, suggest possible strategies to assess environmental risks arising from MP, and discuss prospects to minimize MP abundance in aquatic ecosystems.
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      Lambert, S.; Wagner, M. Environmental performance of bio-based and biodegradable plastics: the road ahead. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46 (22), 6855– 6871,  DOI: 10.1039/C7CS00149E
      29
      Environmental performance of bio-based and biodegradable plastics: the road ahead
      Lambert, Scott; Wagner, Martin
      Chemical Society Reviews (2017), 46 (22), 6855-6871CODEN: CSRVBR; ISSN:0306-0012. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      A review. Future plastic materials will be very different from those that are used today. The increasing importance of sustainability promotes the development of bio-based and biodegradable polymers, sometimes misleadingly referred to as bioplastics. Because both terms imply green sources and clean removal, this paper aims at critically discussing the sometimes-conflicting terminol. as well as renewable sources with a special focus on the degrdn. of these polymers in natural environments. With regard to the former we review innovations in feedstock development (e.g. microalgae and food wastes). In terms of the latter, we highlight the effects that polymer structure, additives, and environmental variables have on plastic biodegradability. We argue that the biodegradable end-product does not necessarily degrade once emitted to the environment because chem. additives used to make them fit for purpose will increase the longevity. In the future, this trend may continue as the plastics industry also is expected to be a major user of nanocomposites. Overall, there is a need to assess the performance of polymer innovations in terms of their biodegradability esp. under realistic waste management and environmental conditions, to avoid the unwanted release of plastic degrdn. products in receiving environments.
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    30. 30
      Pfaendner, R. How will additives shape the future of plastics?. Polym. Degrad. Stab. 2006, 91 (9), 2249– 2256,  DOI: 10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2005.10.017
      30
      How will additives shape the future of plastics?
      Pfaendner, Rudolf
      Polymer Degradation and Stability (2006), 91 (9), 2249-2256CODEN: PDSTDW; ISSN:0141-3910. (Elsevier B.V.)
      A review. Additives are essential components of plastic formulations providing maintenance and/or modification of polymer properties, performance and long-term use. The extension of polymer properties by additives has played a substantial role in the growth of plastics. At the beginning of the plastics age additives were used mainly to maintain polymer properties and to help plastics to survive heat treatment during transforming processes. The next generation of additives provided extension of service life as well as modification of mech. and phys. properties. These well-established additives - antioxidants, heat stabilizers, light stabilizers and others - cover the requirements of std. plastics and today's mass applications. The more recent developments of high-performance additives address more stringent or new requirements, more severe processing and use conditions and/or environmental concerns, but still with the main target of maintaining plastic properties. The future will introduce more and more new effects and functionalities through additives in plastic applications tailoring the properties of polymers and offering a vast potential of innovation in the plastics area. Recent examples of emerging technologies show that additives will not only modify the polymer itself and add new properties, but can also, when incorporated into the plastic, beneficially impact properties, which are of high value for the user. The paper shows the role of additives used in plastics from the past to the present with the focus on stabilization and performance of additives incorporated during melt processing, and outlines future trends.
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    31. 31
      Hahladakis, J. N.; Velis, C. A.; Weber, R.; Iacovidou, E.; Purnell, P. An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 2018, 344, 179– 199,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014
      31
      An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling
      Hahladakis, John N.; Velis, Costas A.; Weber, Roland; Iacovidou, Eleni; Purnell, Phil
      Journal of Hazardous Materials (2018), 344 (), 179-199CODEN: JHMAD9; ISSN:0304-3894. (Elsevier B.V.)
      A review is given. Over the last 60 yr plastics prodn. has increased manifold, owing to their inexpensive, multipurpose, durable and lightwt. nature. These characteristics have raised the demand for plastic materials that will continue to grow over the coming years. However, with increased plastic materials prodn., comes increased plastic material wastage creating a no. of challenges, as well as opportunities to the waste management industry. The present overview highlights the waste management and pollution challenges, emphasizing on the various chem. substances (known as additives) contained in all plastic products for enhancing polymer properties and prolonging their life. Despite how useful these additives are in the functionality of polymer products, their potential to contaminate soil, air, water and food is widely documented in literature and described herein. These additives can potentially migrate and undesirably lead to human exposure via e.g. food contact materials, such as packaging. They can, also, be released from plastics during the various recycling and recovery processes and from the products produced from recyclates. Thus, sound recycling has to be performed in such a way as to ensure that emission of substances of high concern and contamination of recycled products is avoided, ensuring environmental and human health protection, at all times.
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    32. 32
      European Chemicals Agency. Guidance for monomers and polymers. In Guidance for the implementation of REACH; European Chemicals Agency: Helsinki, 2012; p 26.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    33. 33
      Lambourne, R.; Strivens, T. A. Paint and surface coatings - theory and practice; Woodhead Publishing Ltd: Abington, 1999.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    34. 34
      Verschoor, A.; de Poorter, L.; Dröge, R.; Kuenen, J.; de Valk, E. Emission of microplastics and potential mitigation measures - Abrasive cleaning agents, paints and tyre wear; National Institute for Public Health and the Environment: Bilthoven, 2016; p 75.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    35. 35
      MEPEX. Sources of microplastics-pollution to the marine environment; Norwegian Environment Agency: 2014; p 86.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    36. 36
      Eunomia. Plastics in the marine environment; Eunomia: Bristol, 2016; p 13.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    37. 37
      MEPEX. Primary microplastic-pollution: Measures and reduction potentials in Norway; Norwegian Environment Agency: 2016; p 117.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    38. 38
      Lassen, C.; Hansen, S. F.; Magnusson, K.; Norén, F.; Hartmann, N. I. B.; Jensen, P. R.; Nielsen, T. G.; Brinch, A. Microplastics - Occurrence, effects and sources of releases to the environment in Denmark; The Danish Environmental Protection Agency: Copenhagen, 2015.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    39. 39
      UNECE. Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), Fifth revised ed.; United Nations: New York and Geneva, 2013.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    40. 40
      Rogovina, L. Z.; Vasil’ev, V. G.; Braudo, E. E. Definition of the concept of polymer gel. Polym. Sci., Ser. C 2008, 50 (1), 85– 92,  DOI: 10.1134/S1811238208010050
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    41. 41
      European Chemicals Agency. Guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment, Part B: Hazard Assessment. In Guidance for the implementation of REACH; European Chemicals Agency: Helsinki, 2010; p 19.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    42. 42
      Besseling, E.; Quik, J. T. K.; Sun, M.; Koelmans, A. A. Fate of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems: A modeling study. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 540– 548,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.001
      42
      Fate of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems: A modeling study
      Besseling, Ellen; Quik, Joris T. K.; Sun, Muzhi; Koelmans, Albert A.
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 540-548CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Riverine transport to the marine environment is an important pathway for microplastic. However, information on fate and transport of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems is lacking. Here we present scenario studies on the fate and transport of nano-to millimetre sized spherical particles like microbeads (100 nm-10 mm) with a state of the art spatiotemporally resolved hydrol. model. The model accounts for advective transport, homo- and heteroaggregation, sedimentation-resuspension, polymer degrdn., presence of biofilm and burial. Literature data were used to parameterize the model and addnl. the attachment efficiency for heteroaggregation was detd. exptl. The attachment efficiency ranged from 0.004 to 0.2 for 70 nm and 1050 nm polystyrene particles aggregating with kaolin or bentonite clays in natural freshwater. Modeled effects of polymer d. (1-1.5 kg/L) and biofilm formation were not large, due to the fact that variations in polymer d. are largely overwhelmed by excess mass of suspended solids that form heteroaggregates with microplastic. Particle size had a dramatic effect on the modeled fate and retention of microplastic and on the positioning of the accumulation hot spots in the sediment along the river. Remarkably, retention was lowest (18-25%) for intermediate sized particles of about 5 μm, which implies that the smaller submicron particles as well as larger micro- and millimetre sized plastic are preferentially retained. Our results suggest that river hydrodynamics affect microplastic size distributions with profound implications for emissions to marine systems.
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    43. 43
      Huffer, T.; Praetorius, A.; Wagner, S.; von der Kammer, F.; Hofmann, T. Microplastic exposure assessment in aquatic environments: Learning from similarities and differences to engineered nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (5), 2499– 2507,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04054
      43
      Microplastic Exposure Assessment in Aquatic Environments: Learning from Similarities and Differences to Engineered Nanoparticles
      Huffer Thorsten; Praetorius Antonia; von der Kammer Frank; Hofmann Thilo; Praetorius Antonia; Hofmann Thilo; Wagner Stephan
      Environmental science & technology (2017), 51 (5), 2499-2507 ISSN:.
      Microplastics (MPs) have been identified as contaminants of emerging concern in aquatic environments and research into their behavior and fate has been sharply increasing in recent years. Nevertheless, significant gaps remain in our understanding of several crucial aspects of MP exposure and risk assessment, including the quantification of emissions, dominant fate processes, types of analytical tools required for characterization and monitoring, and adequate laboratory protocols for analysis and hazard testing. This Feature aims at identifying transferrable knowledge and experience from engineered nanoparticle (ENP) exposure assessment. This is achieved by comparing ENP and MPs based on their similarities as particulate contaminants, whereas critically discussing specific differences. We also highlight the most pressing research priorities to support an efficient development of tools and methods for MPs environmental risk assessment.
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    44. 44
      Scherer, C.; Brennholt, N.; Reifferscheid, G.; Wagner, M. Feeding type and development drive the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7 (1), 17006,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17191-7
      44
      Feeding type and development drive the ingestion of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates
      Scherer Christian; Wagner Martin; Brennholt Nicole; Reifferscheid Georg; Wagner Martin
      Scientific reports (2017), 7 (1), 17006 ISSN:.
      Microscopic plastic items (microplastics) are ubiquitously present in aquatic ecosystems. With decreasing size their availability and potential to accumulate throughout food webs increase. However, little is known on the uptake of microplastics by freshwater invertebrates. To address this, we exposed species with different feeding strategies to 1, 10 and 90 μm fluorescent polystyrene spheres (3-3 000 particles mL(-1)). Additionally, we investigated how developmental stages and a co-exposure to natural particles (e.g., food) modulate microplastic ingestion. All species ingested microplastics in a concentration-dependent manner with Daphnia magna consuming up to 6 180 particles h(-1), followed by Chironomus riparius (226 particles h(-1)), Physella acuta (118 particles h(-1)), Gammarus pulex (10 particles h(-1)) and Lumbriculus variegatus (8 particles h(-1)). D. magna did not ingest 90 μm microplastics whereas the other species preferred larger microplastics over 1 μm in size. In C. riparius and D. magna, size preference depended on the life stage with larger specimens ingesting more and larger microplastics. The presence of natural particles generally reduced the microplastics uptake. Our results demonstrate that freshwater invertebrates have the capacity to ingest microplastics. However, the quantity of uptake depends on their feeding type and morphology as well as on the availability of microplastics.
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    45. 45
      International Organization for Standardization. Nanotechnologies - Vocabulary, Part 1: Core terms (ISO/TS 80004-1:2015); https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:ts:80004:-1:ed-2:v1:en (accessed 19.09.2016).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    46. 46
      Hidalgo-Ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R. C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (6), 3060– 75,  DOI: 10.1021/es2031505
      46
      Microplastics in marine environment review of methods for identification and quantification
      Hidalgo-Ruz, Valeria; Gutow, Lars; Thompson, Richard C.; Thiel, Martin
      Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (6), 3060-3075CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, vol.-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: d. sepn., filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degrdn. stage, and color as criteria). Chem. and phys. characteristics (e.g., specific d.) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chem. compn. of microplastics is by IR spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance ests. are "items per m2" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m3" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance ests. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
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    47. 47
      Zhang, K.; Xiong, X.; Hu, H.; Wu, C.; Bi, Y.; Wu, Y.; Zhou, B.; Lam, P. K.; Liu, J. Occurrence and characteristics of microplastic pollution in Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir, China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (7), 3794– 3801,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00369
      47
      Occurrence and Characteristics of Microplastic Pollution in Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir, China
      Zhang, Kai; Xiong, Xiong; Hu, Hongjuan; Wu, Chenxi; Bi, Yonghong; Wu, Yonghong; Zhou, Bingsheng; Lam, Paul K. S.; Liu, Jiantong
      Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (7), 3794-3801CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Microplastic pollution in inland waters is receiving growing attentions. Reservoirs are suspected to be particularly vulnerable to microplastic pollution. However, very limited information is currently available on pollution characteristics of microplastics in reservoir ecosystems. This work studied the distribution and characteristics of microplastics in the backwater area of Xiangxi River, a typical tributary of the Three Gorges Reservoir. Microplastics were detected in both surface water and sediment with concns. ranging from 0.55 × 105 to 342 × 105 items km-2 and 80 to 864 items m-2, resp. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene were identified in surface water, whereas polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate, and pigments were obsd. in sediment. In addn., microplastics were also detected in the digestion tracts of 25.7% of fish samples, and polyethylene and nylon were identified. Redundancy anal. indicates a weak correlation between microplastics and water quality variables but a neg. correlation with water level of the reservoir and Secchi depth. Results from this study confirm the presence of high abundance microplastics in reservoir impacted tributaries, and suggest that water level regulated hydrodynamic condition and input of nonpoint sources are important regulators for microplastic accumulation and distribution in the backwater area of reservoir tributaries.
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    48. 48
      Lusher, A. L.; Welden, N. A.; Sobral, P.; Cole, M. Sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested by fish and invertebrates. Anal. Methods 2017, 9 (9), 1346– 1360,  DOI: 10.1039/C6AY02415G
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    49. 49
      MSFD Technical Subgroup on Marine Litter. Guidance on monitoring of marine litter in European seas - a guidance document within the common implementation strategy for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive; European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability: Luxembourg, 2013; p 128.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    50. 50
      Fendall, L. S.; Sewell, M. A. Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial cleansers. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2009, 58 (8), 1225– 8,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025
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      Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: Microplastics in facial cleansers
      Fendall, Lisa S.; Sewell, Mary A.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2009), 58 (8), 1225-1228CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Plastics pollution in the ocean is an area of growing concern, with research efforts focusing on both the macroplastic (>5 mm) and microplastic (<5 mm) fractions. In the 1990s it was recognized that a minor source of microplastic pollution was derived from liq. hand-cleansers that would have been rarely used by the av. consumer. In 2009, however, the av. consumer is likely to be using microplastic-contg. products on a daily basis, as the majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene microplastics which are not captured by wastewater plants and will enter the oceans. Four microplastic-contg. facial cleansers available in New Zealand supermarkets were used to quantify the size of the polythelene fragments. Three-quarters of the brands had a modal size of <100 μ and could be immediately ingested by planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain. Over time the microplastics will be subject to UV-degrdn. and absorb hydrophobic materials such as PCBs, making them smaller and more toxic in the long-term. Marine scientists need to educate the public to the dangers of using products that pose an immediate and long-term threat to the health of the oceans and the food we eat.
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    51. 51
      Lei, K.; Qiao, F.; Liu, Q.; Wei, Z.; Qi, H.; Cui, S.; Yue, X.; Deng, Y.; An, L. Microplastics releasing from personal care and cosmetic products in China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 123 (1–2), 122– 126,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.016
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    52. 52
      Wardrop, P.; Shimeta, J.; Nugegoda, D.; Morrison, P. D.; Miranda, A.; Tang, M.; Clarke, B. O. Chemical Pollutants Sorbed to Ingested Microbeads from Personal Care Products Accumulate in Fish. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (7), 4037– 44,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b06280
      52
      Chemical Pollutants Sorbed to Ingested Microbeads from Personal Care Products Accumulate in Fish
      Wardrop, Peter; Shimeta, Jeff; Nugegoda, Dayanthi; Morrison, Paul D.; Miranda, Ana; Tang, Min; Clarke, Bradley O.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (7), 4037-4044CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      The prevalence of microplastics (<5 mm) in natural environments has become a widely recognized global problem. Microplastics have been shown to sorb chem. pollutants from their surrounding environment, thus raising concern as to their role in the movement of these pollutants through the food chain. This expt. investigated whether org. pollutants sorbed to microbeads (MBs) from personal care products were assimilated by fish following particle ingestion. Rainbow fish (Melanotaenia fluviatilis) were exposed to MBs with sorbed polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs; BDE-28, -47, -100, -99, -153, -154, -183, 200 ng g-1; BDE-209, 2000 ng g-1) and sampled at 0, 21, 42, and 63 days along with two control treatments (food only and food + clean MBs). Exposed fish had significantly higher Σ8PBDE concns. than both control treatments after just 21 days, and continued exposure resulted in increased accumulation of the pollutants over the expt. (ca. 115 pg g-1 ww d-1). Lower brominated congeners showed the highest assimilation whereas higher brominated congeners did not appear to transfer, indicating they may be too strongly sorbed to the plastic or unable to be assimilated by the fish due to large mol. size or other factors. Seemingly against this trend, however, BDE-99 did not appear to bioaccumulate in the fish, which may be due to partitioning from the MBs or it being metabolized in vivo. This work provides evidence that MBs from personal care products are capable of transferring sorbed pollutants to fish that ingest them.
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    53. 53
      Ory, N. C.; Sobral, P.; Ferreira, J. L.; Thiel, M. Amberstripe scad Decapterus muroadsi (Carangidae) fish ingest blue microplastics resembling their copepod prey along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 586, 430– 437,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.175
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      Amberstripe scad Decapterus muroadsi (Carangidae) fish ingest blue microplastics resembling their copepod prey along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in the South Pacific subtropical gyre
      Ory, Nicolas Christian; Sobral, Paula; Ferreira, Joana Lia; Thiel, Martin
      Science of the Total Environment (2017), 586 (), 430-437CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
      An increasing no. of studies have described the presence of microplastics (≤ 5 mm) in many different fish species, raising ecol. concerns. The factors influencing the ingestion of microplastics by fish remain unclear despite their importance to a better understanding of the routes of microplastics through marine food webs. Here, we compare microplastics and planktonic organisms in surface waters and as food items of 20 Amberstripe scads (Decapterus muroadsi) captured along the coast of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) to assess the hypothesis that fish ingest microplastics resembling their natural prey. Sixteen (80%) of the scad had ingested one to five microplastics, mainly blue polyethylene fragments that were similar in color and size to blue copepod species consumed by the same fish. These results suggest that planktivorous fish, as a consequence of their feeding behavior as visual predators, are directly exposed to floating microplastics. This threat may be exacerbated in the clear oceanic waters of the subtropical gyres, where anthropogenic litter accumulates in great quantity. Our study highlights the menace of microplastic contamination on the integrity of fragile remote ecosystems and the urgent need for efficient plastic waste management.
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    54. 54
      Lambert, S.; Wagner, M. Microplastics are contaminants of emerging concern in freshwater environments: An overview. Freshwater Microplastics 2018, 58, 1– 23,  DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-61615-5_1
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    55. 55
      Mani, T.; Blarer, P.; Storck, F. R.; Pittroff, M.; Wernicke, T.; Burkhardt-Holm, P. Repeated detection of polystyrene microbeads in the lower Rhine River. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 245, 634– 641,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.036
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      Repeated detection of polystyrene microbeads in the lower Rhine River
      Mani, Thomas; Blarer, Pascal; Storck, Florian R.; Pittroff, Marco; Wernicke, Theo; Burkhardt-Holm, Patricia
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 245 (), 634-641CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Microplastics are emerging pollutants in water bodies worldwide. The environmental entry areas must be studied to localise their sources and develop preventative and remedial solns. Rivers are major contributors to the marine microplastics load. Here, we focus on a specific type of plastic microbead (diam. 286-954 μ m, predominantly opaque, white-beige) that was repeatedly identified in substantial nos. between kilometres 677 and 944 of the Rhine River, one of Europe's main waterways. Specifically, we aimed (i) to confirm the reported abrupt increase in microbead concns. between the cities of Leverkusen and Duisburg and (ii) to assess the concn. gradient of these particles along this stretch at higher resoln. Furthermore, we set out (iii) to narrow down the putative entry stretch from 81.3 km, as reported in an earlier study, to less than 20 km according to our research design, and (iv) to identify the chem. compn. of the particles and possibly reveal their original purpose. Surface water filtration (mesh: 300 μ m, n = 9) at regular intervals along the focal river stretch indicated the concn. of these spherules increased from 0.05 to 8.3 particles m-3 over 20 km. This spot sampling approach was supported by nine suspended solid samples taken between 2014 and 2017, encompassing the river stretch between Leverkusen and Duisburg. Ninety-five percent of microbeads analyzed (202/212) were chem. identified as crosslinked polystyrene-divinylbenzene (PS-DVB, 146/212) or polystyrene (PS, 56/212) via Raman or Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy. Based on interpretation of polymer compn., surface structure, shape, size and color, the PS(-DVB) microbeads are likely to be used ion-exchange resins, which are commonly applied in water softening and various industrial purifn. processes. The reported beads contribute considerably to the surface microplastic load of the Rhine River and their potential riverine entry area was geog. narrowed down.
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    56. 56
      Browne, M. A.; Galloway, T.; Thompson, R. Microplastic - an emerging contaminant of potential concern?. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manage. 2007, 3 (4), 559– 561,  DOI: 10.1002/ieam.5630030412
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    57. 57
      Moore, C. J. Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environ. Res. 2008, 108 (2), 131– 139,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.025
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      Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: A rapidly increasing, long-term threat
      Moore, Charles James
      Environmental Research (2008), 108 (2), 131-139CODEN: ENVRAL; ISSN:0013-9351. (Elsevier Inc.)
      A review is given. Synthetic polymers, commonly known as plastics, have been entering the marine environment in quantities paralleling their level of prodn. over the last half century. However, in the last 2 decades of the 20th Century, the deposition rate accelerated past the rate of prodn., and plastics are now one of the most common and persistent pollutants in ocean waters and beaches worldwide. Thirty years ago the prevailing attitude of the plastic industry was that plastic litter is a very small proportion of all litter and causes no harm to the environment except as an eyesore. Between 1960 and 2000, the world prodn. of plastic resins increased 25-fold, while recovery of the material remained <5%. Between 1970 and 2003, plastics became the fastest growing segment of the US municipal waste stream, increasing nine-fold, and marine litter is now 60-80% plastic, reaching 90-95% in some areas. While undoubtedly still an eyesore, plastic debris today is having significant harmful effects on marine biota. Albatross, fulmars, shearwaters and petrels mistake floating plastics for food, and many individuals of these species are affected; in fact, 44% of all seabird species are known to ingest plastic. Sea turtles ingest plastic bags, fishing line and other plastics, as do 26 species of cetaceans. In all, 267 species of marine organisms worldwide are known to have been affected by plastic debris, a no. that will increase as smaller organisms are assessed. The no. of fish, birds, and mammals that succumb each year to derelict fishing nets and lines in which they become entangled cannot be reliably known; but ests. are in the millions. We divide marine plastic debris into 2 categories: macro, >5 mm and micro, <5 mm. While macro-debris may sometimes be traced to its origin by object identification or markings, micro-debris, consisting of particles of 2 main varieties, (1) fragments broken from larger objects, and (2) resin pellets and powders, the basic thermoplastic industry feedstocks, are difficult to trace. Ingestion of plastic micro-debris by filter feeders at the base of the food web is known to occur, but has not been quantified. Ingestion of degraded plastic pellets and fragments raises toxicity concerns, since plastics are known to adsorb hydrophobic pollutants. The potential bioavailability of compds. added to plastics at the time of manuf., as well as those adsorbed from the environment are complex issues that merit more widespread investigation. The physiol. effects of any bioavailable compds. desorbed from plastics by marine biota are being directly investigated, since it was found 20 yr ago that the mass of ingested plastic in Great Shearwaters was pos. correlated with PCBs in their fat and eggs. Colonization of plastic marine debris by sessile organisms provides a vector for transport of alien species in the ocean environment and may threaten marine biodiversity. There is also potential danger to marine ecosystems from the accumulation of plastic debris on the sea floor. The accumulation of such debris can inhibit gas exchange between the overlying waters and the pore waters of the sediments, and disrupt or smother inhabitants of the benthos. The extent of this problem and its effects have recently begun to be investigated. A little more than half of all thermoplastics will sink in seawater.
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    58. 58
      Ryan, P. G.; Moore, C. J.; van Franeker, J. A.; Moloney, C. L. Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 2009, 364 (1526), 1999– 2012,  DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0207
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      Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment
      Ryan, Peter G.; Moore, Charles J.; van Franeker, Jan A.; Moloney, Coleen L.
      Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences (2009), 364 (1526), 1999-2012CODEN: PTRBAE; ISSN:0962-8436. (Royal Society)
      A review. Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amts. of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude ests. of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and compn. of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
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    59. 59
      Costa, M. F.; Ivar do Sul, J. A.; Silva-Cavalcanti, J. S.; Araujo, M. C.; Spengler, A.; Tourinho, P. S. On the importance of size of plastic fragments and pellets on the strandline: a snapshot of a Brazilian beach. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2010, 168 (1–4), 299– 304,  DOI: 10.1007/s10661-009-1113-4
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    60. 60
      Desforges, J. P.; Galbraith, M.; Dangerfield, N.; Ross, P. S. Widespread distribution of microplastics in subsurface seawater in the NE Pacific Ocean. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 79 (1–2), 94– 9,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.12.035
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      Widespread distribution of microplastics in subsurface seawater in the NE Pacific Ocean
      Desforges, Jean-Pierre W.; Galbraith, Moira; Dangerfield, Neil; Ross, Peter S.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2014), 79 (1-2), 94-99CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      We document the abundance, compn. and distribution of microplastics in sub-surface seawaters of the northeastern Pacific Ocean and coastal British Columbia. Samples were acid-digested and plastics were characterized using light microscopy by type (fibers or fragments) and size (<100, 100-500, 500-100 and >1000 μm). Microplastics concns. ranged from 8 to 9200 particles/m3; lowest concns. were in offshore Pacific waters, and increased 6, 12 and 27-fold in west coast Vancouver Island, Strait of Georgia, and Queen Charlotte Sound, resp. Fibers accounted for ∼75% of particles on av., although nearshore samples had more fiber content than offshore (p < 0.05). While elevated microplastic concns. near urban areas are consistent with land-based sources, the high levels in Queen Charlotte Sound appeared to be the result of oceanog. conditions that trap and conc. debris. This assessment of microplastics in the NE Pacific is of interest in light of the on-coming debris from the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami.
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    61. 61
      Wagner, M.; Scherer, C.; Alvarez-Munoz, D.; Brennholt, N.; Bourrain, X.; Buchinger, S.; Fries, E.; Grosbois, C.; Klasmeier, J.; Marti, T.; Rodriguez-Mozaz, S.; Urbatzka, R.; Vethaak, A. D.; Winther-Nielsen, M.; Reifferscheid, G. Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2014, 26 (1), 12,  DOI: 10.1186/s12302-014-0012-7
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      Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know
      Wagner Martin; Scherer Christian; Alvarez-Munoz Diana; Rodriguez-Mozaz Sara; Brennholt Nicole; Buchinger Sebastian; Reifferscheid Georg; Bourrain Xavier; Fries Elke; Grosbois Cecile; Klasmeier Jorg; Marti Teresa; Urbatzka Ralph; Vethaak A Dick; Winther-Nielsen Margrethe
      Environmental sciences Europe (2014), 26 (1), 12 ISSN:2190-4707.
      BACKGROUND: While the use of plastic materials has generated huge societal benefits, the 'plastic age' comes with downsides: One issue of emerging concern is the accumulation of plastics in the aquatic environment. Here, so-called microplastics (MP), fragments smaller than 5 mm, are of special concern because they can be ingested throughout the food web more readily than larger particles. Focusing on freshwater MP, we briefly review the state of the science to identify gaps of knowledge and deduce research needs. STATE OF THE SCIENCE: Environmental scientists started investigating marine (micro)plastics in the early 2000s. Today, a wealth of studies demonstrates that MP have ubiquitously permeated the marine ecosystem, including the polar regions and the deep sea. MP ingestion has been documented for an increasing number of marine species. However, to date, only few studies investigate their biological effects. The majority of marine plastics are considered to originate from land-based sources, including surface waters. Although they may be important transport pathways of MP, data from freshwater ecosystems is scarce. So far, only few studies provide evidence for the presence of MP in rivers and lakes. Data on MP uptake by freshwater invertebrates and fish is very limited. KNOWLEDGE GAPS: While the research on marine MP is more advanced, there are immense gaps of knowledge regarding freshwater MP. Data on their abundance is fragmentary for large and absent for small surface waters. Likewise, relevant sources and the environmental fate remain to be investigated. Data on the biological effects of MP in freshwater species is completely lacking. The accumulation of other freshwater contaminants on MP is of special interest because ingestion might increase the chemical exposure. Again, data is unavailable on this important issue. CONCLUSIONS: MP represent freshwater contaminants of emerging concern. However, to assess the environmental risk associated with MP, comprehensive data on their abundance, fate, sources, and biological effects in freshwater ecosystems are needed. Establishing such data critically depends on a collaborative effort by environmental scientists from diverse disciplines (chemistry, hydrology, ecotoxicology, etc.) and, unsurprisingly, on the allocation of sufficient public funding.
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    62. 62
      Andrady, A. L. Plastics and environmental sustainability; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, 2015; p 324.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    63. 63
      Koelmans, A. A.; Kooi, M.; Law, K. L.; van Sebille, E. All is not lost: deriving a top-down mass budget of plastic at sea. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 114028,  DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa9500
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      All is not lost: deriving a top-down mass budget of plastic at sea
      Koelmans, Albert A.; Kooi, Merel; Law, Kara Lavender; van Sebille, Erik
      Environmental Research Letters (2017), 12 (11), 114028/1-114028/9CODEN: ERLNAL; ISSN:1748-9326. (IOP Publishing Ltd.)
      Understanding the global mass inventory is one of the main challenges in present research on plastic marine debris. Esp. the fragmentation and vertical transport processes of oceanic plastic are poorly understood. However, whereas fragmentation rates are unknown, information on plastic emissions, concns. of plastics in the ocean surface layer (OSL) and fragmentation mechanisms is available. Here, we apply a systems engineering anal. approach and propose a tentative 'whole ocean' mass balance model that combines emission data, surface area-normalized plastic fragmentation rates, estd. concns. in the OSL, and removal from the OSL by sinking. We simulate known plastic abundances in the OSL and calc. an av. whole ocean apparent surface area-normalized plastic fragmentation rate const., given representative radii for macroplastic and microplastic. Simulations show that 99.8% of the plastic that had entered the ocean since 1950 had settled below the OSL by 2016, with an addnl. 9.4 million tons settling per yr. In 2016, the model predicts that of the 0.309 million tons in the OSL, an estd. 83.7% was macroplastic, 13.8% microplastic, and 2.5% was <0.335 mm 'nanoplastic'. A zero future emission simulation shows that almost all plastic in the OSL would be removed within three years, implying a fast response time of surface plastic abundance to changes in inputs. The model complements current spatially explicit models, points to future expts. that would inform crit. model parameters, and allows for further validation when more exptl. and field data become available.
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    64. 64
      EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain Presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food, with particular focus on seafood. EFSA J. 2016, 14 (6), 4501,  DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4501
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.