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Effects of Nylon Microplastic on Feeding, Lipid Accumulation, and Moulting in a Coldwater Copepod
- Matthew Cole*Matthew Cole*Phone: +44(0)1752 633100; e-mail: [email protected]Marine Ecology and Biodiversity Group, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United KingdomMore by Matthew Cole
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- Rachel CoppockRachel CoppockMarine Ecology and Biodiversity Group, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United KingdomCollege of Life and Environmental Sciences: Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, United KingdomMore by Rachel Coppock
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- Penelope K. Lindeque*Penelope K. Lindeque*Phone: +44(0)1752 633100; e-mail: [email protected]Marine Ecology and Biodiversity Group, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United KingdomMore by Penelope K. Lindeque
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- Dag Altin
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- Sarah ReedSarah ReedScottish Association of Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, United KingdomMore by Sarah Reed
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- David W. PondDavid W. PondScottish Association of Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, United KingdomInstitute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, United KingdomMore by David W. Pond
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- Lisbet Sørensen
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- Tamara S. GallowayTamara S. GallowayCollege of Life and Environmental Sciences: Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, United KingdomMore by Tamara S. Galloway
- , and
- Andy M. Booth
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Abstract
Microplastic debris is a pervasive environmental contaminant that has the potential to impact the health of biota, although its modes of action remain somewhat unclear. The current study tested the hypothesis that exposure to fibrous and particulate microplastics would alter feeding, impacting on lipid accumulation, and normal development (e.g., growth, moulting) in an ecologically important coldwater copepod Calanus finmarchicus. Preadult copepods were incubated in seawater containing a mixed assemblage of cultured microalgae (control), with the addition of ∼50 microplastics mL–1 of nylon microplastic granules (10–30 μm) or fibers (10 × 30 μm), which are similar in shape and size to the microalgal prey. The additive chemical profiles showed the presence of stabilizers, lubricants, monomer residues, and byproducts. Prey selectivity was significantly altered in copepods exposed to nylon fibers (ANOVA, P < 0.01) resulting in a nonsignificant 40% decrease in algal ingestion rates (ANOVA, P = 0.07), and copepods exposed to nylon granules showed nonsignificant lipid accumulation (ANOVA, P = 0.62). Both microplastics triggered premature moulting in juvenile copepods (Bernoulli GLM, P < 0.01). Our results emphasize that the shape and chemical profile of a microplastic can influence its bioavailability and toxicity, drawing attention to the importance of using environmentally relevant microplastics and chemically profiling plastics used in toxicity testing.
Introduction
ARTICLE SECTIONS
Microplastics (1 μm to 1 mm) are a pervasive and persistent environmental contaminant, impinging on freshwater, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems across the globe. (1,2) These synthetic particulates and fibers are either directly manufactured (e.g., exfoliates in personal care products), or derive from fragmentation of larger plastic debris. (3,4) It is conservatively estimated that over 4.75 × 1012 plastic particles (in the size range of 0.3–4.5 mm) are floating in the global ocean. (5) As complete mineralization of plastic debris is estimated to range from tens to hundreds of years, and with plastic inputs expected to rise for the foreseeable future, marine microplastic concentrations are likely to increase. (6,7) Owing to their small size, microplastics can be directly or indirectly (i.e., via trophic interactions) ingested by a range of marine organisms across trophic levels, including zooplankton, (8) shellfish, (9) fish, (10,11) and megafauna. (12,13) Microplastics contain additives, plasticizers, and monomers (e.g., bisphenol A, polybrominated diphenyl ethers) incorporated during their manufacture to provide a wide range of functions including as emollients, stabilizers, and flame retardants. (14) Furthermore, they may carry persistent organic pollutants (POPs), metals, and pathogens that adsorb or adhere to their surface in the marine environment. (15,16) Where equilibrium has not been reached (i.e., there is a chemical gradient), there is evidence that POPs and metals (e.g., copper, zinc) can transfer from microplastics into biota potentially enhancing their toxicity. (17,18) Laboratory testing has highlighted the negative impacts microplastic ingestion can have on marine organisms, including zooplankton, mussels, oysters, crustaceans, and fish, with effects including reduced feeding, fecundity, growth, and survival. (19−24) These effects can cascade through levels of biological organization, resulting in impacts on the ecological functionality of keystone species (e.g., bioturbation, nutrient cycling). (25)
Copepods are an abundant class of marine zooplankton that provide an essential trophic link between primary producers and secondary consumers, and contribute to ecological processes such as marine nutrient cycling. (26) Laboratory exposures have demonstrated the capacity for a range of pelagic and benthic copepods, including Acartia spp., Calanus spp, Centropages spp., Limnocalanus spp., Temora spp., and Tigriopus spp., to ingest polystyrene microplastic beads and fragments. (27−30) Furthermore, wild copepods sampled from the South China Sea (31) and Northeast Pacific Ocean (32) have been shown to ingest microplastic fibers and particulates in the natural environment. Exposure studies have highlighted that polystyrene microspheres can negatively affect copepod feeding and health. Exposed to a monoalgal diet and polystyrene beads (20 μm; 65 microplastics mL–1), the temperate calanoid copepod Calanus helgolandicus showed significant reductions in their dietary intake of carbon owing to a shift in feeding, with a preference for smaller, less nutritious algae. (22) After 3 days exposure, Cole et al. (22) observed microplastic exposed copepods produced significantly smaller eggs with reduced hatching success, which was attributed to reduced energetic intake. There is relatively little data currently available to determine whether microplastics with different physical properties (e.g., shape, size, density) (33) will exhibit altered bioavailability or toxicity, and there are few published microplastic exposure studies focused on early life stages. Incorporation of microplastics more representative of those found in the environment (i.e., irregularly shaped, fibers) and consideration of impacts on early life stages have been encouraged within the scientific community. (34,35)
In this study, we investigate the impact of fibrous and particulate microplastic exposure on feeding, lipid accumulation, growth, and moulting in preadult Calanus finmarchicus, a boreal (coldwater) copepod that is widely distributed in the northern hemisphere and the dominant mesozooplankton species in the North Sea and Norwegian Sea. (36) The energetic reserve of C. finmarchicus takes the form of a large oil sac, comprising wax esters with long-chain fatty acids and fatty alcohols, built-up during their juvenile life stages in periods of high food availability. (37,38) These lipid stores make C. finmarchicus nutritionally valuable to higher-trophic organisms (e.g., fish, whales), and facilitate “diapause”, whereby the copepods descend to deeper waters and enter a state of dormancy over winter. (39,40) We hypothesized that reductions in algal feeding stemming from microplastic exposure would result in reduced lipid accumulation in developing C. finmarchicus with consequences for the normal development of the copepod. In our experiments, cohorts of preadult C. finmarchicus (copepodite stage, CV) were exposed to mixed algal assemblages with the addition of either nylon microplastic fibers or granules at a concentration of 50 microplastics mL–1 for 6 days, with sublethal end points including: algal ingestion rates, growth, lipid mass and profiles, and moulting. Our results provide evidence of the risks fibrous and particulate microplastics pose to the energetics and development of a keystone species.
Materials and Methods
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Copepods and Microalgae
Juvenile Calanus finmarchicus (CV) were subsampled from copepod cultures maintained at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). Copepods were fed a mixed assemblage of three microalgal species of different size and shape (Supporting Information, SI, Figure S1), which are part of the natural diet of Calanus sp.: (i) the chlorophyte Dunaliella tertiolecta (9 × 13 μm); (ii) the chain-forming diatom Thalassiosira rotula (19 × 24 μm); and (iii) the dinoflagellate Scripsiella trochoidea (29 × 34 μm). Algae were cultured with F/2 media, with addition of silica for T. rotula, and maintained at 18 °C at a 16:8 light/dark cycle. Copepods were fed a nonlimiting concentration of microalgae, comprising ∼200 cells mL–1 of D. tertiolecta, ∼50 cell mL–1 of T. rotula, and ∼15 cells mL–1 of S. trochoidea. D. tertiolecta were quantified using a Coulter Counter (Beckman Multisizer 3), while T. rotula and S. trochoidea were quantified using a Sedgewick rafter chamber. C. finmarchicus were acclimated to their algal prey for 48 h prior to experiments. The carbon biomass of algal prey was estimated using a literature derived conversion factor of 5 nL biovolume ≈ 1 μg C. (41) To calculate algal biovolume, microalgae were imaged under an inverted microscope (Nikon TE2000S), cellular dimensions determined using ImageJ, and the formulas for a volume of an ellipsoid (D. tertiolecta and S. trochoidea) or cylinder (T. rotula) applied.
Microplastics
Nylon fibers (10 × 30 μm), of a similar shape and size as the chain-forming microalgae T. rotula, were prepared by sectioning polyamide nylon-6,6 polyfilament line (Goodfellow; AM325705) per the method of Cole (2016). (42) In brief, the polyfilament line was wrapped continuously around a custom spool, embedded in TissueTek cryogenic solution, and then sectioned at 30 μm intervals using a cryogenic microtome (LEICA CM1950). Nylon granules (10–30 μm), of a similar shape and size distribution as the unicellular microalgae D. tertiolecta and S. trochoidea, were prepared by size fractionating polyamide nylon-6 powder (Goodfellow; AM306010) with 30 μm nylon mesh and 10 μm polycarbonate membrane filters. Prior to use, microplastics were rinsed with ethanol and copious amounts of ultrapure water, suspended in ultrapure water and quantified using a Sedgewick rafter chamber. For imaging purposes, a subsample of the fibrous and granular microplastics were dyed with Nile Red (500 μg mL–1).
Chemical Profiling
To ascertain what compounds (e.g., monomers, additives) were present in the microplastics, samples of fibers (∼20 mg) and granules (∼50 mg) were extracted using either 4 mL of dichloromethane (DCM, Rathburn; n = 3) or 4 mL of ethyl acetate (EtOAc, Fluka; n = 3). Solvent was added to each sample and then the sample sonicated for 30 min (Bandelin Sonorex Super RK 510H ultrasonication bath, 640W, 35 kHz) at either room temperature (DCM) or 65 °C (EtOAc). The solvent extract was filtered through a pipette packed with Bilson cotton and a small amount (∼50 mg) of anhydrous Na2SO4 to remove particulates, and then concentrated by solvent evaporation (40 °C under a gentle flow of N2) to an approximate volume of 500 μL prior to analysis by GC-MS (Agilent 7890A GC equipped with an Agilent 5975C Mass Selective Detector). Here, the inlet was set to 250 °C, the transfer line to 300 °C, the ion source to 230 °C and the quadrupole to 150 °C. The carrier gas was helium, at a constant flow of 1.1 mL/min. One μL of sample was injected by pulsed splitless injection (Agilent DB5-MS ultrainert GC column; 30 m, 0.25 μm film thickness, 0.25 mm internal diameter). The GC oven was held at 40 °C (2 min), ramped by 6 °C min–1 to 320 °C (20 min hold). Mass spectra were recorded after 12 min of hold time (50–500 m/z). Chromatograms and mass spectra were recorded using Chemstation software, investigated in Masshunter Qualitative Navigator B.08.00, further processed using Masshunter Unknowns Analysis (“Unknowns”) followed by export to csv format using Python and data processed in R. After initial inspection of chromatograms, peaks were deconvoluted using Unknowns algorithms and best hits from the NIST 2017 library were extracted. Compounds were filtered based on observed presence in at least 3 of the 6 total replicates and >80% match to NIST 2017 library mass spectra.
Exposure
Treatments comprised: (i) controls, (ii) nylon fibers, and (iii) nylon granules. Exposure media consisted of 0.22 μm filtered natural seawater containing mixed algal prey and 20 mL of Guillard’s F/2 media to ensure water remained nutrient replete, plus 50 microplastics mL–1 of nylon fibers or granules as applicable. Stocks were prepared daily, thoroughly mixed with a perforated plunger, and then carefully poured into 1 L glass bottles (n = 10 per treatment). Ten preadult copepods (copepodite stage CV) were added to each bottle, and exposure media used to fill all bottles to the brim (total volume 1150 mL), thereby eliminating air bubbles. To account for the natural growth of the algae (see Algal ingestion rates), exposure media in 500 mL bottles (n = 5) was also incubated without copepods on Day 3–4. Bottles were secured to a rotating plankton wheel (<5 rpm) submerged in a water bath for temperature stability, and the setup maintained at 8.7 ± 0.1 °C in the dark for a total of 6 days. Water changes were conducted daily by gently pouring the contents of each bottle through a partially submerged 500 μm mesh to isolate copepods; on Day 3–4 media was preserved for calculation of algal ingestion rates. The developmental stage of each copepod was noted (see Moulting), and then the specimens transferred to fresh media. Any individuals damaged during water changes were removed and if experimental cohorts were reduced by >50% the replicate was rejected. At the end of the exposure, copepods were anaesthetised using FinQuel (MS222), and then photographed under a stereo microscope (Leica MZAPO/Nikon DigitalSight Fi1-U2). Individual copepods were transferred to a cryovial, snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and subsequently stored at −80 °C prior to lipid analysis.
Microplastic Uptake
To verify that juvenile C. finmarchicus had the capacity to ingest microplastics, we conducted a 2 h exposure (per the experimental protocol described above) using nylon fibers and granules dyed with Nile Red (100 microplastics mL–1). Following the exposure, copepods and their faecal pellets were isolated using a 63 μm mesh, transferred to a clean glass Petri dish, and subsequently visualized and photographed under a stereo microscope (Leica MZAPO/Nikon DigitalSight Fi1-U2) equipped with a stereofluorescence module (Leica “green” fluorescent filter; excitation 546/10 nm, dichroic splitter 565 nm and emission OG590).
Algal Ingestion Rates
Feeding rates (i.e., algal ingestion rates) were assessed midway through the exposure (Day 3–4). At T0 (Day 3), 200 mL subsamples of algal stocks were collected and preserved with 2% Lugols solution (n = 5 per treatment). After 24 h (Day 4), 200 mL subsamples were taken from all bottles (including algal controls without predation), and fixed with 2% Lugols. Preserved samples were maintained in amber glass bottles prior to analysis to prevent degradation. Microalgae were quantified using the Utermöhl technique (BSEN15204:2006). In brief, samples were settled in 100 mL Utermöhl chambers for 48 h, samples viewed under inverted microscope (Olympus IMT2) and cells systematically enumerated. Cell concentrations and mean carbon biomass of the microalgae were subsequently used to calculate algal ingestion rates (μg C individual–1 day–1) per the equation of Frost. (43)
Prosome Length
The prosome length (μm) of copepods was ascertained for copepods subsampled from initial stocks (Day 0, n = 25) and juvenile, female and male copepods at the end of the 6-day exposure. In all cases, individual copepods were anaesthetised and photographed under a stereo microscope (Leica MZAPO/Nikon DigitalSight Fi1-U2), and prosome length measured using ImageJ software.
Total Lipid Mass and Lipid Profiles
Copepod lipids were extracted by adapting the protocol of Folch et al., (44) adding 500 μL of chloroform–methanol (2:1 v/v) and then placing the sample in a −20 °C freezer for 4 h. Next, a phase separation of nonpolar lipids and polar organics/compounds was undertaken by adding 130 μL potassium chloride (0.88% w/w), and then vortexing (12–16 rpm), and centrifuging (2.5 min, 2500 rpm) the sample. A glass-steel pipette was used to carefully extract and transfer the bottom phase (containing nonpolar lipids) to a preweighed glass vial. The solvent was gently evaporated using nitrogen gas, and the sample desiccated under vacuum in the dark for 30 min. Finally, the vial was weighed on a mass balance to ascertain the total lipid mass (mg). To assess the lipid content of the microalgae, 1–2 mL of microalgae were filtered through a GFF; filters were placed in 7 mL glass vials, the lipids extracted using 5 mL of chloroform–methanol (2:1 v/v), and then processed as above. Prior to lipid profiling, 250 μL of chloroform was added to each vial, and samples stored at −20 °C. For determination of lipid profiles, internal standards (23:0, fatty acid and 19:0 fatty alcohol) were added to the total lipid samples prior to methylation in 1% methanol for 16 h at 50 °C. Fatty acid methyl esters and free fatty alcohols were purified using High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) and analyzed by gas chromatography using a Thermo Trace 2000 GC equipped with a Resteck Stabilwax column.
Moulting
Every 24 h the developmental stage of copepods was determined, based upon the morphological characteristics of each copepod (SI Figure S2). For adult copepods, their sex was determined at the end of the exposure period through morphological assessment of anaesthetised specimens.
Statistical Analyses
Statistical analysis was conducted using R statistical software V 1.0.136. (45) Data were tested for normality using a Shapiro-Wilk test and homogeneity of variance was visually inspected to satisfy apriori parametric requisites. An ANOVA with posthoc Tukey tests was used to compare biological data including algal ingestion rates, prosome length, and lipid mass. A General Linear Model (GLM) was used to compare fatty acid and alcohol data. Moulting data were assembled into binary format (“Moulted = 1”, “Not-moulted = 0”), and a Bernoulli GLM used to assess the probability of copepod moulting for each treatment, with homogeneity among replicates determined using “binomial” family and “logit” link functions. Model assumptions were validated by extracting deviance residuals and examining their distribution. Data are presented as mean ± standard error, with statistical significance assigned where P < 0.05.
Results
ARTICLE SECTIONS
Microplastic Uptake
Following a 2 h exposure, nylon fibers and granules were visualized in the intestinal tracts and faecal pellets of the juvenile copepods, confirming uptake and egestion (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Figure 1. Ingestion and egestion of microplastics by juvenile Calanus finmarchicus: (A) nylon fibers (10 × 30 μm) in the intestinal tract; (B) nylon granules (10–30 μm) in the faecal pellets. Nylon microplastics were fluorescently dyed with Nile Red and visualized under stereo microscope (Leica MZAPO/Nikon DigitalSight Fi1-U2) equipped with a Leica “green” fluorescent filter (excitation 546/10 nm, dichroic splitter 565 nm and emission OG590). Yellow bars: 100 μm.
Additive Chemical Profiling
A range of monomers, manufacturing byproducts and additives, including lubricants, stabilizers and antimicrobials, were tentatively identified (based on >85% match) in the nylon fibers (SI Table S1) and granules (SI Table S2). Four compounds were common to both plastics: the monomer caprolactam (hexano-6-lactam); the lubricants cyclomethicone 6 (dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane) and cyclomethicone 5 (decamethylcyclopentasiloxane); and 1H-tetrazol-5-amine. The UV stabilizer benzophenone was identified in nylon fibers.
Algal Ingestion Rates
Average microalgal dimensions (SI Table S3) were used to calculate mean carbon biomass per cell values of 0.98 ng C for D. tertiolecta, 1.66 ng C for T. rotula, and 25.2 ng C for S. trochoidea. Mean microplastic concentrations in aqueous media were 46.6 fibers and 53.4 granules mL–1; mean ingestion rates for microplastics were ∼1700 fibers copepod–1 d–1 and ∼5700 granules copepod–1 d–1. Copepods exposed to both fibers and granules showed a slight (nonsignificant) increase in algal ingestion rates for D. tertiolecta (ANOVA, P = 0.30; Figure 2
Figure 2
Figure 2. Juvenile Calanus finmarchicus ingestion rates (μg C individual–1 day–1) for: (A) D. tertiolecta; (B) T. rotula; (C) S. trochoidea; and (D) total algae. Results displayed as mean with standard error. * denotes significant different from control (P < 0.05).
Prosome Length
There was no significant difference in the prosome length of juvenile (ANOVA, P = 0.65), female (ANOVA, P = 0.09), or male (ANOVA, P = 0.58) copepods exposed to either type of microplastic (SI Figure S3).
Total Lipid Mass and Lipid Profiles
The average lipid mass of juvenile copepods at the start of the experiment was 66.7 ± 5.5 μg. Significant lipid accumulation was observed in juvenile copepods in the control and fiber treatments (ANOVA, P < 0.01), but not the granule treatment (ANOVA, P = 0.63; Figure 3). The average lipid content of juvenile copepods in the control treatment (100.4 ± 7.0 μg) exceeded that of copepods in the granule treatment (77.2 ± 6.3 μg), however this difference was not statistically significant (ANOVA, P = 0.07; Figure 3). Furthermore, no significant differences were observed in the lipid mass of female (ANOVA, P = 0.42) or male (ANOVA, P = 0.96) copepods. There was no significant difference in juvenile copepod fatty acid (GLM, control-fibers, P = 0.09; GLM, control-granules P = 0.34; SI Figure S4) or fatty alcohol (GLM, control-fibers P = 0.80; GLM, control-granules P = 0.90; SI Figure S5) composition. For individual fatty acids and alcohols, the prevalence of palmitoleic acid (16:1 (n–7)) and linoleic acid (18:2 (n–6)) were significantly reduced in the fiber treatment (GLM, P < 0.05), and the prevalence of palmityl alcohol (16:0) significantly reduced and arachidyl alcohol (20:1) significantly increased in the granule treatment (GLM, P < 0.05).
Figure 3
Figure 3. Impact of fibrous and particulate microplastics on lipid accumulation in C. finmarchicus. The lipid mass (μg) of juvenile (CV), female and male C. finmarchicus prior to the start of experiment (Tzero; checked pattern) and following a 6-day exposure period. Treatments: control (white), nylon fibers (light gray), and nylon granules (dark gray). Letters show significant difference between treatments (ANOVA with posthoc Tukey).
Moulting
Across Days 0–4 there was no evidence of moulting in any treatment (Figure 4). The Bernoulli GLM showed the “replicate” factor was not significantly different among treatments for Day 5 (b = 0.03, z = 0.51, P = 0.61) or Day 6 (b = −0.07, z = −0.84, P = 0.40) and was therefore excluded from further analyses. On Day 5, 9.0 ± 3.2% of copepods had moulted in the control treatment, while a significantly greater proportion of copepods had moulted in the nylon fiber treatment (36.1 ± 8.6%; Bernoulli GLM, b = 1.47, z = 0.5, P < 0.01) and nylon granule treatments (34.4 ± 10.7%; Bernoulli GLM, b = 1.42, z = 0.51, P < 0.01; Figure 4). The proportion of copepods reaching adulthood increased between Days 5 and 6 for all treatments. On Day 6 30.6 ± 9.5% of controls had moulted, with a higher proportion of moults in copepods exposed to nylon fibers (52.3 ± 7.5%; Bernoulli GLM, b = 0.86, z = 1.84, P = 0.07) and a statistically significant higher proportion of moults in copepods exposed to nylon granules (55.9 ± 9.9%; Bernoulli GLM, b = 1.14, z = 0.49, P < 0.05).
Figure 4
Figure 4. Impact of fibrous and particulate microplastics on moulting in C. finmarchicus. Percentage of copepods which moulted on each day of the exposure period. Treatments: control (white), nylon fibers (light gray), and nylon granules (dark gray). Letters denote significant difference (in moulting each day) between treatments (P < 0.05).
Discussion
ARTICLE SECTIONS
Our study reveals that microplastic exposure can impact upon prey selectivity, feeding, lipid accumulation, and moulting in a keystone marine organism. Microplastic shape influenced bioavailability and observed effects, with exposure to nylon fibers causing significant shifts in prey selectivity resulting in a 40% decrease in algal ingestion rates, and nylon granules negatively affecting lipid accumulation. We further observed that both microplastic types caused premature moulting, although the mechanism underpinning this developmental shift remains unclear. These results add to the growing evidence that at high concentrations, marine microplastics can significantly affect copepod feeding and health, with potential knock-on effects for marine food webs and ecological processes in which copepods play vital roles.
Uptake
Ingestion and egestion of both nylon microplastic fibers and granules was observed in juvenile C. finmarchicus. The capacity for copepods and other zooplankton to ingest spherical polystyrene beads under laboratory conditions has been widely demonstrated, (34) and juvenile (CV), female and male C. finmarchicus have been shown to readily ingest and egest polystyrene fragments (<30 μm diameter). (30) Furthermore, irregularly shaped and fibrous microplastics have been identified in wild copepods sampled from the natural environment. (31,32)
Feeding
When exposed to the fibrous microplastics, juvenile C. finmarchicus demonstrated substantial shifts in feeding, with significantly reduced ingestion rates for the largest algae T. rotula (19 × 24 μm) and S. trochoidea (29 × 34 μm), contributing to a 40% decrease in ingested biomass compared with controls. A comparable shift in feeding selectivity was observed in the temperate copepod Calanus helgolandicus, in which exposure to 20 μm polystyrene beads resulted in a preferential shift toward smaller algae, similarly resulting in a 40% reduction in ingested biomass. (22) In mixed algal assemblages C. finmarchicus typically predate on larger, nutritionally valuable prey (e.g., diatoms, dinoflagellates, and ciliates), (46,47) for which they display higher filtration rates and feeding efficiencies. (48,49) This preference for larger algae is evident for copepods in the control and granule treatments, with >50% of ingested biomass derived from S. trochoidea. However, for copepods exposed to fibers the majority of ingested biomass came from the smallest algae, D. tertiolecta (9 × 13 μm). This shift in prey selectivity would therefore suggest copepods are avoiding microalgae of similar shape (i.e., chain-forming D. tertiolecta) and size (i.e., S. trochoidea) to the nylon fibers (10 × 30 μm). This hypothesis is further supported by our finding that fibers were ingested far less readily than granules. Why this is the case is currently unclear. Perhaps their elongated shape make fibers harder to capture, handle, and ingest, or, when consumed, fibers are more prone to causing physical damage owing to their sharp edges (Supporting Information, Figure S1); conversely, granules are relatively spherical in shape, and are likely handled similarly to naturally occurring particulates (e.g., pumice, wood, black carbon, and silt) to which copepods are well adapted. The risks microplastic fibers pose to biota is relatively underexplored, however exposure studies have identified that in the freshwater zooplankton Daphnia magna and Gammarus fossasrum ingestion of synthetic fibers resulted in early mortality (50) and impaired feeding (51) respectively.
Lipids
In juvenile C. finmarchicus (CV), approximately 40% of energy derived from their food goes toward the buildup of their lipid store. (49) On the basis of the observed reduction in feeding in juvenile C. finmarchicus exposed to microplastic fibers and the shift to smaller, less nutritious algae, it was anticipated that the lipid mass of these copepods would be negatively affected; furthermore, we surmised that a shift in feeding may result in an altered lipid profile. Yet, there was no significant difference in the total lipid mass of juvenile, female, or male copepods at the end of the exposure period, nor were the lipid profiles of the juvenile copepods significantly altered. Given that a nonlimiting supply of food was provided to the copepods, it is plausible that even with a 40% reduction in ingested biomass that the juvenile C. finmarchicus still consumed sufficient energy to continue laying down their lipid reserves. Certainly, high latitude zooplankton can display a range of strategies to survive periods of low food availability, (52) and C. finmarchicus exhibit far greater starvation tolerance (>21 days) than temperate species. (39)
We did observe that lipid accumulation was stymied in preadult copepods exposed to nylon granules. This was surprising given that nylon granules caused no impact on feeding rate. This intriguing result might be explained by the substantially higher ingestion rate for granules, as compared with fibers: high microplastic loads in the intestinal tract could limit assimilation efficiencies, as observed in the freshwater amphipod G. fossarum; (53) alternatively, higher microplastic loads could lead to greater quantities of toxic additives or monomers permeating from the microplastic into tissues. (51)
Lipid mass is directly related to the depth at which copepods can successfully descend during diapause; smaller lipid reserves would result in overwintering at shallower depths leaving these copepods more prone to predation. (54) There are also repercussions for the wider marine food web, as a reduced lipid content would make these copepods less nutritionally valuable as a food source for higher trophic organisms including commercially important fish species and megafauna. (36)
Moulting
Our study further identified that copepods exposed to nylon microplastics moulted significantly earlier than copepods in the control treatment. Juvenile C. finmarchicus have a flexible life history, where they can either enter diapause or moult into their adult life stage. Tarrant et al. (40) notes, “the factors that regulate this developmental plasticity are poorly understood”, although lipid profiles, temperature, light, food availability, and endogenous clocks have all been mooted as contributing factors in diapause. (55) Cultured C. finmarchicus do not initiate diapause, instead undergoing morphological changes, including gonad maturation, tooth formation, and apolysis (separation of the cuticle from the epidermis), prior to their terminal moult. (56) Reduced feeding and stymied lipid accumulation may both have contributed to earlier moulting; however endocrine disruption might also have played a role. A transcriptomic evaluation of juvenile C. finmarchicus (CV) has identified an array of genes linked to moulting, activated by an ecdysteroid hormone signaling cascade. (40) A range of endocrine disrupting compounds have been shown to interfere with ecdysteroid pathways and affect moulting in crustacea; (57) for example, estrogenic compounds have been shown to inhibit or delay moulting in the copepod Acartia tonsa, (58) while the pesticide emamectin benzoate has been demonstrated to cause premature moulting in American lobster, Homarus americanus. (59) Chemical analysis revealed the nylon microplastics used in these exposures contain compounds that may cause toxicity or endocrine disruption—although it should be noted this analysis does not tell us which compounds, nor how much, could be expected to leach from the nylon either in seawater or the intestinal tract of a copepod. For example, the UV-stabilizer benzophenone, identified in the nylon fibers, has been shown to increase DNA methylation and significantly reduce egg hatching success in the marine copepod Gladioferens pectinatus, (60) and act as an oestradiol agonist in rats (61) and fish. (62,63) It is crucial to recognize that plastics are not an inert material, but a complex mixture of polymers containing a wide spectrum of compounds that have the potential to leach out. (64) Given the capacity for these compounds to cause endocrine disruption or toxicity, it is crucial that chemical profiling of microplastics used in toxicity testing becomes more commonplace.
Environmental Relevance
In this exposure study we demonstrate that microplastics have the capacity to reduce feeding, stymie lipid accumulation, and trigger premature moulting in a boreal copepod. It should be noted that microplastic concentrations used in our exposure studies exceed those currently observed in the marine environment—although we would also highlight there is very little environmental data relating to concentrations of particles 10–30 μm in size owing to the technical challenges of sampling, extracting and identifying plastic particles of this size and where data are available, it suggests the smaller the microplastics the higher the concentration becomes. (65−68) While it is important the field of microplastics research shifts toward better understanding the risks environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastic pose to marine life, at this stage it remains essential to build a clearer picture of the modes of action by which microplastics can cause harm, identify relevant end points, and gauge the sensitivity of different life-stages and species. (69) Such knowledge is key in establishing probable and no-effect thresholds for risk assessment. In this study, the use of preadult copepods highlights that microplastics can affect moulting, which will inform future experimental work. As our results demonstrate, the shape and chemical profile of a microplastic can influence bioavailability and toxicity, and we would therefore promote the call for future studies to better incorporate a greater diversity of environmentally relevant microplastics.
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The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01853.
Images of the microalgae, microplastics, and copepods; chemical data for the nylon fibers and granules; data relating to the size and shape of microalgae; and fatty acid and alcohol data for copepods in control, fiber, and granule treatments (PDF)
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- Matthew Cole - Marine Ecology and Biodiversity Group, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth PL1 3DH, United Kingdom;
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5910-1189;
Acknowledgments
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Funding was provided by the Natural Environment Research Council (NE/L007010, NE/L002582/1, NE/P006280/1, and NE/L002434/1), the JPI Oceans project “PLASTOX” (direct and indirect ecotoxicological impacts of microplastics on marine organisms; Research Council of Norway, grant no. 257479), and the RCN project “MICROFIBRE” (grant no. 268404). Our thanks to Iurgi Salaberria for assistance in planning the studies and providing access to facilities at NTNU.
References
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This article references 69 other publications.
- 1Hartmann, N. B.; Hüffer, T.; Thompson, R.; Hassellöv, M.; Verschoor, A.; Daugaard, A.; Rist, S.; Karlsson, T. M.; Brennholt, N.; Cole, M.; Herrling, M.; Heß, M.; Ivleva, N.; Lusher, A.; Wagner, M. Are we speaking the same language? Recommendations for a definition and categorization framework for plastic debris. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 1039– 1047, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05297[ACS Full Text
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- 5Eriksen, M.; Lebreton, L. C.; Carson, H. S.; Thiel, M.; Moore, C. J.; Borerro, J. C.; Galgani, F.; Ryan, P. G.; Reisser, J. Plastic Pollution in the World’s Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea. PLoS One 2014, 9 (12), e111913, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111913[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar5https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXitFyjs7jP&md5=310e6b97d1ab0c3cf4a2718352ade775Plastic pollution in the world's oceans: more than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at seaEriksen, Marcus; Labreton, Laurent C. M.; Carson, Henry S.; Thiel, Martin; Moore, Charles J.; Borerro, Jose C.; Galgani, Francois; Ryan, Peter G.; Reisser, JuliaPLoS One (2014), 9 (12), e111913/1-e111913/15, 15 pp.CODEN: POLNCL; ISSN:1932-6203. (Public Library of Science)Plastic pollution is ubiquitous throughout the marine environment, yet ests. of the global abundance and wt. of floating plastics have lacked data, particularly from the Southern Hemisphere and remote regions. Here we report an est. of the total no. of plastic particles and their wt. floating in the world's oceans from 24 expeditions (2007-2013) across all five sub-tropical gyres, costal Australia, Bay of Bengal and the Mediterranean Sea conducting surface net tows (N = 680) and visual survey transects of large plastic debris (N = 891). Using an oceanog. model of floating debris dispersal calibrated by our data, and correcting for wind-driven vertical mixing, we est. a min. of 5.25 trillion particles weighing 268,940 tons. When comparing between four size classes, two microplastic <4.75 mm and meso- and macroplastic >4.75 mm, a tremendous loss of microplastics is obsd. from the sea surface compared to expected rates of fragmentation, suggesting there are mechanisms at play that remove <4.75 mm plastic particles from the ocean surface.
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- 8Steer, M.; Cole, M.; Thompson, R. C.; Lindeque, P. K. Microplastic ingestion in fish larvae in the western English Channel. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 226, 250– 259, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.062[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar8https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXlvFWksLw%253D&md5=b5b6cd1fb11a39be50416c815a6967ddMicroplastic ingestion in fish larvae in the western English ChannelSteer, Madeleine; Cole, Matthew; Thompson, Richard C.; Lindeque, Penelope K.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 226 (), 250-259CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics have been documented in marine environments worldwide, where they pose a potential risk to biota. Environmental interactions between microplastics and lower trophic organisms are poorly understood. Coastal shelf seas are rich in productivity but also experience high levels of microplastic pollution. In these habitats, fish have an important ecol. and economic role. In their early life stages, planktonic fish larvae are vulnerable to pollution, environmental stress and predation. Here we assess the occurrence of microplastic ingestion in wild fish larvae. Fish larvae and water samples were taken across three sites (10, 19 and 35 km from shore) in the western English Channel from Apr. to June 2016. We identified 2.9% of fish larvae (n = 347) had ingested microplastics, of which 66% were blue fibers; ingested microfibers closely resembled those identified within water samples. With distance from the coast, larval fish d. increased significantly (P < 0.05), while waterborne microplastic concns. (P < 0.01) and incidence of ingestion decreased. This study provides baseline ecol. data illustrating the correlation between waterborne microplastics and the incidence of ingestion in fish larvae.
- 9Catarino, A. I.; Macchia, V.; Sanderson, W. G.; Thompson, R. C.; Henry, T. B. Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a meal. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 237, 675– 684, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.069[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXmslKgsL4%253D&md5=dac088cbcc8ee70be22890b37a71c2d3Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a mealCatarino, Ana I.; Macchia, Valeria; Sanderson, William G.; Thompson, Richard C.; Henry, Theodore B.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 237 (), 675-684CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics (MPs) are the most numerous debris reported in marine environments and assessment of the amts. of MPs that accumulate in wild organisms is necessary for risk assessment. Our objective was to assess MP contamination in mussels collected around the coast of Scotland (UK) to identify characteristics of MPs and to evaluate risk of human exposure to MPs via ingestion of mussels. We deployed caged mussels (Mytilus edulis) in an urbanised estuary (Edinburgh, UK) to assess seasonal changes in plastic pollution, and collected mussels (Mytilus spp and subtidal Modiolus modiolus) from eight sampling stations around Scotland to enumerate MP types at different locations. We detd. the potential exposure of humans to household dust fibers during a meal to compare with amts. of MPs present in edible mussels. The mean no. of MPs in M. modiolus was 0.086 ± 0.031 (SE, n = 6)/g ww (3.5 ± 1.29 (SE) per mussel). In Mytilus spp, the mean no. of MPs/g ww was 3.0 ± 0.9 (SE, n = 36) (3.2 ± 0.52 (SE) per mussel), but wt. dependent. The visual accuracy of plastic fibers identification was estd. to be between 48 and 50%, using Nile Red staining and FT-IR methodologies, resp., halving the obsd. amts. of MPs in wild mussels. We obsd. an allometric relationship between the no. of MPs and the mussels wet wt. Our predictions of MPs ingestion by humans via consumption of mussels is 123 MP particles/y/capita in the UK and can go up to 4620 particles/y/capita in countries with a higher shellfish consumption. By comparison, the risk of plastic ingestion via mussel consumption is minimal when compared to fiber exposure during a meal via dust fallout in a household (13,731-68,415 particles/Y/capita).
- 10Foekema, E. M.; De Gruijter, C.; Mergia, M. T.; van Franeker, J. A.; Murk, A. J.; Koelmans, A. A. Plastic in north sea fish. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (15), 8818– 8824, DOI: 10.1021/es400931b[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXps1yhsb0%253D&md5=bf0bbc5ff3362617958275fb125f91ebPlastic in North Sea FishFoekema, Edwin M.; De Gruijter, Corine; Mergia, Mekuria T.; van Franeker, Jan Andries; Murk, AlberTinka J.; Koelmans, Albert A.Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (15), 8818-8824CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)To quantify the occurrence of ingested plastic in fish species caught at different geog. positions in the North Sea, and to test whether the fish condition is affected by ingestion of plastics, 1203 individual fish of seven common North Sea species were investigated: herring, gray gurnard, whiting, horse mackerel, haddock, atlantic mackerel, and cod. Plastic particles were found in 2.6% of the examd. fish and in five of the seven species. No plastics were found in gray gurnard and mackerel. In most cases, only one particle was found per fish, ranging in size from 0.04 to 4.8 mm. Only particles larger than 0.2 mm, being the diam. of the sieve used, were considered for the data analyses, resulting in a median particle size of 0.8 mm. The frequency of fish with plastic was significantly higher (5.4%) in the southern North Sea, than in the northern North Sea above 55°N (1.2%). The highest frequency (>33%) was found in cod from the English Channel. In addn., small fibers were initially detected in most of the samples, but their abundance sharply decreased when working under special clean air conditions. Therefore, these fibers were considered to be artifacts related to air born contamination and were excluded from the analyses. No relationship was found between the condition factor (size-wt. relationship) of the fish and the presence of ingested plastic particles.
- 11Lusher, A.; McHugh, M.; Thompson, R. Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English Channel. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2013, 67 (1–2), 94– 99, DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.11.028[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhvFShur%252FK&md5=2de62445e1e724b0a13c8f9933bab796Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English ChannelLusher, A. L.; McHugh, M.; Thompson, R. C.Marine Pollution Bulletin (2013), 67 (1-2), 94-99CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics are present in marine habitats worldwide and lab. studies show this material can be ingested, yet data on abundance in natural populations is limited. This study documents microplastics in 10 species of fish from the English Channel. 504 Fish were examd. and plastics found in the gastrointestinal tracts of 36.5%. All five pelagic species and all five demersal species had ingested plastic. Of the 184 fish that had ingested plastic the av. no. of pieces per fish was 1.90 ± 0.10. A total of 351 pieces of plastic were identified using FT-IR Spectroscopy; polyamide (35.6%) and the semi-synthetic cellulosic material, rayon (57.8%) were most common. There was no significant difference between the abundance of plastic ingested by pelagic and demersal fish. Hence, microplastic ingestion appears to be common, in relatively small quantities, across a range of fish species irresp. of feeding habitat. Further work is needed to establish the potential consequences.
- 12Duncan, E. M.; Broderick, A. C.; Fuller, W. J.; Galloway, T. S.; Godfrey, M. H.; Hamann, M.; Limpus, C. J.; Lindeque, P. K.; Mayes, A. G.; Omeyer, L. C. Microplastic ingestion ubiquitous in marine turtles. Global change biology 2019, 25 (2), 744– 752, DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14519[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3crosV2hsg%253D%253D&md5=2cc9c1a70b0768e1b5f33e2372b81e89Microplastic ingestion ubiquitous in marine turtlesDuncan Emily M; Broderick Annette C; Fuller Wayne J; Omeyer Lucy C M; Snape Robin T E; Godley Brendan J; Duncan Emily M; Galloway Tamara S; Duncan Emily M; Lindeque Penelope K; Fuller Wayne J; Fuller Wayne J; Snape Robin T E; Godfrey Matthew H; Hamann Mark; Limpus Colin J; Mayes Andrew G; Santillo DavidGlobal change biology (2019), 25 (2), 744-752 ISSN:.Despite concerns regarding the environmental impacts of microplastics, knowledge of the incidence and levels of synthetic particles in large marine vertebrates is lacking. Here, we utilize an optimized enzymatic digestion methodology, previously developed for zooplankton, to explore whether synthetic particles could be isolated from marine turtle ingesta. We report the presence of synthetic particles in every turtle subjected to investigation (n = 102) which included individuals from all seven species of marine turtle, sampled from three ocean basins (Atlantic [ATL]: n = 30, four species; Mediterranean (MED): n = 56, two species; Pacific (PAC): n = 16, five species). Most particles (n = 811) were fibres (ATL: 77.1% MED: 85.3% PAC: 64.8%) with blue and black being the dominant colours. In lesser quantities were fragments (ATL: 22.9%: MED: 14.7% PAC: 20.2%) and microbeads (4.8%; PAC only; to our knowledge the first isolation of microbeads from marine megavertebrates). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) of a subsample of particles (n = 169) showed a range of synthetic materials such as elastomers (MED: 61.2%; PAC: 3.4%), thermoplastics (ATL: 36.8%: MED: 20.7% PAC: 27.7%) and synthetic regenerated cellulosic fibres (SRCF; ATL: 63.2%: MED: 5.8% PAC: 68.9%). Synthetic particles being isolated from species occupying different trophic levels suggest the possibility of multiple ingestion pathways. These include exposure from polluted seawater and sediments and/or additional trophic transfer from contaminated prey/forage items. We assess the likelihood that microplastic ingestion presents a significant conservation problem at current levels compared to other anthropogenic threats.
- 13Nelms, S.; Barnett, J.; Brownlow, A.; Davison, N.; Deaville, R.; Galloway, T.; Lindeque, P.; Santillo, D.; Godley, B. Microplastics in marine mammals stranded around the British coast: ubiquitous but transitory?. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9 (1), 1075, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37428-3[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cjns1ChtQ%253D%253D&md5=a437a9569a70f49aa26235bb1209ca5fMicroplastics in marine mammals stranded around the British coast: ubiquitous but transitory?Nelms S E; Lindeque P K; Nelms S E; Godley B J; Barnett J; Godley B J; Brownlow A; Davison N J; Deaville R; Galloway T S; Santillo DScientific reports (2019), 9 (1), 1075 ISSN:.Plastic pollution represents a pervasive and increasing threat to marine ecosystems worldwide and there is a need to better understand the extent to which microplastics (<5 mm) are ingested by high trophic-level taxa, such as marine mammals. Here, we perform a comprehensive assessment by examining whole digestive tracts of 50 individuals from 10 species whilst operating strict contamination controls. Microplastics were ubiquitous with particles detected in every animal examined. The relatively low number per animal (mean = 5.5) suggests these particles are transitory. Stomachs, however, were found to contain a greater number than intestines, indicating a potential site of temporary retention. The majority of particles were fibres (84%) while the remaining 16% was fragments. Particles were mainly blue and black (42.5% and 26.4%) in colour and Nylon was the most prevalent (60%) polymer type. A possible relationship was found between the cause of death category and microplastic abundance, indicating that animals that died due to infectious diseases had a slightly higher number of particles than those that died of trauma and other drivers of mortality. It is not possible, however, to draw any firm conclusions on the potential biological significance of this observation and further research is required to better understand the potential chronic effects of microplastic exposure on animal health, particularly as marine mammals are widely considered important sentinels for the implications of pollution for the marine environment.
- 14Meeker, J. D.; Sathyanarayana, S.; Swan, S. H. Phthalates and other additives in plastics: human exposure and associated health outcomes. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 2009, 364 (1526), 2097– 2113, DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0268[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar14https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXpt1Skt7Y%253D&md5=218e195cb18f037242d34befa7ffc995Phthalates and other additives in plastics: human exposure and associated health outcomesMeeker, John D.; Sathyanarayana, Sheela; Swan, Shanna H.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences (2009), 364 (1526), 2097-2113CODEN: PTRBAE; ISSN:0962-8436. (Royal Society)A review. Concern exists over whether additives in plastics to which most people are exposed, such as phthalates, bisphenol A or polybrominated di-Ph ethers, may cause harm to human health by altering endocrine function or through other biol. mechanisms. Human data are limited compared with the large body of exptl. evidence documenting reproductive or developmental toxicity in relation to these compds. Here, we discuss the current state of human evidence, as well as future research trends and needs. Because exposure assessment is often a major weakness in epidemiol. studies, and in utero exposures to reproductive or developmental toxicants are important, we also provide original data on maternal exposure to phthalates during and after pregnancy (n = 242). Phthalate metabolite concns. in urine showed weak correlations between pre- and post-natal samples, though the strength of the relationship increased when duration between the two samples decreased. Phthalate metabolite levels also tended to be higher in post-natal samples. In conclusion, there is a great need for more human studies of adverse health effects assocd. with plastic additives. Recent advances in the measurement of exposure biomarkers hold much promise in improving the epidemiol. data, but their utility must be understood to facilitate appropriate study design.
- 15Johansen, M. P.; Prentice, E.; Cresswell, T.; Howell, N. Initial data on adsorption of Cs and Sr to the surfaces of microplastics with biofilm. J. Environ. Radioact. 2018, 190, 130– 133, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.05.001[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXpvVKlsro%253D&md5=96a28deed96ec3aa8019452c724e5548Initial data on adsorption of Cs and Sr to the surfaces of microplastics with biofilmJohansen, Mathew P.; Prentice, Emily; Cresswell, Tom; Howell, NickJournal of Environmental Radioactivity (2018), 190-191 (), 130-133CODEN: JERAEE; ISSN:0265-931X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The adsorption of radiocesium and radiostrontium onto a range of natural materials has been well quantified, but not for the new media of environmental plastics, which may have enhanced adsorption due to surface-weathering and development of biofilms. Microplastic samples were deployed in freshwater, estuarine and marine conditions, then characterised using IR spectroscopy to document changes to the plastic surface (vs interior). Synchrotron elemental mapping data revealed surfaces that were well-covered by accumulation of reactive water solutes and sulfur, but, in contrast, had highly discrete coverage of elements such as Fe and Ti, indicating adhered mineral/clay-assocd. agglomerates that may increase overall adsorption capacity. Plastics that had been deployed for nearly five months adsorbed radionuclides in both freshwater and estuarine conditions with the highest Kd for cesium (Cs) in freshwater (80 mL g-1) and lowest for strontium (Sr) in estuarine conditions (5 mL g-1). The degree of Cs and Sr adsorption onto plastics appears to be approx. 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than for sediment ref. values. While lower than for sediments, adsorption occurred on all samples and may indicate a significant radionuclide reservoir, given that plastics are relatively buoyant and mobile in water regimes, and are increasing in global aquatic systems.
- 16Zuo, L.-Z.; Li, H.-X.; Lin, L.; Sun, Y.-X.; Diao, Z.-H.; Liu, S.; Zhang, Z.-Y.; Xu, X.-R. Sorption and desorption of phenanthrene on biodegradable poly (butylene adipate co-terephtalate) microplastics. Chemosphere 2019, 215, 25– 32, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.173[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar16https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhvVOjsbbP&md5=aaa92121f7735e935d59e8cc167f365dSorption and desorption of phenanthrene on biodegradable poly(butylene adipate co-terephtalate) microplasticsZuo, Lin-Zi; Li, Heng-Xiang; Lin, Lang; Sun, Yu-Xin; Diao, Zeng-Hui; Liu, Shan; Zhang, Zong-Yao; Xu, Xiang-RongChemosphere (2019), 215 (), 25-32CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.)Biodegradable plastics, as alternatives to conventional plastics, are increasingly used, but their interactions with org. pollutants are still unknown. In this study, the sorption and desorption behaviors on a type of biodegradable plastic-poly(butylene adipate co-terephtalate) (PBAT) were investigated, and at the same time two types of conventional plastics-polyethylene (PEc and PEv) and polystyrene (PS) were used for comparison. Phenanthrene (PHEN) was chosen as one of representative org. pollutants. Results indicated that the sorption and desorption capacities of PBAT were not only higher than those of the other types of microplastics, but also higher than those of carbonaceous geosorbents. The surface area normalized results illustrated that sorption and desorption of the microplastics were pos. correlated with their abundance of rubbery subfraction. The sorption kinetic results showed that the sorption rates of PBAT and PEc were higher than PEv and PS. The effects of water chem. factors including salinity, dissolved org. matter and Cu2+ ion on the sorption process displayed the same trend, but the degrees of influence on the four microplastics differed. The degrees of influence were mainly dependent on the abundance of rubbery subfraction for microplastics. These findings indicate that the biodegradable poly(butylene adipate co-terephtalate) microplastics are actually stronger vectors than the conventional microplastics, and crystn. characteristics of the microplastics have great influences on the vector effect.
- 17Muller-Karanassos, C.; Turner, A.; Arundel, W.; Vance, T.; Lindeque, P. K.; Cole, M. Antifouling paint particles in intertidal estuarine sediments from southwest England and their ingestion by the harbour ragworm, Hediste diversicolor. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 249, 163– 170, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.009[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXltFOqsLw%253D&md5=8f68420b3b1aa01dd81105656be520ceAntifouling paint particles in intertidal estuarine sediments from southwest England and their ingestion by the harbour ragworm, Hediste diversicolorMuller-Karanassos, Christina; Turner, Andrew; Arundel, William; Vance, Tom; Lindeque, Penelope K.; Cole, MatthewEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 249 (), 163-170CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Antifouling paint particles (APPs) of between 500 μm and >2 mm in diam. have been identified in silty, intertidal estuarine sediments through a combination of microscopy and x-ray fluorescence spectrometry. APPs were heterogeneously distributed, with maximal concns. of 430 particles L-1 (0.2 g L-1) near to a facility where boats are regularly maintained and 400 particles L-1 (4.2 g L-1) at a location where old boats had been abandoned, with the majority of particles encountered in the finest size fraction retrieved. APPs contained variable concns. of Cu, Zn, Sn and Pb, with resp.maxima of 562,000, 269,000, 9,970 and 126,000 mg kg-1. These characteristics are attributed to a multitude of contemporary and historic sources of an assortment of formulations and result in significant but heterogeneous metal contamination of local sediments. APPs were also identified in the guts of the deposit-feeding ragworm, Hediste diversicolor, that inhabited sediments impacted by abandoned boats or boating activities. The tissue of H.diversicolor was particularly enriched in Cu where ingested APPs were obsd., with a significant correlation between dry wt. While the toxicity of APPs requires further investigation, there is clearly a need for stricter regulations on antifouling wastes in boatyards and marinas and a requirement to better manage abandoned boats. Cu concns. in the two media (r = 0.734) presumably reflecting the inability of the animal to regulate this metal.
- 18Syberg, K.; Nielsen, A.; Khan, F. R.; Banta, G. T.; Palmqvist, A.; Jepsen, P. M. Microplastic potentiates triclosan toxicity to the marine copepod Acartia tonsa (Dana). J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A 2017, 80 (23–24), 1369– 1371, DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1385046[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvVWmsr%252FE&md5=e50499c6b81768f8c6e691524d722cdcMicroplastic potentiates triclosan toxicity to the marine copepod Acartia tonsa (Dana)Syberg, Kristian; Nielsen, Anne; Khan, Farhan R.; Banta, Gary T.; Palmqvist, Annemette; Jepsen, Per M.Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A: Current Issues (2017), 80 (23-24), 1369-1371CODEN: JTEHF8; ISSN:1528-7394. (Taylor & Francis, Inc.)Microplastics (MP) are contaminants of environmental concern partly due to plastics ability to sorb and transport hydrophobic org. contaminants (HOC). The importance of this "vector effect" is currently being debated in the scientific community. This debate largely ignores that the co-exposures of MP and HOC are mixts. of hazardous agents, which can be addressed from a mixt. toxicity perspective. In this study, mixt. effects of polyethylene microbeads (MP) and triclosan (TCS) (a commonly used antibacterial agent in cosmetics) were assessed on the marine copepod Acartia tonsa. Data indicated that MP potentiate the toxicity of TCS, illustrating the importance of understanding the mixt. interaction between plastics and HOC when addressing the environmental importance of the vector effect.
- 19Wright, S.; Rowe, D.; Thompson, R. C.; Galloway, T. S. Microplastic ingestion decreases energy reserves in marine worms. Curr. Biol. 2013, 23 (23), 1031– 1033, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.068[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar19https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFOhu7fM&md5=fd7785903665a6118172c54e87fa03e1Microplastic ingestion decreases energy reserves in marine wormsWright, Stephanie L.; Rowe, Darren; Thompson, Richard C.; Galloway, Tamara S.Current Biology (2013), 23 (23), R1031-R1033CODEN: CUBLE2; ISSN:0960-9822. (Cell Press)Deposit-feeding marine worms maintained in sediments spiked with microscopic unplasticised polyvinylchloride (UPVC) at concns. overlapping those in the environment had significantly depleted energy reserves by ≤50%. Our results suggest that depleted energy reserves arise from a combination of reduced feeding activity, longer gut residence times of ingested material, and inflammation.
- 20Wegner, A.; Besseling, E.; Foekema, E.; Kamermans, P.; Koelmans, A. Effects of nanopolystyrene on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2012, 31 (11), 2490– 2497, DOI: 10.1002/etc.1984[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar20https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xhs1Khtr%252FE&md5=7954afa820255d63b729a3ed0bf93d85Effects of nanopolystyrene on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.)Wegner, A.; Besseling, E.; Foekema, E. M.; Kamermans, P.; Koelmans, A. A.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2012), 31 (11), 2490-2497CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)As the industrial prodn. of nanoplastic and the degrdn. of microplastic into smaller particles at sea increase, the potential amt. of nanoplastics in the marine environment rises. It has been reported that mussels uptake 100-nm polystyrene (PS) beads; to date, however, the effects of this uptake on the organism are unknown. In the present study, the authors investigated the effects of 30-nm PS on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) by exposing the organism to different nano PS and different algae (Pavlova lutheri) concns. The state of nano PS aggregation in the exposure medium was assessed using dynamic light scattering. In all treatments that contained nano PS, M. edulis produced pseudofeces. The total wt. of the feces and pseudofeces increased with increasing nano PS and increasing algae concn. Furthermore, M. edulis reduced its filtering activity when nano PS was present but still caused a decrease in the apparent nano PS concn. in the water. The presence of nano PS around the foot of M. edulis after the bioassay confirmed that the organism removed nano PS from the water. Chronic effect studies are therefore needed to investigate the effects of nanoplastics in M. edulis and possible consequences for its predators, including humans.
- 21Besseling, E.; Wegner, A.; Foekema, E. M.; van den Heuvel-Greve, M. J.; Koelmans, A. A. Effects of Microplastic on Fitness and PCB Bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (1), 593– 600, DOI: 10.1021/es302763x[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar21https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhslaksL%252FK&md5=ce3dc18bddc466d67e46bc8a621eca53Effects of Microplastic on Fitness and PCB Bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.)Besseling, Ellen; Wegner, Anna; Foekema, Edwin M.; van den Heuvel-Greve, Martine J.; Koelmans, Albert A.Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (1), 593-600CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)It has been speculated that marine microplastics may cause neg. effects on benthic marine organisms and increase bioaccumulation of persistent org. pollutants (POPs). Here, we provide the first controlled study of plastic effects on benthic organisms including transfer of POPs. The effects of polystyrene (PS) microplastic on survival, activity, and bodyweight, as well as the transfer of 19 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were assessed in bioassays with Arenicola marina (L.). PS was preequilibrated in natively contaminated sediment. A pos. relation was obsd. between microplastic concn. in the sediment and both uptake of plastic particles and wt. loss by A. marina. Furthermore, a redn. in feeding activity was obsd. at a PS dose of 7.4% dry wt. A low PS dose of 0.074% increased bioaccumulation of PCBs by a factor of 1.1-3.6, an effect that was significant for ΣPCBs and several individual congeners. At higher doses, bioaccumulation decreased compared to the low dose, which however, was only significant for PCB105. PS had statistically significant effects on the organisms' fitness and bioaccumulation, but the magnitude of the effects was not high. This may be different for sites with different plastic concns., or plastics with a higher affinity for POPs.
- 22Cole, M.; Lindeque, P.; Fileman, E.; Halsband, C.; Galloway, T. The impact of polystyrene microplastics on feeding, function and fecundity in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (2), 1130– 1137, DOI: 10.1021/es504525u[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXkvFemsw%253D%253D&md5=324a25f2226a3f52ebc6e0f85784ac7cThe Impact of Polystyrene Microplastics on Feeding, Function and Fecundity in the Marine Copepod Calanus helgolandicusCole, Matthew; Lindeque, Pennie; Fileman, Elaine; Halsband, Claudia; Galloway, Tamara S.Environmental Science & Technology (2015), 49 (2), 1130-1137CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Microscopic plastic debris, termed "microplastics", are of increasing environmental concern. Recent studies have demonstrated that a range of zooplankton, including copepods, can ingest microplastics. Copepods are a globally abundant class of zooplankton that form a key trophic link between primary producers and higher trophic marine organisms. Ingestion of microplastics can significantly alter the feeding capacity of the pelagic copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Exposed to 20 μm polystyrene beads (75 microplastics mL-1) and cultured algae (250 μg C L-1) for 24 h, C. helgolandicus ingested 11% fewer algal cells and 40% less carbon biomass. There was a net downward shift in the mean size of algal prey consumed, with a 3.6-fold increase in ingestion rate for the smallest size class of algal prey (11.6-12.6 μm), suggestive of postcapture or postingestion rejection. Prolonged exposure to polystyrene microplastics significantly decreased reproductive output, but there were no significant differences in egg prodn. rates, respiration or survival. The authors constructed a conceptual energetic (carbon) budget showing that microplastic-exposed copepods suffer energetic depletion over time. The authors conclude that microplastics impede feeding in copepods, which over time could lead to sustained redns. in ingested carbon biomass.
- 23Sussarellu, R.; Suquet, M.; Thomas, Y.; Lambert, C.; Fabioux, C.; Pernet, M. E. J.; Le Goïc, N.; Quillien, V.; Mingant, C.; Epelboin, Y. Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplastics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (9), 2430– 2435, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519019113[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhslWgsLw%253D&md5=3e45fdb2ecf3e34e4c4e64bac9811336Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplasticsSussarellu, Rossana; Suquet, Marc; Thomas, Yoann; Lambert, Christophe; Fabioux, Caroline; Pernet, Marie Eve Julie; Le Goic, Nelly; Quillien, Virgile; Mingant, Christian; Epelboin, Yanouk; Corporeau, Charlotte; Guyomarch, Julien; Robbens, Johan; Paul-Pont, Ika; Soudant, Philippe; Huvet, ArnaudProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (9), 2430-2435CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Plastics are persistent synthetic polymers that accumulate as waste in the marine environment. Microplastic (MP) particles are derived from the breakdown of larger debris or can enter the environment as microscopic fragments. Because filter-feeder organisms ingest MP while feeding, they are likely to be impacted by MP pollution. To assess the impact of polystyrene microspheres (micro-PS) on the physiol. of the Pacific oyster, adult oysters were exptl. exposed to virgin micro-PS (2 and 6 μm in diam.; 0.023 mg·L-1) for 2 mo during a reproductive cycle. Effects were investigated on ecophysiol. parameters; cellular, transcriptomic, and proteomic responses; fecundity; and offspring development. Oysters preferentially ingested the 6-μm micro-PS over the 2-μm-diam. particles. Consumption of microalgae and absorption efficiency were significantly higher in exposed oysters, suggesting compensatory and phys. effects on both digestive parameters. After 2 mo, exposed oysters had significant decreases in oocyte no. (-38%), diam. (-5%), and sperm velocity (-23%). The D-larval yield and larval development of offspring derived from exposed parents decreased by 41% and 18%, resp., compared with control offspring. Dynamic energy budget modeling, supported by transcriptomic profiles, suggested a significant shift of energy allocation from reprodn. to structural growth, and elevated maintenance costs in exposed oysters, which is thought to be caused by interference with energy uptake. Mol. signatures of endocrine disruption were also revealed, but no endocrine disruptors were found in the biol. samples. This study provides evidence that micro-PS cause feeding modifications and reproductive disruption in oysters, with significant impacts on offspring.
- 24Cole, M.; Lindeque, P. K.; Fileman, E.; Clark, J.; Lewis, C.; Halsband, C.; Galloway, T. S. Microplastics alter the properties and sinking rates of zooplankton faecal pellets. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 3239– 3246, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05905[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar24https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XivVOjsrY%253D&md5=35bbb9a3be687aae282045b94313bb47Microplastics Alter the Properties and Sinking Rates of Zooplankton Fecal PelletsCole, Matthew; Lindeque, Penelope K.; Fileman, Elaine; Clark, James; Lewis, Ceri; Halsband, Claudia; Galloway, Tamara S.Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (6), 3239-3246CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic debris is a widespread contaminant, prevalent in aquatic ecosystems across the globe. Zooplankton readily ingest microscopic plastic (microplastic, <1 mm), which are later egested within their fecal pellets. These pellets are a source of food for marine organisms, and contribute to the oceanic vertical flux of particulate org. matter as part of the biol. pump. The effects of microplastics on fecal pellet properties are currently unknown. We test the hypotheses that (1) fecal pellets are a vector for transport of microplastics, (2) polystyrene microplastics can alter the properties and sinking rates of zooplankton egests and, (3) fecal pellets can facilitate the transfer of plastics to coprophagous biota. Following exposure to 20.6 μm polystyrene microplastics (1000 microplastics/mL) and natural prey (∼1650 algae/mL) the copepod Calanus helgolandicus egested fecal pellets with significantly (p <0.001) reduced densities, a 2.25-fold redn. in sinking rates, and a higher propensity for fragmentation. We further show that microplastics, encapsulated within egests of the copepod Centropages typicus, could be transferred to C. helgolandicus via coprophagy. Our results support the proposal that sinking fecal matter represents a mechanism by which floating plastics can be vertically transported away from surface waters.
- 25Galloway, T. S.; Cole, M.; Lewis, C. Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystem. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2017, 1 (5), s41559, DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0116
- 26Irigoien, X.; Harris, R. P.; Verheye, H. M.; Joly, P.; Runge, J.; Starr, M.; Pond, D.; Campbell, R.; Shreeve, R.; Ward, P. Copepod hatching success in marine ecosystems with high diatom concentrations. Nature 2002, 419 (6905), 387– 389, DOI: 10.1038/nature01055[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar26https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD38XntlGgsbs%253D&md5=eae19663b0e7956c659d9d0e07f20770Copepod hatching success in marine ecosystems with high diatom concentrationsIrigoien, Xabier; Harris, Roger P.; Verheye, Hans M.; Joly, Pierre; Runge, Jeffrey; Starr, Michel; Pond, David; Campbell, Robert; Shreeve, Rachael; Ward, Peter; Smith, Amy N.; Dam, Hans G.; Peterson, William; Tirelli, Valentina; Koski, Marja; Smith, Tania; Harbour, Derek; Davidson, RussellNature (London, United Kingdom) (2002), 419 (6905), 387-389CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)Diatoms dominate spring bloom phytoplankton assemblages in temperate waters and coastal upwelling regions of the global ocean. Copepods usually dominate the zooplankton in these regions and are the prey of many larval fish species. Recent lab. studies suggest that diatoms may have a deleterious effect on the success of copepod egg hatching. These findings challenge the classical view of marine food-web energy flow from diatoms to fish by means of copepods. Egg mortality is an important factor in copepod population dynamics, thus, if diatoms have a deleterious in situ effect, paradoxically, high diatom abundance could limit secondary prodn. Therefore, the current understanding of energy transfer from primary prodn. to fisheries in some of the most productive and economically important marine ecosystems may be seriously flawed. Here we present in situ ests. of copepod egg hatching success from twelve globally distributed areas, where diatoms dominate the phytoplankton assemblage. We did not observe a neg. relationship between copepod egg hatching success and either diatom biomass or dominance in the microplankton in any of these regions. The classical model for diatom-dominated system remains valid.
- 27Cole, M.; Lindeque, P.; Fileman, E.; Halsband, C.; Goodhead, R.; Moger, J.; Galloway, T. S. Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (12), 6646– 6655, DOI: 10.1021/es400663f[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar27https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXnvFSksr8%253D&md5=e0f6677a3d6ca22597e3047732c188eaMicroplastic Ingestion by ZooplanktonCole, Matthew; Lindeque, Pennie; Fileman, Elaine; Halsband, Claudia; Goodhead, Rhys; Moger, Julian; Galloway, Tamara S.Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (12), 6646-6655CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Small plastic detritus, termed microplastics, are a widespread and ubiquitous contaminant of marine ecosystems across the globe. Ingestion of microplastics by marine biota, including mussels, worms, fish, and seabirds, has been widely reported, but despite their vital ecol. role in marine food-webs, the impact of microplastics on zooplankton remains under-researched. We show that microplastics are ingested by, and may impact upon, zooplankton. We used bioimaging techniques to document ingestion, egestion, and adherence of microplastics in a range of zooplankton common to the northeast Atlantic, and used feeding rate studies to det. the impact of plastic detritus on algal ingestion rates in copepods. Using fluorescence and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy we identified that 13 zooplankton taxa had the capacity to ingest 1.7-30.6 μm polystyrene beads, with uptake varying by taxa, life-stage and bead-size. Post-ingestion, copepods egested fecal pellets laden with microplastics. We further obsd. microplastics adhered to the external carapace and appendages of exposed zooplankton. Exposure of the copepod Centropages typicus to natural assemblages of algae with and without microplastics showed that 7.3 μm microplastics (>4000/mL) significantly decreased algal feeding. Our findings imply that marine microplastic debris can neg. impact upon zooplankton function and health.
- 28Setälä, O.; Fleming-Lehtinen, V.; Lehtiniemi, M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 77– 83, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar28https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFylsr%252FM&md5=74e5445a29a1548a3ae3b928212da777Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food webSetala, Outi; Fleming-Lehtinen, Vivi; Lehtiniemi, MaijuEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 185 (), 77-83CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Expts. were carried out with different Baltic Sea zooplankton taxa to scan their potential to ingest plastics. Mysid shrimps, copepods, cladocerans, rotifers, polychaete larvae and ciliates were exposed to 10 μm fluorescent polystyrene microspheres. These expts. showed ingestion of microspheres in all taxa studied. The highest percentage of individuals with ingested spheres was found in pelagic polychaete larvae, Marenzelleria spp. Expts. with the copepod Eurytemora affinis and the mysid shrimp Neomysis integer showed egestion of microspheres within 12 h. Food web transfer expts. were done by offering zooplankton labeled with ingested microspheres to mysid shrimps. Microscopy observations of mysid intestine showed the presence of zooplankton prey and microspheres after 3 h incubation. This study shows for the first time the potential of plastic microparticle transfer via planktonic organisms from one trophic level (mesozooplankton) to a higher level (macrozooplankton). The impacts of plastic transfer and possible accumulation in the food web need further investigations.
- 29Lee, K.-W.; Shim, W. J.; Kwon, O. Y.; Kang, J.-H. Size-Dependent Effects of Micro Polystyrene Particles in the Marine Copepod Tigriopus japonicus. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (19), 11278– 11283, DOI: 10.1021/es401932b[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtlClsbzL&md5=1978297c8da5c1d7a44e1dd7f181cba9Size-Dependent Effects of Micro Polystyrene Particles in the Marine Copepod Tigriopus japonicusLee, Kyun-Woo; Shim, Won Joon; Kwon, Oh Youn; Kang, Jung-HoonEnvironmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (19), 11278-11283CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)The authors investigated the effects of three sizes of polystyrene (PS) microbeads (0.05, 0.5, and 6-μm diam.) on the survival, development, and fecundity of the copepod Tigriopus japonicus using acute and chronic toxicity tests. T. japonicus ingested and egested all three sizes of PS beads used and exhibited no selective feeding when phytoplankton were added. The copepods (nauplius and adult females) survived all sizes of PS beads and the various concns. tested in the acute toxicity test for 96 h. In the two-generation chronic toxicity test, 0.05-μm PS beads at a concn. greater than 12.5 μg/mL caused the mortality of nauplii and copepodites in the F0 generation and even triggered mortality at a concn. of 1.25 μg/mL in the next generation. In the 0.5-μm PS bead treatment, despite there being no significant effect on the F0 generation, the highest concn. (25 μg/mL) induced a significant decrease in survival compared with the control population in the F1 generation. The 6-μm PS beads did not affect the survival of T. japonicus over two generations. The 0.5- and 6-μm PS beads caused a significant decrease in fecundity at all concns. These results suggest that microplastics such as micro- or nanosized PS beads may have neg. impacts on marine copepods.
- 30Vroom, R. J.; Koelmans, A. A.; Besseling, E.; Halsband, C. Aging of microplastics promotes their ingestion by marine zooplankton. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 231, 987– 996, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.088[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsVKksr3I&md5=7f7038a51ea71b5472f935150e3d223dAging of microplastics promotes their ingestion by marine zooplanktonVroom, Renske J. E.; Koelmans, Albert A.; Besseling, Ellen; Halsband, ClaudiaEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 231 (Part_1), 987-996CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics (<5 mm) are ubiquitous in the marine environment and are ingested by zooplankton with possible neg. effects on survival, feeding, and fecundity. The majority of lab. studies has used new and pristine microplastics to test their impacts, while aging processes such as weathering and biofouling alter the characteristics of plastic particles in the marine environment. We investigated zooplankton ingestion of polystyrene beads (15 and 30 μm) and fragments (≤30 μm), and tested the hypothesis that microplastics previously exposed to marine conditions (aged) are ingested at higher rates than pristine microplastics. Polystyrene beads were aged by soaking in natural local seawater for three weeks. Three zooplankton taxa ingested microplastics, excluding the copepod Pseudocalanus spp., but the proportions of individuals ingesting plastic and the no. of particles ingested were taxon and life stage specific and dependent on plastic size. All stages of Calanus finmarchicus ingested polystyrene fragments. Aged microbeads were preferred over pristine ones by females of Acartia longiremis as well as juvenile copepodites CV and adults of Calanus finmarchicus. The preference for aged microplastics may be attributed to the formation of a biofilm. Such a coating, made up of natural microbes, may contain similar prey as the copepods feed on in the water column and secrete chem. exudates that aid chemodetection and thus increase the attractiveness of the particles as food items. Much of the ingested plastic was, however, egested within a short time period (2-4 h) and the survival of adult Calanus females was not affected in an 11-day exposure. Neg. effects of microplastics ingestion were thus limited. Our findings emphasize, however, that aging plays an important role in the transformation of microplastics at sea and ingestion by grazers, and should thus be considered in future microplastics ingestion studies and ests. of microplastics transfer into the marine food web.
- 31Sun, X.; Li, Q.; Zhu, M.; Liang, J.; Zheng, S.; Zhao, Y. Ingestion of microplastics by natural zooplankton groups in the northern South China Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 115 (1–2), 217– 224, DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.12.004[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVOltLnI&md5=ea595206f1a99fbdd256302fdcdca93dIngestion of microplastics by natural zooplankton groups in the northern South China SeaSun, Xiaoxia; Li, Qingjie; Zhu, Mingliang; Liang, Junhua; Zheng, Shan; Zhao, YongfangMarine Pollution Bulletin (2017), 115 (1-2), 217-224CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The ingestion of microplastics by five natural zooplankton groups in the northern South China Sea was studied for the first time and two types of sampling nets (505 μm and 160 μm in mesh size) were compared. The microplastics were detected in zooplankton sampled from 16 stations, with the fibrous microplastics accounting for the largest proportion (70%). The main component of the found microplastics was polyester. The av. length of the microplastics was 125 μm and 167 μm for Nets I and II, resp. The encounter rates of microplastics/zooplankton increased with trophic levels. The av. encounter rate of microplastics/zooplankton was 5%, 15%, 34%, 49%, and 120% for Net I, and 8%, 21%, 47%, 60%, and 143% for Net II for copepods, chaetognaths, jellyfish, shrimp, and fish larvae, resp. The av. abundance of microplastics that were ingested by zooplankton was 4.1 pieces/m3 for Net I and 131.5 pieces/m3 for Net II.
- 32Desforges, J.-P. W.; Galbraith, M.; Ross, P. S. Ingestion of Microplastics by Zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2015, 69 (4), 320– 330, DOI: 10.1007/s00244-015-0172-5[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVaitL3F&md5=b578b825f5644f6c0af2bc86d18ca962Ingestion of Microplastics by Zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific OceanDesforges, Jean-Pierre W.; Galbraith, Moira; Ross, Peter S.Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2015), 69 (3), 320-330CODEN: AECTCV; ISSN:0090-4341. (Springer)Microplastics are increasingly recognized as being widespread in the world's oceans, but relatively little is known about ingestion by marine biota. In light of the potential for microplastic fibers and fragments to be taken up by small marine organisms, we examd. plastic ingestion by two foundation species near the base of North Pacific marine food webs, the calanoid copepod Neocalanus cristatus and the euphausiid Euphausia pacifia. We developed an acid digestion method to assess plastic ingestion by individual zooplankton and detected microplastics in both species. Encounter rates resulting from ingestion were 1 particle/every 34 copepods and 1/every 17 euphausiids (euphausiids > copepods; p = 0.01). Consistent with differences in the size selection of food between these two zooplankton species, the ingested particle size was greater in euphausiids (816 ± 108 μm) than in copepods (556 ± 149 μm) (p = 0.014). The contribution of ingested microplastic fibers to total plastic decreased with distance from shore in euphausiids (r2 = 70, p = 0.003), corresponding to patterns in our previous observations of microplastics in seawater samples from the same locations. This first evidence of microplastic ingestion by marine zooplankton indicate that species at lower trophic levels of the marine food web are mistaking plastic for food, which raises fundamental questions about potential risks to higher trophic level species. One concern is risk to salmon: We est. that consumption of microplastic-contg. zooplankton will lead to the ingestion of 2-7 microplastic particles/day by individual juvenile salmon in coastal British Columbia, and ≤91 microplastic particles/day in returning adults.
- 33Gray, A. D.; Weinstein, J. E. Size-and shape-dependent effects of microplastic particles on adult daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2017, 36 (11), 3074– 3080, DOI: 10.1002/etc.3881[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtFynsbvJ&md5=74563cba41c2c19d993bb0e975b37890Size- and shape-dependent effects of microplastic particles on adult daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio)Gray, Austin D.; Weinstein, John E.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2017), 36 (11), 3074-3080CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)The incidence of microplastics in marine environments has been increasing over the past several decades. The objective of the present study was to characterize the size- and shape-dependent effects of microplastic particles (spheres, fibers, and fragments) on the adult daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio). Grass shrimp were exposed to 11 sizes of plastic: spheres (30, 35, 59, 75, 83, 116, and 165 μm), fragments (34 and 93 μm), and fibers (34 and 93 μm) at a concn. of 2000 particles/400 mL (= 50 000 particles/L) for 3 h. Following exposure, grass shrimp were monitored for survival, ingested and ventilated microplastics, and residence time. Mortality ranged from 0% to 55%. Spheres and fragments <50 μm were not acutely toxic. Mortality rates in expts. with spheres and fragments >50 μm ranged from 5% to 40%. Mortality was significantly higher in the exposure to 93-μm fibers than other sizes tested (p < 0.001). The shape of the particle had a significant influence on the no. of particles ingested by the shrimp (p < 0.001). The residence time of particles in the gut ranged from 27 to 75 h, with an av. of 43.0 ± 13.8 h. Within the gills, the residence time ranged from 27 to 45 h, with an av. of 36.9 ± 5.4 h. The results suggest that microplastic particles of various sizes and shapes can be ingested and ventilated by adult daggerblade grass shrimp, resulting in acute toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;9999:1-7. © 2017 SETAC.
- 34Botterell, Z. L.; Beaumont, N.; Dorrington, T.; Steinke, M.; Thompson, R. C.; Lindeque, P. K. Bioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A review. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 245, 98– 110, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.065[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar34https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXitFCgt7%252FL&md5=25cb1306a247d5a9577ce5daa5ec751fBioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A reviewBotterell, Zara L. R.; Beaumont, Nicola; Dorrington, Tarquin; Steinke, Michael; Thompson, Richard C.; Lindeque, Penelope K.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 245 (), 98-110CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics are abundant and widespread in the marine environment. They are a contaminant of global environmental and economic concern. Due to their small size a wide range of marine species, including zooplankton can ingest them. Research has shown that microplastics are readily ingested by several zooplankton taxa, with assocd. neg. impacts on biol. processes. Zooplankton is a crucial food source for many secondary consumers, consequently this represents a route whereby microplastic could enter the food web and transfer up the trophic levels. In this review we aim to: (1) evaluate the current knowledge base regarding microplastic ingestion by zooplankton in both the lab. and the field; and (2) summarise the factors which contribute to the bioavailability of microplastics to zooplankton. Current literature shows that microplastic ingestion has been recorded in 39 zooplankton species from 28 taxonomic orders including holo- and meroplanktonic species. The majority of studies occurred under lab. conditions and neg. effects were reported in ten studies (45%) demonstrating effects on feeding behavior, growth, development, reprodn. and lifespan. In contrast, three studies (14%) reported no neg. effects from microplastic ingestion. Several phys. and biol. factors can influence the bioavailability of microplastics to zooplankton, such as size, shape, age and abundance. We identified that microplastics used in expts. are often different to those quantified in the marine environment, particularly in terms of concn., shape, type and age. We therefore suggest that future research should include microplastics that are more representative of those found in the marine environment at relevant concns. Addnl., investigating the effects of microplastic ingestion on a broader range of zooplankton species and life stages, will help to answer key knowledge gaps regarding the effect of microplastic on recruitment, species populations and ultimately broader economic consequences such as impacts on shell- and finfish stocks.
- 35Paul-Pont, I.; Tallec, K.; Gonzalez-Fernandez, C.; Lambert, C.; Vincent, D.; Mazurais, D.; Zambonino-Infante, J.-L.; Brotons, G.; Lagarde, F.; Fabioux, C. Constraints and priorities for conducting experimental exposures of marine organisms to microplastics. Front. Mar. Sci. 2018, 5 (252) DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00252 .
- 36Melle, W.; Runge, J.; Head, E.; Plourde, S.; Castellani, C.; Licandro, P.; Pierson, J.; Jonasdottir, S.; Johnson, C.; Broms, C. The North Atlantic Ocean as habitat for Calanus finmarchicus: Environmental factors and life history traits. Prog. Oceanogr. 2014, 129, 244– 284, DOI: 10.1016/j.pocean.2014.04.026
- 37Pond, D. W. The physical properties of lipids and their role in controlling the distribution of zooplankton in the oceans. J. Plankton Res. 2012, 34 (6), 443– 453, DOI: 10.1093/plankt/fbs027[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar37https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XmsFeitLs%253D&md5=fc95763356b9fcab7657d1fc79aabee6The physical properties of lipids and their role in controlling the distribution of zooplankton in the oceansPond, David W.Journal of Plankton Research (2012), 34 (6), 443-453CODEN: JPLRD9; ISSN:0142-7873. (Oxford University Press)A review. A new perspective on the role of lipids in zooplankton is proposed, with solid-liq. phase transitions of lipids being a factor regulating their buoyancy. These phase transitions are controlled by zooplankton in relation to their phys. environment, through the selective accumulation of specific lipids with optimum levels of unsatn. The necessity to control buoyancy and maintain an optimum depth is a fundamental evolutionary force, driving anatomical, biochem. and behavioral adaptations of all organisms within the aquatic realm. It is hypothesized that each species adjusts the amt., compn. and anatomical location of lipids, to maximize fitness according to their preferred habitat and life history traits. Recent discoveries regarding the role of phase transitions of lipids in marine zooplankton and their role in regulating buoyancy will require re-interpretation of existing data and stimulate future scientific endeavours in zooplankton research.
- 38Marker, T.; Andreassen, P.; Arashkewich, E.; Hansen, B. W. Lipid deposition and sexual maturation in cohorts of Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus) originating from Bergen (60 N) and Tromsø (69 N) reared in Tromsø, Norway. Mar. Biol. 2003, 143 (2), 283– 296, DOI: 10.1007/s00227-003-1089-5[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar38https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXmvVWqs7c%253D&md5=69199ed65d9b6e5b5707e44a93d2bd4fLipid deposition and sexual maturation in cohorts of Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus) originating from Bergen (60°N) and Tromso (69°N) reared in Tromso, NorwayMarker, Tue; Andreassen, Peter; Arashkewich, Elena; Hansen, Benni W.Marine Biology (Berlin, Germany) (2003), 143 (2), 283-296CODEN: MBIOAJ; ISSN:0025-3162. (Springer-Verlag)Two cohorts of Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus), with habitats in Bergen (60°N) and Tromso (69°N), were reared from copepodite stage III (CIII) in mesocosms in Tromso from Apr. 24 1998 to June 30 1998. The aim was to study whether the two cohorts diverged phenotypically with respect to indication of physiol. prepn. for diapause as opposed to initiating another generation. At the end of the expt. the fractions of the cohorts that had reached sexual maturation, based on obsd. stage shifts to adults, was ∼45% within the Bergen cohort and ∼35% for the Tromso cohort, within which males appeared before females. Examn. of the mandibular gnathobase of copepodites at stage V (CV) revealed that <10% of the Bergen cohort, but >40% of the Tromso cohort were ready for ecdysis, eventually to become adults in the same year. The physiol. expression of the range in individual maturity within the cohorts was revealed in individual carbon and nitrogen content. Both cohorts incorporated the storage lipids wax esters (WE) and triacylglycerols (TAG) rapidly, primarily during CV (0.16-0.21 μg total neutral lipid/individual/day), with no significant difference. Lipid storage was incorporated from CIII and the max. was reached at the CV stage. Presumably due to excess food, high WE, TAG and free fatty acid levels were obsd. in both cohorts. A relative decrease in neutral lipids was obsd. later in females from both cohorts. The authors suggest that part of the Bergen population, but also a fraction of the Tromso population, prepd. for diapause in CV. A possible reason for the sexual maturation among the rest of the CV copepodites could be a shift in life strategy caused by an unusually high rise in temp. in the mesocosms during the last 10 days of the expt.
- 39Lee, R. F.; Hagen, W.; Kattner, G. Lipid storage in marine zooplankton. Mar. Ecol.: Prog. Ser. 2006, 307, 273– 306, DOI: 10.3354/meps307273[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XktlektLY%253D&md5=2251548c88cce340387251e47f1867c3Lipid storage in marine zooplanktonLee, Richard F.; Hagen, Wilhelm; Kattner, GerhardMarine Ecology: Progress Series (2006), 307 (), 273-306CODEN: MESEDT; ISSN:0171-8630. (Inter-Research)A review. Zooplankton storage lipids play an important role during reprodn., food scarcity, ontogeny and diapause, as shown by studies in various oceanic regions. While triacylglycerols, the primary storage lipid of terrestrial animals, are found in almost all zooplankton species, wax esters are the dominant storage lipid in many deep-living and polar zooplankton taxa. Phospholipids and diacylglycerol ethers are the unique storage lipids used by polar euphausiids and pteropods, resp. In zooplankton with large stores of wax esters, triacylglycerols are more rapidly turned over and used for short-term energy needs, while wax esters serve as long-term energy deposits. Zooplankton groups found in polar, westerlies, upwelling and coastal biomes are characterized by accumulation of large lipid stores. In contrast, zooplankton from the trades/tropical biomes is mainly composed of omnivorous species with only small lipid reserves. Diapausing copepods, which enter deep water after feeding on phytoplankton during spring/summer blooms or at the end of upwelling periods, are characterized by large oil sacs filled with wax esters. The thermal expansion and compressibility of wax esters may allow diapausing copepods and other deep-water zooplankton to be neutrally buoyant in cold deep waters, and they can thus avoid spending energy to remain at these depths. Lipid droplets are often noted in zooplankton ovaries, and a portion of these droplets can be transferred to developing oocytes. In addn. to lipid droplets, zooplankton eggs have yolks with lipovitellin, a lipoprotein with approx. equal amts. of protein and lipid. The lipovitellin lipid is predominantly phosphatidylcholine, so during reprodn. females must convert a portion of their storage lipid into this phospholipid. Developing embryos use their lipovitellin and lipid droplets for energy and materials until feeding begins. The various functions storage lipids serve during the different life history stages of zooplankton are very complex and still not fully understood and hence offer a multitude of fascinating research perspectives.
- 40Tarrant, A. M.; Baumgartner, M. F.; Hansen, B. H.; Altin, D.; Nordtug, T.; Olsen, A. J. Transcriptional profiling of reproductive development, lipid storage and molting throughout the last juvenile stage of the marine copepod Calanus finmarchicus. Front. Zool. 2014, 11 (1), 91, DOI: 10.1186/s12983-014-0091-8[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXitleltbk%253D&md5=897d346830bc953efd8ae5977ddc91beTranscriptional profiling of reproductive development, lipid storage and molting throughout the last juvenile stage of the marine copepod Calanus finmarchicusTarrant, Ann M.; Baumgartner, Mark F.; Hansen, Bjoern Henrik; Altin, Dag; Nordtug, Trond; Olsen, Anders J.Frontiers in Zoology (2014), 11 (), 91/1-91/12, 29 pp.CODEN: FZROAJ; ISSN:1742-9994. (BioMed Central Ltd.)Calanus finmarchicus, a highly abundant copepod that is an important primary consumer in North Atlantic ecosystems, has a flexible life history in which copepods in the last juvenile developmental stage (5th copepodid, C5) may either delay maturation and enter diapause or molt directly into adults. The factors that regulate this developmental plasticity are poorly understood, and few tools have been developed to assess the physiol. condition of individual copepods. We sampled a cultured population of C. finmarchicus copepods daily throughout the C5 stage and assessed molt stage progression, gonad development, and lipid storage. We used high-throughput sequencing to identify genes that were differentially expressed during progression through the molt stage and then used qPCR to profile daily expression of individual genes. Based on expression profiles of 12 genes, samples were clustered into 3 groups: (1) early period occurring prior to sepn. of the cuticle from the epidermis (apolysis) when expression of genes assocd. with lipid synthesis and transport (FABP and ELOV) and 2 nuclear receptors (ERR and HR78) was highest, (2) middle period of rapid change in both gene expression and physiol. condition, including local min. and maxima in several nuclear receptors (FTZ-F1, HR38b, and EcR), and (3) late period when gonads were differentiated and expression of genes assocd. with molting (Torso-like, HR38a) peaked. The ratio of Torso-like to HR38b strongly differentiated the early and late groups. This study provides the 1st dynamic profiles of gene expression anchored with morphol. markers of lipid accumulation, development, and gonad maturation throughout a copepod molt cycle. Transcriptomic profiling revealed significant changes over the molt cycle in genes with presumed roles in lipid synthesis, molt regulation, and gonad development, suggestive of a coupling of these processes in C. finmarchicus. Finally, we identified gene expression profiles that strongly differentiate between early and late development within the C5 copepodid stage. We anticipate that these findings and continued development of robust gene expression biomarkers that distinguish between diapause prepn. and continuous development will ultimately enable novel studies of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that govern diapause initiation in C. finmarchicus.
- 41Jones, R. H.; Flynn, K. J.; Anderson, T. R. Effect of food quality on carbon and nitrogen growth efficiency in the copepod Acartia tonsa. Mar. Ecol.: Prog. Ser. 2002, 235, 147– 156, DOI: 10.3354/meps235147
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- 43Frost, B. W. Effect of size and concentration of food particles on the feeding behaviour of the marine planktoinic copepod Calanus pacificus. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1972, 17, 805– 815, DOI: 10.4319/lo.1972.17.6.0805
- 44Folch, J.; Lees, M.; Sloane Stanley, G. A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 1957, 226 (1), 497– 509[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar44https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaG2sXmslWgsw%253D%253D&md5=7e0487aa74d7652046f855f729a6f369A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissuesFolch-Pi, Jordi; Lees, M.; Stanley, G. H. SloaneJournal of Biological Chemistry (1957), 226 (), 497-509CODEN: JBCHA3; ISSN:0021-9258.cf. C.A. 46, 159i. A simple method is described for the prepn. of total pure lipide exts. from various tissues: it consists of homogenizing the tissue with a 2:1 CHCl3-MeOH mixt. and washing the ext. by addn. of 0.2 its vol. of water or an appropriate salt soln. The resulting mixt. seps. into 2 phases; the lower phase is the total pure lipide ext. The washing removes essentially all the nonlipide contaminants from the ext. with a concomitant loss of about 0.3% of the tissue lipides in the case of white matter and about 0.6% in the case of gray matter. Even these small losses can be reduced by the addn. of a definite amt. of certain mineral salts. The efficiency of the washing depends upon the presence of mineral salts in the crude ext. These salts alter the distribution of the lipides and practically eliminate them from the upper phase. In the absence of salts, substantial amts. of acidic lipides are present in the upper phase and would be lost during the washing. The advantages and limitations of the procedure were established for brain gray and white matter, liver, and muscle.
- 45R. C. Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2016.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46Meyer-Harms, B.; Irigoien, X.; Head, R.; Harris, R. Selective feeding on natural phytoplankton by Calanus finmarchicus before, during, and after the 1997 spring bloom in the Norwegian Sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1999, 44 (1), 154– 165, DOI: 10.4319/lo.1999.44.1.0154
- 47Leiknes, Ø.; Striberny, A.; Tokle, N. E.; Olsen, Y.; Vadstein, O.; Sommer, U. Feeding selectivity of Calanus finmarchicus in the Trondheimsfjord. J. Sea Res. 2014, 85, 292– 299, DOI: 10.1016/j.seares.2013.05.012
- 48Meyer, B.; Irigoien, X.; Graeve, M.; Head, R.; Harris, R. Feeding rates and selectivity among nauplii, copepodites and adult females of Calanus finmarchicus and Calanus helgolandicus. Helgoland Marine Research 2002, 56 (3), 169– 176, DOI: 10.1007/s10152-002-0105-3
- 49Marshall, S.; Orr, A. On the biology of Calanus finmarchicus VIII. Food uptake, assimilation and excretion in adult and stage V Calanus. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 1955, 34 (3), 495– 529, DOI: 10.1017/S0025315400008778
- 50Jemec, A.; Horvat, P.; Kunej, U.; Bele, M.; Kržan, A. Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 219, 201– 209, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.037[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar50https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhslOqsLrK&md5=93538f94905008cfd5f4d2f72ae12896Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean Daphnia magnaJemec, Anita; Horvat, Petra; Kunej, Urban; Bele, Marjan; Krzan, AndrejEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 219 (), 201-209CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastic fibers (MP) from textile weathering and washing are increasingly being recognized as environmental pollutants. The majority of studies on the bioavailability and effects of microplastic focused on small polystyrene spherical plastic particles, while less data are available for fibers and for other materials besides polystyrene. We investigated the ingestion and effects of ground polyethylene terephthalate (PET) textile microfibers (length range: 62-1400 μm, width 31-528 μm, thickness 1-21.5 μm) on the freshwater zooplankton crustacean Daphnia magna after a 48 h exposure and subsequent 24 h of recovery in MP free medium and algae. The majority of ingested fibers by D. magna were around 300 μm, but also some very large twisted MP fibers around 1400 μm were found inside the gut. Exposure to these fibers results in increased mortality of daphnids after 48 h only in the case where daphnids were not pre-fed with algae prior to expt., but no effect was found when daphnids were fed before the expts. Regardless of the feeding regime, daphnids were not able to recover from MP exposure after addnl. 24 h incubation period in a MP free medium with algae. The uptake and effects of PET textile MP on D. magna are presented here for the first time.
- 51Bakir, A.; Rowland, S. J.; Thompson, R. C. Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 16– 23, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar51https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFyktrrI&md5=c6023c0ee6f8063ba12812ef98bb3040Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditionsBakir, Adil; Rowland, Steven J.; Thompson, Richard C.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 185 (), 16-23CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics have the potential to uptake and release persistent org. pollutants (POPs); however, subsequent transfer to marine organisms is poorly understood. Some models estg. transfer of sorbed contaminants to organisms neglect the role of gut surfactants under differing physiol. conditions in the gut (varying pH and temp.), examd. here. We investigated the potential for polyvinylchloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) to sorb and desorb 14C-DDT, 14C-phenanthrene (Phe), 14C-perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and 14C-di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). Desorption rates of POPs were quantified in seawater and under simulated gut conditions. Influence of pH and temp. was examd. in order to represent cold and warm blooded organisms. Desorption rates were faster with gut surfactant, with a further substantial increase under conditions simulating warm blooded organisms. Desorption under gut conditions could be up to 30 times greater than in seawater alone. Of the POP/plastic combinations examd. Phe with PE gave the highest potential for transport to organisms.
- 52Litchman, E.; Ohman, M. D.; Kiørboe, T. Trait-based approaches to zooplankton communities. J. Plankton Res. 2013, 35 (3), 473– 484, DOI: 10.1093/plankt/fbt019
- 53Blarer, P.; Burkhardt-Holm, P. Microplastics affect assimilation efficiency in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus fossarum. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23 (23), 23522– 23532, DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7584-2[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar53https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFWjurfN&md5=45790115e05c0c7626eeb9de75a22520Microplastics affect assimilation efficiency in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus fossarumBlarer, Pascal; Burkhardt-Holm, PatriciaEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research (2016), 23 (23), 23522-23532CODEN: ESPLEC; ISSN:0944-1344. (Springer)An important issue in assessing microplastics is whether this newly emerging type of pollution affects freshwater invertebrates. This study was designed to examine the interactions between the amphipod Gammarus fossarum and two types of microplastics. To det. the ingestion and egestion of polyamide (PA) fibers (500 × 20 μm), amphipods were exposed to four concns. (100, 540, 2680, 13,380 PA fibers cm-2 base area of glass beakers) and four exposure times (0.5, 2, 8, 32 h) as well as four post-exposure times (1, 2, 4, 16 h). We demonstrate a pos. correlation between concn. and ingestion of PA fibers. Fibers were found in the gut after 0.5 h of exposure. Egestion was rapid and the digestive tract was empty 16 h after exposure ended. To investigate whether polystyrene (PS) beads (1.6 μm) can be taken up in the epithelial cells of the gut and the midgut glands, four concns. (500, 2500, 12,500, 60,000 PS beads mL-1) were tested. Cryosections exhibited fluorescent PS beads only within the gut lumen. In a 28-day feeding expt. with both, fibers and beads, we studied the amphipod's feeding rate, assimilation efficiency and wet wt. change. The exposure to PA fibers (2680 PA fibers cm-2 base area of glass beakers) significantly reduced the assimilation efficiency of the animals. While both tested polymer types are ingested and egested, PA fibers can impair the health and ecol. functions of freshwater amphipods under continuous exposure.
- 54Jónasdóttir, S. H. Lipid content of Calanus finmarchicus during overwintering in the Faroe–Shetland Channel. Fisheries Oceanography 1999, 8, 61– 72, DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2419.1999.00003.x
- 55Häfker, N. S.; Teschke, M.; Last, K. S.; Pond, D. W.; Hüppe, L.; Meyer, B. Calanus finmarchicus seasonal cycle and diapause in relation to gene expression, physiology, and endogenous clocks. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2018, 63 (6), 2815– 2838, DOI: 10.1002/lno.11011
- 56Crain, J. A.; Miller, C. B. Effects of starvation on intermolt development in Calanus finmarchicus copepodites: a comparison between theoretical models and field studies. Deep Sea Res., Part II 2001, 48 (1–3), 551– 566, DOI: 10.1016/S0967-0645(00)00078-3
- 57Rodríguez, E. M.; Medesani, D. A.; Fingerman, M. Endocrine disruption in crustaceans due to pollutants: a review. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., Part A: Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2007, 146 (4), 661– 671, DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.04.030[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar57https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXivVSiur0%253D&md5=b7675461cac804e2d35d397c00f308efEndocrine disruption in crustaceans due to pollutants: A reviewRodriguez, Enrique M.; Medesani, Daniel A.; Fingerman, MiltonComparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology (2007), 146A (4), 661-671CODEN: CBPAB5; ISSN:1095-6433. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. The main endocrine-regulated processes of crustaceans have been reviewed in relation to the effects of endocrine-disrupting compds. (EDCs). Molting has been shown to be inhibited by several org. pollutants, such as xenoestrogens and related compds., as well as by some pesticides. Most of these disrupters are thought to interfere with ecdysone at target tissues, although only for a few has this action been demonstrated in vitro. The heavy metal cadmium appears to inhibit some ecdysone secretion. Juvenoid compds. have also been shown to inhibit molting, likely by interfering with the stimulatory effect of Me farnesoate. A molt-promoting effect of Emamectin benzoate, a pesticide, has also been reported. As for reprodn., a variety of org. compds., including xenoestrogens, juvenoids, and ecdysteroids, has produced abnormal development of male and female secondary sexual characters, as well as alteration of the sex ratio. Cadmium and copper have been shown to interfere with hormones that stimulate reprodn., such as Me farnesoate, as well as with the secretion of the gonad-inhibiting hormone, therefore affecting, for example, ovarian growth. Several heavy metals were able to produce hyperglycemia in crustaceans during short times of exposure while a hypoglycemic response was noted after longer exposures, due to inhibition of secretion of the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone. The ecol. relevance of EDCs on crustaceans is discussed, mainly in relation to the identification of useful biomarkers and sentinel species. New exptl. approaches are also proposed.
- 58Andersen, H. R.; Wollenberger, L.; Halling-Sørensen, B.; Kusk, K. O. Development of copepod nauplii to copepodites—a parameter for chronic toxicity including endocrine disruption. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2001, 20 (12), 2821– 2829, DOI: 10.1002/etc.5620201222[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar58https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXovVSnt7g%253D&md5=d5fc0f9af44b89dfd1a3132cee80ffebDevelopment of copepod nauplii to copepodites-a parameter for chronic toxicity including endocrine disruptionAndersen, Henrik Rasmus; Wollenberger, Leah; Halling-Sorensen, Bent; Kusk, Kresten OleEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2001), 20 (12), 2821-2829CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (SETAC Press)Test compds. including natural hormones, endocrine disrupters, environmentally occurring compds., and ref. compds. were tested for acute toxicity and inhibitory effect on larval development in the copepod Acartia tonsa. Three compds., 17α-ethinylestradiol, p-octylphenol, and tamoxifen, known for their differing effects on the vertebrate estrogen system, were potent inhibitors of naupliar development. Other estrogens, 17β-estradiol, estrone, and bisphenol A, had little potency. Testosterone and progesterone did not inhibit development, but the antiandrogen flutamide had inhibitory effect. Juvenile hormone III was a potent inhibitor, as was expected based on the literature, whereas 20-hydroxyecdysone had no effect. 3,4-Dichloroaniline was inhibitory on development, whereas other control compds., potassium dichromate and 3,5-dichlorophenol, did not inhibit development. Six of the 17 test compds. had 50% lethal concn. to 50% effective concn. (EC50) ratios higher than 10. The results suggest that naupliar development, as a parameter, is able to detect hormonal disrupters in addn. to other chems. that have other specific modes of action.
- 59Waddy, S.; Burridge, L.; Hamilton, M.; Mercer, S.; Aiken, D.; Haya, K. Rapid communication/communication rapide emamectin benzoate induces molting in American lobster, Homarus americanus. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2002, 59 (7), 1096– 1099, DOI: 10.1139/f02-106[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar59https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD38Xns1elt7o%253D&md5=fec66f4e4f0f6368223829260431af5cEmamectin benzoate induces molting in American lobster, Homarus americanusWaddy, S. L.; Burridge, L. E.; Hamilton, M. N.; Mercer, S. M.; Aiken, D. E.; Haya, K.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (2002), 59 (7), 1096-1099CODEN: CJFSDX; ISSN:0706-652X. (National Research Council of Canada)Emamectin benzoate (nominal dose 1 μg/g) caused female American lobster (Homarus americanus) to enter proecdysis and molt prematurely (44% vs. 0% of the control lobster). Lobster bearing eggs when proecdysis was induced aborted their broods. This chem. is the active ingredient in a new feed additive being used to control sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus spp.) infestations on farmed salmon (predominantly Salmo salar). The response of the American lobster to emamectin benzoate was unexpected, as avermectins inhibit or delay ecdysis in insects. The authors hypothesize that emamectin benzoate is interfering with the neuropeptides that modulate the prodn. of molting hormone in lobster and that the diametric response of insects and lobster to this chem. is due to the difference in the neuroendocrine control of the molting glands of these two groups of arthropods (inhibitory in crustaceans, but stimulatory in insects). This is the first report of a crustacean molting prematurely in response to chem. exposure and the first report that a GABAergic pesticide can cause premature molting in an arthropod.
- 60Guyon, A.; Smith, K. F.; Charry, M. P.; Champeau, O.; Tremblay, L. A. Effects of chronic exposure to benzophenone and diclofenac on DNA methylation levels and reproductive success in a marine copepod. J. Xenobiot. 2018, 8 (1), 7674, DOI: 10.4081/xeno.2018.7674[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar60https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtVCms7%252FJ&md5=78fb7b315660f7ed99cc55ef9c70cddbEffects of chronic exposure to benzophenone and diclofenac on DNA methylation levels and reproductive success in a marine copepodGuyon, Anais; Smith, Kirsty F.; Charry, Maria P.; Champeau, Olivier; Tremblay, Louis A.Journal of Xenobiotics (2018), 8 (1), 7674CODEN: JXOEA4; ISSN:2039-4713. (PAGEPress Publications)The UV-filter benzophenone and the anti-inflammatory diclofenac are commonly detected in the environment. The aim of this study was to assess the multigenerational effects of chronic exposure to low concns. of these chems. on toxicity and DNA methylation levels in the copepod Gladioferens pectinatus. Acute toxicity tests were conducted to det. the sensitivity of G. pectinatus to the chems. All chems. impacted breeding, hatching and egg viability. Diclofenac (1 mg.L-1) reduced the no. of eggs per gravid female. Benzophenone (0.5 mg.L-1) decreased egg hatching success. Exposure to the ref. toxicant copper (0.02 mg.L-1) led to unsuccessful hatching. Effects on DNA methylation was estd. by the percentage of 5- methylcytosine. The treatments resulted in strong differences in DNA methylation with increased methylation in the exposed animals. The two chems. impacted both egg viability and the induction of differential DNA methylation, suggesting potential intra- and trans-generational evolutionary effects.
- 61Jarry, H.; Christoffel, J.; Rimoldi, G.; Koch, L.; Wuttke, W. Multi-organic endocrine disrupting activity of the UV screen benzophenone 2 (BP2) in ovariectomized adult rats after 5 days treatment. Toxicology 2004, 205 (1–2), 87– 93, DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2004.06.040[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar61https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXotF2mtr0%253D&md5=441ca0e8a33b1c0930af369dbeaacbbeMulti-organic endocrine disrupting activity of the UV screen benzophenone 2 (BP2) in ovariectomized adult rats after 5 days treatmentJarry, Hubertus; Christoffel, Julie; Rimoldi, Guillermo; Koch, Lilli; Wuttke, WolfgangToxicology (2004), 205 (1-2), 87-93CODEN: TXCYAC; ISSN:0300-483X. (Elsevier B.V.)The chem. industry has developed sun protection factor products, which contain a variety of so-called "UV screens", among others, benzophenones (BP). Based on the structure it can be assumed, that the variant BP2 may be a potent estrogenic endocrine disrupter (ED). Only very limited data are available in the literature about such action of BP2, which focused on the uterotrophic effect in immature rats. However, detn. of ED activity in the uterus is only a restricted approach with the potential risk of missing undesirable actions. Therefore, we examd. a putative multiple organ ED activity of BP2 by measuring gene expression of marker genes in the uterus, liver, vagina and pituitary after 5 days oral application in adult ovariectomized (ovx) rats. An effect on lipid metab. was assessed by detn. of cholesterol, high- and low-d. lipoproteins (HDL and LDL) in the blood. As control compd., estradiol (E2) was included in the study. A dose dependent E2-agonistic activity was obsd. in the uterus (increased wt.), vagina (increased IGF1 expression), pituitary (reduced LH synthesis), liver (increased IGF1 expression) and lipid parameters (redn.). A non-E2-like action of BP2 was obsd. on T4- and T3-levels, which were significantly reduced. Except for the action of BP2 on thyroid hormone levels where it may inhibit thyroid peroxidase, this UV screen exerts clear E2-agonistic actions. Application of BP2 for 5 days proved to be a sufficient treatment period to unravel a multi-org. endocrine disrupting activity of this UV screen.
- 62Kim, S.; Jung, D.; Kho, Y.; Choi, K. Effects of benzophenone-3 exposure on endocrine disruption and reproduction of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)—A two generation exposure study. Aquat. Toxicol. 2014, 155, 244– 252, DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.07.004[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar62https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXht1OrurzI&md5=340208495d0d234f48c6abc8429c1894Effects of benzophenone-3 exposure on endocrine disruption and reproduction of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)-A two generation exposure studyKim, Sujin; Jung, Dawoon; Kho, Younglim; Choi, KyunghoAquatic Toxicology (2014), 155 (), 244-252CODEN: AQTODG; ISSN:0166-445X. (Elsevier B.V.)Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) has been widely used in sunscreens and cosmetics to protect human skin from the harmful effects of UV irradn. While BP-3 has been frequently detected in surface waters, sediments and biota, only limited information is available on its in vivo toxicity, particularly in fish. In the present study the endocrine disrupting capacity of BP-3 and its underlying mechanisms were investigated using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). Adult Japanese medaka pairs (F0) were exposed to 0, 4.7, 8.4, 26, or 90 μg/L (or 0, 15, 50, 150, or 500 μg/L of BP-3 based on nominal concn.) for 14 d and its effects on sex steroid hormones, and transcription of various assocd. genes were detd. Following addnl. 14 d of exposure, the F1 eggs reproduced were counted and were further exposed to 0, 5.4, 12, or 30 μg/L of BP-3 (or 0, 15, 50, or 150 μg/L based on nominal concns.) until 30 d after hatching. Chem. anal. of the exposed media confirmed transformation of BP-3 to benzophenone-1 (BP-1), a more potent estrogen agonist. After 14 d of the adult fish exposure, plasma concns. of testosterone (T) significantly increased in male fish. The 17β-estradiol (E2) to T (E2/T) ratio showed significant decreases in both male and female fish. Overall down-regulation of gonadal steroidogenic genes such as star, cyp11a, cyp17, hsd3b, hsd17b3, and cyp19a was also obsd. After 28 d of exposure, the daily av. egg reprodn. per female was significantly reduced at 26 μg/L of BP-3. However, hatchability of F1 eggs was not affected by continuous exposure. After continued exposure until 30 dph, juvenile fish showed concn.-dependent decrease of condition factor, but mortality was not affected. Our observation clearly indicates that endocrine balance and reprodn. performance in fish could be affected by μg/L level exposure to BP-3. Consequences of longer term exposure over multi-generations warrant further investigation.
- 63Kinnberg, K. L.; Petersen, G. I.; Albrektsen, M.; Minghlani, M.; Awad, S. M.; Holbech, B. F.; Green, J. W.; Bjerregaard, P.; Holbech, H. Endocrine-disrupting effect of the ultraviolet filter benzophenone-3 in zebrafish, Danio rerio. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2015, 34 (12), 2833– 2840, DOI: 10.1002/etc.3129[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar63https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhs1Ogsb7P&md5=d2b4b99ed6c7ece4f4aa6eaf3ee872dcEndocrine-disrupting effect of the ultraviolet filter benzophenone-3 in zebrafish, Danio rerioKinnberg, Karin L.; Petersen, Gitte I.; Albrektsen, Mette; Minghlani, Mita; Awad, Suad Mohamud; Holbech, Bente F.; Green, John W.; Bjerregaard, Poul; Holbech, HenrikEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2015), 34 (12), 2833-2840CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)The chem. UV filter benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is suspected to be an endocrine disruptor based on results from in vitro and in vivo testing. However, studies including endpoints of endocrine adversity are lacking. The present study investigated the potential endocrine-disrupting effects of BP-3 in zebrafish (Danio rerio) in the Fish Sexual Development Test (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development TG 234) and a 12-d adult male zebrafish study. In TG 234, exposure from 0 d to 60 d posthatch caused a monotone dose-dependent skewing of the phenotypic sex ratio toward fewer males and more female zebrafish (no obsd. effect concn. [NOEC]: 191 μg/L, lowest obsd. effect concn. [LOEC]: 388 μg/L). Besides, gonad maturation was affected in both female fish (NOEC 191 μg/L, LOEC 388 μg/L) and male fish (NOEC 388 μg/L, LOEC 470 μg/L). Exposure to BP-3 did not affect the vitellogenin concn. in TG 234. After 12 d exposure of adult male zebrafish, a slight yet significant increase in the vitellogenin concn. was obsd. at 268 μg/L but not at 63 μg/L and 437 μg/L BP-3. Skewing of the sex ratio is a marker of an endocrine-mediated mechanism as well as a marker of adversity, and therefore the conclusion of the present study is that BP-3 is an endocrine-disrupting chem. in accordance with the World Health Organization's definition. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;9999:1-8. © 2015 SETAC.
- 64Rochman, C. M.; Brookson, C.; Bikker, J.; Djuric, N.; Earn, A.; Bucci, K.; Athey, S.; Huntington, A.; McIlwraith, H.; Munno, K. Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2019, 38 (4), 703– 711, DOI: 10.1002/etc.4371[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar64https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXlvFehu7g%253D&md5=cedbc279d9fa5cbf9480d7c6cd995e42Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suiteRochman, Chelsea M.; Brookson, Cole; Bikker, Jacqueline; Djuric, Natasha; Earn, Arielle; Bucci, Kennedy; Athey, Samantha; Huntington, Aimee; McIlwraith, Hayley; Munno, Keenan; De Frond, Hannah; Kolomijeca, Anna; Erdle, Lisa; Grbic, Jelena; Bayoumi, Malak; Borrelle, Stephanie B.; Wu, Tina; Santoro, Samantha; Werbowski, Larissa M.; Zhu, Xia; Giles, Rachel K.; Hamilton, Bonnie M.; Thaysen, Clara; Kaura, Ashima; Klasios, Natasha; Ead, Lauren; Kim, Joel; Sherlock, Cassandra; Ho, Annissa; Hung, CharlotteEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2019), 38 (4), 703-711CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 65de Sá, L. C.; Oliveira, M.; Ribeiro, F.; Rocha, T. L.; Futter, M. N. Studies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future?. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 645, 1029– 1039, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.207[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar65https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtlOgsrjK&md5=3e5b1aadef8cabd1cb614a63c9303cbcStudies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future?de Sa, Luis Carlos; Oliveira, Miguel; Ribeiro, Francisca; Rocha, Thiago Lopes; Futter, Martyn NormanScience of the Total Environment (2018), 645 (), 1029-1039CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. The effects of microplastics (MP) on aquatic organisms are currently the subject of intense research. Here, we provide a crit. perspective on published studies of MP ingestion by aquatic biota. We summarize the available research on MP presence, behavior and effects on aquatic organisms monitored in the field and on lab. studies of the ecotoxicol. consequences of MP ingestion. We consider MP polymer type, shape, size as well as group of organisms studied and type of effect reported. Specifically, we evaluate whether or not the available lab. studies of MP are representative of the types of MPs found in the environment and whether or not they have reported on relevant groups or organisms. Anal. of the available data revealed that (1) despite their widespread detection in field-based studies, polypropylene, polyester and polyamide particles were under-represented in lab. studies; (2) fibers and fragments (800-1600 μm) are the most common form of MPs reported in animals collected from the field; (3) to date, most studies have been conducted on fish; knowledge is needed about the effects of MPs on other groups of organisms, esp. invertebrates. Furthermore, there are significant mismatches between the types of MP most commonly found in the environment or reported in field studies and those used in lab. expts. Finally, there is an overarching need to understand the mechanism of action and ecotoxicol. effects of environmentally relevant concns. of MPs on aquatic organism health.
- 66Lusher, A.; Welden, N.; Sobral, P.; Cole, M. Sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested by fish and invertebrates. Anal. Methods 2017, 9, 1346– 1360, DOI: 10.1039/C6AY02415G
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- 68Enders, K.; Lenz, R.; Stedmon, C. A.; Nielsen, T. G. Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics≥ 10 μm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distribution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 100 (1), 70– 81, DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.027[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar68https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhs1ehurjI&md5=a84c9a9e4238847d80bea39982655c07Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics ≥ 10 μm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distributionEnders, Kristina; Lenz, Robin; Stedmon, Colin A.; Nielsen, Torkel G.Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 100 (1), 70-81CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)We studied abundance, size and polymer type of microplastic down to 10 μm along a transect from the European Coast to the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (NASG) using an underway intake filtration technique and Raman micro-spectrometry. Concns. ranged from 13 to 501 items m- 3. Highest concns. were obsd. at the European coast, decreasing towards mid-Atlantic waters but elevated in the western NASG. We obsd. highest nos. among particles in the 10-20 μm size fraction, whereas the total vol. was highest in the 50-80 μm range. Based on a numerical model size-dependent depth profiles of polyethylene microspheres in a range from 10-1000 μm were calcd. and show a strong dispersal throughout the surface mixed layer for sizes smaller than 200 μm. From model and field study results we conclude that small microplastic is ubiquitously distributed over the ocean surface layer and has a lower residence time than larger plastic debris in this compartment.
- 69Huvet, A.; Paul-Pont, I.; Fabioux, C.; Lambert, C.; Suquet, M.; Thomas, Y.; Robbens, J.; Soudant, P.; Sussarellu, R. Reply to Lenz et al.: Quantifying the smallest microplastics is the challenge for a comprehensive view of their environmental impacts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (29), E4123– E4124, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1607221113[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar69https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtF2ht7fM&md5=f34e9366bfe83a8e6f58a5002bf765b1Reply to Lenz et al.: Quantifying the smallest microplastics is the challenge for a comprehensive view of their environmental impactsHuvet, Arnaud; Paul-Pont, Ika; Fabioux, Caroline; Lambert, Christophe; Suquet, Marc; Thomas, Yoann; Robbens, Johan; Soudant, Philippe; Sussarellu, RossanaProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (29), E4123-E4124CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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Abstract
Figure 1
Figure 1. Ingestion and egestion of microplastics by juvenile Calanus finmarchicus: (A) nylon fibers (10 × 30 μm) in the intestinal tract; (B) nylon granules (10–30 μm) in the faecal pellets. Nylon microplastics were fluorescently dyed with Nile Red and visualized under stereo microscope (Leica MZAPO/Nikon DigitalSight Fi1-U2) equipped with a Leica “green” fluorescent filter (excitation 546/10 nm, dichroic splitter 565 nm and emission OG590). Yellow bars: 100 μm.
Figure 2
Figure 2. Juvenile Calanus finmarchicus ingestion rates (μg C individual–1 day–1) for: (A) D. tertiolecta; (B) T. rotula; (C) S. trochoidea; and (D) total algae. Results displayed as mean with standard error. * denotes significant different from control (P < 0.05).
Figure 3
Figure 3. Impact of fibrous and particulate microplastics on lipid accumulation in C. finmarchicus. The lipid mass (μg) of juvenile (CV), female and male C. finmarchicus prior to the start of experiment (Tzero; checked pattern) and following a 6-day exposure period. Treatments: control (white), nylon fibers (light gray), and nylon granules (dark gray). Letters show significant difference between treatments (ANOVA with posthoc Tukey).
Figure 4
Figure 4. Impact of fibrous and particulate microplastics on moulting in C. finmarchicus. Percentage of copepods which moulted on each day of the exposure period. Treatments: control (white), nylon fibers (light gray), and nylon granules (dark gray). Letters denote significant difference (in moulting each day) between treatments (P < 0.05).
References
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- 8Steer, M.; Cole, M.; Thompson, R. C.; Lindeque, P. K. Microplastic ingestion in fish larvae in the western English Channel. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 226, 250– 259, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.062[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar8https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXlvFWksLw%253D&md5=b5b6cd1fb11a39be50416c815a6967ddMicroplastic ingestion in fish larvae in the western English ChannelSteer, Madeleine; Cole, Matthew; Thompson, Richard C.; Lindeque, Penelope K.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 226 (), 250-259CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics have been documented in marine environments worldwide, where they pose a potential risk to biota. Environmental interactions between microplastics and lower trophic organisms are poorly understood. Coastal shelf seas are rich in productivity but also experience high levels of microplastic pollution. In these habitats, fish have an important ecol. and economic role. In their early life stages, planktonic fish larvae are vulnerable to pollution, environmental stress and predation. Here we assess the occurrence of microplastic ingestion in wild fish larvae. Fish larvae and water samples were taken across three sites (10, 19 and 35 km from shore) in the western English Channel from Apr. to June 2016. We identified 2.9% of fish larvae (n = 347) had ingested microplastics, of which 66% were blue fibers; ingested microfibers closely resembled those identified within water samples. With distance from the coast, larval fish d. increased significantly (P < 0.05), while waterborne microplastic concns. (P < 0.01) and incidence of ingestion decreased. This study provides baseline ecol. data illustrating the correlation between waterborne microplastics and the incidence of ingestion in fish larvae.
- 9Catarino, A. I.; Macchia, V.; Sanderson, W. G.; Thompson, R. C.; Henry, T. B. Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a meal. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 237, 675– 684, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.069[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXmslKgsL4%253D&md5=dac088cbcc8ee70be22890b37a71c2d3Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a mealCatarino, Ana I.; Macchia, Valeria; Sanderson, William G.; Thompson, Richard C.; Henry, Theodore B.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 237 (), 675-684CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics (MPs) are the most numerous debris reported in marine environments and assessment of the amts. of MPs that accumulate in wild organisms is necessary for risk assessment. Our objective was to assess MP contamination in mussels collected around the coast of Scotland (UK) to identify characteristics of MPs and to evaluate risk of human exposure to MPs via ingestion of mussels. We deployed caged mussels (Mytilus edulis) in an urbanised estuary (Edinburgh, UK) to assess seasonal changes in plastic pollution, and collected mussels (Mytilus spp and subtidal Modiolus modiolus) from eight sampling stations around Scotland to enumerate MP types at different locations. We detd. the potential exposure of humans to household dust fibers during a meal to compare with amts. of MPs present in edible mussels. The mean no. of MPs in M. modiolus was 0.086 ± 0.031 (SE, n = 6)/g ww (3.5 ± 1.29 (SE) per mussel). In Mytilus spp, the mean no. of MPs/g ww was 3.0 ± 0.9 (SE, n = 36) (3.2 ± 0.52 (SE) per mussel), but wt. dependent. The visual accuracy of plastic fibers identification was estd. to be between 48 and 50%, using Nile Red staining and FT-IR methodologies, resp., halving the obsd. amts. of MPs in wild mussels. We obsd. an allometric relationship between the no. of MPs and the mussels wet wt. Our predictions of MPs ingestion by humans via consumption of mussels is 123 MP particles/y/capita in the UK and can go up to 4620 particles/y/capita in countries with a higher shellfish consumption. By comparison, the risk of plastic ingestion via mussel consumption is minimal when compared to fiber exposure during a meal via dust fallout in a household (13,731-68,415 particles/Y/capita).
- 10Foekema, E. M.; De Gruijter, C.; Mergia, M. T.; van Franeker, J. A.; Murk, A. J.; Koelmans, A. A. Plastic in north sea fish. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (15), 8818– 8824, DOI: 10.1021/es400931b[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXps1yhsb0%253D&md5=bf0bbc5ff3362617958275fb125f91ebPlastic in North Sea FishFoekema, Edwin M.; De Gruijter, Corine; Mergia, Mekuria T.; van Franeker, Jan Andries; Murk, AlberTinka J.; Koelmans, Albert A.Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (15), 8818-8824CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)To quantify the occurrence of ingested plastic in fish species caught at different geog. positions in the North Sea, and to test whether the fish condition is affected by ingestion of plastics, 1203 individual fish of seven common North Sea species were investigated: herring, gray gurnard, whiting, horse mackerel, haddock, atlantic mackerel, and cod. Plastic particles were found in 2.6% of the examd. fish and in five of the seven species. No plastics were found in gray gurnard and mackerel. In most cases, only one particle was found per fish, ranging in size from 0.04 to 4.8 mm. Only particles larger than 0.2 mm, being the diam. of the sieve used, were considered for the data analyses, resulting in a median particle size of 0.8 mm. The frequency of fish with plastic was significantly higher (5.4%) in the southern North Sea, than in the northern North Sea above 55°N (1.2%). The highest frequency (>33%) was found in cod from the English Channel. In addn., small fibers were initially detected in most of the samples, but their abundance sharply decreased when working under special clean air conditions. Therefore, these fibers were considered to be artifacts related to air born contamination and were excluded from the analyses. No relationship was found between the condition factor (size-wt. relationship) of the fish and the presence of ingested plastic particles.
- 11Lusher, A.; McHugh, M.; Thompson, R. Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English Channel. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2013, 67 (1–2), 94– 99, DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.11.028[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhvFShur%252FK&md5=2de62445e1e724b0a13c8f9933bab796Occurrence of microplastics in the gastrointestinal tract of pelagic and demersal fish from the English ChannelLusher, A. L.; McHugh, M.; Thompson, R. C.Marine Pollution Bulletin (2013), 67 (1-2), 94-99CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics are present in marine habitats worldwide and lab. studies show this material can be ingested, yet data on abundance in natural populations is limited. This study documents microplastics in 10 species of fish from the English Channel. 504 Fish were examd. and plastics found in the gastrointestinal tracts of 36.5%. All five pelagic species and all five demersal species had ingested plastic. Of the 184 fish that had ingested plastic the av. no. of pieces per fish was 1.90 ± 0.10. A total of 351 pieces of plastic were identified using FT-IR Spectroscopy; polyamide (35.6%) and the semi-synthetic cellulosic material, rayon (57.8%) were most common. There was no significant difference between the abundance of plastic ingested by pelagic and demersal fish. Hence, microplastic ingestion appears to be common, in relatively small quantities, across a range of fish species irresp. of feeding habitat. Further work is needed to establish the potential consequences.
- 12Duncan, E. M.; Broderick, A. C.; Fuller, W. J.; Galloway, T. S.; Godfrey, M. H.; Hamann, M.; Limpus, C. J.; Lindeque, P. K.; Mayes, A. G.; Omeyer, L. C. Microplastic ingestion ubiquitous in marine turtles. Global change biology 2019, 25 (2), 744– 752, DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14519[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3crosV2hsg%253D%253D&md5=2cc9c1a70b0768e1b5f33e2372b81e89Microplastic ingestion ubiquitous in marine turtlesDuncan Emily M; Broderick Annette C; Fuller Wayne J; Omeyer Lucy C M; Snape Robin T E; Godley Brendan J; Duncan Emily M; Galloway Tamara S; Duncan Emily M; Lindeque Penelope K; Fuller Wayne J; Fuller Wayne J; Snape Robin T E; Godfrey Matthew H; Hamann Mark; Limpus Colin J; Mayes Andrew G; Santillo DavidGlobal change biology (2019), 25 (2), 744-752 ISSN:.Despite concerns regarding the environmental impacts of microplastics, knowledge of the incidence and levels of synthetic particles in large marine vertebrates is lacking. Here, we utilize an optimized enzymatic digestion methodology, previously developed for zooplankton, to explore whether synthetic particles could be isolated from marine turtle ingesta. We report the presence of synthetic particles in every turtle subjected to investigation (n = 102) which included individuals from all seven species of marine turtle, sampled from three ocean basins (Atlantic [ATL]: n = 30, four species; Mediterranean (MED): n = 56, two species; Pacific (PAC): n = 16, five species). Most particles (n = 811) were fibres (ATL: 77.1% MED: 85.3% PAC: 64.8%) with blue and black being the dominant colours. In lesser quantities were fragments (ATL: 22.9%: MED: 14.7% PAC: 20.2%) and microbeads (4.8%; PAC only; to our knowledge the first isolation of microbeads from marine megavertebrates). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) of a subsample of particles (n = 169) showed a range of synthetic materials such as elastomers (MED: 61.2%; PAC: 3.4%), thermoplastics (ATL: 36.8%: MED: 20.7% PAC: 27.7%) and synthetic regenerated cellulosic fibres (SRCF; ATL: 63.2%: MED: 5.8% PAC: 68.9%). Synthetic particles being isolated from species occupying different trophic levels suggest the possibility of multiple ingestion pathways. These include exposure from polluted seawater and sediments and/or additional trophic transfer from contaminated prey/forage items. We assess the likelihood that microplastic ingestion presents a significant conservation problem at current levels compared to other anthropogenic threats.
- 13Nelms, S.; Barnett, J.; Brownlow, A.; Davison, N.; Deaville, R.; Galloway, T.; Lindeque, P.; Santillo, D.; Godley, B. Microplastics in marine mammals stranded around the British coast: ubiquitous but transitory?. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9 (1), 1075, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37428-3[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cjns1ChtQ%253D%253D&md5=a437a9569a70f49aa26235bb1209ca5fMicroplastics in marine mammals stranded around the British coast: ubiquitous but transitory?Nelms S E; Lindeque P K; Nelms S E; Godley B J; Barnett J; Godley B J; Brownlow A; Davison N J; Deaville R; Galloway T S; Santillo DScientific reports (2019), 9 (1), 1075 ISSN:.Plastic pollution represents a pervasive and increasing threat to marine ecosystems worldwide and there is a need to better understand the extent to which microplastics (<5 mm) are ingested by high trophic-level taxa, such as marine mammals. Here, we perform a comprehensive assessment by examining whole digestive tracts of 50 individuals from 10 species whilst operating strict contamination controls. Microplastics were ubiquitous with particles detected in every animal examined. The relatively low number per animal (mean = 5.5) suggests these particles are transitory. Stomachs, however, were found to contain a greater number than intestines, indicating a potential site of temporary retention. The majority of particles were fibres (84%) while the remaining 16% was fragments. Particles were mainly blue and black (42.5% and 26.4%) in colour and Nylon was the most prevalent (60%) polymer type. A possible relationship was found between the cause of death category and microplastic abundance, indicating that animals that died due to infectious diseases had a slightly higher number of particles than those that died of trauma and other drivers of mortality. It is not possible, however, to draw any firm conclusions on the potential biological significance of this observation and further research is required to better understand the potential chronic effects of microplastic exposure on animal health, particularly as marine mammals are widely considered important sentinels for the implications of pollution for the marine environment.
- 14Meeker, J. D.; Sathyanarayana, S.; Swan, S. H. Phthalates and other additives in plastics: human exposure and associated health outcomes. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., B 2009, 364 (1526), 2097– 2113, DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0268[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar14https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXpt1Skt7Y%253D&md5=218e195cb18f037242d34befa7ffc995Phthalates and other additives in plastics: human exposure and associated health outcomesMeeker, John D.; Sathyanarayana, Sheela; Swan, Shanna H.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences (2009), 364 (1526), 2097-2113CODEN: PTRBAE; ISSN:0962-8436. (Royal Society)A review. Concern exists over whether additives in plastics to which most people are exposed, such as phthalates, bisphenol A or polybrominated di-Ph ethers, may cause harm to human health by altering endocrine function or through other biol. mechanisms. Human data are limited compared with the large body of exptl. evidence documenting reproductive or developmental toxicity in relation to these compds. Here, we discuss the current state of human evidence, as well as future research trends and needs. Because exposure assessment is often a major weakness in epidemiol. studies, and in utero exposures to reproductive or developmental toxicants are important, we also provide original data on maternal exposure to phthalates during and after pregnancy (n = 242). Phthalate metabolite concns. in urine showed weak correlations between pre- and post-natal samples, though the strength of the relationship increased when duration between the two samples decreased. Phthalate metabolite levels also tended to be higher in post-natal samples. In conclusion, there is a great need for more human studies of adverse health effects assocd. with plastic additives. Recent advances in the measurement of exposure biomarkers hold much promise in improving the epidemiol. data, but their utility must be understood to facilitate appropriate study design.
- 15Johansen, M. P.; Prentice, E.; Cresswell, T.; Howell, N. Initial data on adsorption of Cs and Sr to the surfaces of microplastics with biofilm. J. Environ. Radioact. 2018, 190, 130– 133, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.05.001[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXpvVKlsro%253D&md5=96a28deed96ec3aa8019452c724e5548Initial data on adsorption of Cs and Sr to the surfaces of microplastics with biofilmJohansen, Mathew P.; Prentice, Emily; Cresswell, Tom; Howell, NickJournal of Environmental Radioactivity (2018), 190-191 (), 130-133CODEN: JERAEE; ISSN:0265-931X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The adsorption of radiocesium and radiostrontium onto a range of natural materials has been well quantified, but not for the new media of environmental plastics, which may have enhanced adsorption due to surface-weathering and development of biofilms. Microplastic samples were deployed in freshwater, estuarine and marine conditions, then characterised using IR spectroscopy to document changes to the plastic surface (vs interior). Synchrotron elemental mapping data revealed surfaces that were well-covered by accumulation of reactive water solutes and sulfur, but, in contrast, had highly discrete coverage of elements such as Fe and Ti, indicating adhered mineral/clay-assocd. agglomerates that may increase overall adsorption capacity. Plastics that had been deployed for nearly five months adsorbed radionuclides in both freshwater and estuarine conditions with the highest Kd for cesium (Cs) in freshwater (80 mL g-1) and lowest for strontium (Sr) in estuarine conditions (5 mL g-1). The degree of Cs and Sr adsorption onto plastics appears to be approx. 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than for sediment ref. values. While lower than for sediments, adsorption occurred on all samples and may indicate a significant radionuclide reservoir, given that plastics are relatively buoyant and mobile in water regimes, and are increasing in global aquatic systems.
- 16Zuo, L.-Z.; Li, H.-X.; Lin, L.; Sun, Y.-X.; Diao, Z.-H.; Liu, S.; Zhang, Z.-Y.; Xu, X.-R. Sorption and desorption of phenanthrene on biodegradable poly (butylene adipate co-terephtalate) microplastics. Chemosphere 2019, 215, 25– 32, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.09.173[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar16https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhvVOjsbbP&md5=aaa92121f7735e935d59e8cc167f365dSorption and desorption of phenanthrene on biodegradable poly(butylene adipate co-terephtalate) microplasticsZuo, Lin-Zi; Li, Heng-Xiang; Lin, Lang; Sun, Yu-Xin; Diao, Zeng-Hui; Liu, Shan; Zhang, Zong-Yao; Xu, Xiang-RongChemosphere (2019), 215 (), 25-32CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.)Biodegradable plastics, as alternatives to conventional plastics, are increasingly used, but their interactions with org. pollutants are still unknown. In this study, the sorption and desorption behaviors on a type of biodegradable plastic-poly(butylene adipate co-terephtalate) (PBAT) were investigated, and at the same time two types of conventional plastics-polyethylene (PEc and PEv) and polystyrene (PS) were used for comparison. Phenanthrene (PHEN) was chosen as one of representative org. pollutants. Results indicated that the sorption and desorption capacities of PBAT were not only higher than those of the other types of microplastics, but also higher than those of carbonaceous geosorbents. The surface area normalized results illustrated that sorption and desorption of the microplastics were pos. correlated with their abundance of rubbery subfraction. The sorption kinetic results showed that the sorption rates of PBAT and PEc were higher than PEv and PS. The effects of water chem. factors including salinity, dissolved org. matter and Cu2+ ion on the sorption process displayed the same trend, but the degrees of influence on the four microplastics differed. The degrees of influence were mainly dependent on the abundance of rubbery subfraction for microplastics. These findings indicate that the biodegradable poly(butylene adipate co-terephtalate) microplastics are actually stronger vectors than the conventional microplastics, and crystn. characteristics of the microplastics have great influences on the vector effect.
- 17Muller-Karanassos, C.; Turner, A.; Arundel, W.; Vance, T.; Lindeque, P. K.; Cole, M. Antifouling paint particles in intertidal estuarine sediments from southwest England and their ingestion by the harbour ragworm, Hediste diversicolor. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 249, 163– 170, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.009[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXltFOqsLw%253D&md5=8f68420b3b1aa01dd81105656be520ceAntifouling paint particles in intertidal estuarine sediments from southwest England and their ingestion by the harbour ragworm, Hediste diversicolorMuller-Karanassos, Christina; Turner, Andrew; Arundel, William; Vance, Tom; Lindeque, Penelope K.; Cole, MatthewEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 249 (), 163-170CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Antifouling paint particles (APPs) of between 500 μm and >2 mm in diam. have been identified in silty, intertidal estuarine sediments through a combination of microscopy and x-ray fluorescence spectrometry. APPs were heterogeneously distributed, with maximal concns. of 430 particles L-1 (0.2 g L-1) near to a facility where boats are regularly maintained and 400 particles L-1 (4.2 g L-1) at a location where old boats had been abandoned, with the majority of particles encountered in the finest size fraction retrieved. APPs contained variable concns. of Cu, Zn, Sn and Pb, with resp.maxima of 562,000, 269,000, 9,970 and 126,000 mg kg-1. These characteristics are attributed to a multitude of contemporary and historic sources of an assortment of formulations and result in significant but heterogeneous metal contamination of local sediments. APPs were also identified in the guts of the deposit-feeding ragworm, Hediste diversicolor, that inhabited sediments impacted by abandoned boats or boating activities. The tissue of H.diversicolor was particularly enriched in Cu where ingested APPs were obsd., with a significant correlation between dry wt. While the toxicity of APPs requires further investigation, there is clearly a need for stricter regulations on antifouling wastes in boatyards and marinas and a requirement to better manage abandoned boats. Cu concns. in the two media (r = 0.734) presumably reflecting the inability of the animal to regulate this metal.
- 18Syberg, K.; Nielsen, A.; Khan, F. R.; Banta, G. T.; Palmqvist, A.; Jepsen, P. M. Microplastic potentiates triclosan toxicity to the marine copepod Acartia tonsa (Dana). J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A 2017, 80 (23–24), 1369– 1371, DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1385046[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhvVWmsr%252FE&md5=e50499c6b81768f8c6e691524d722cdcMicroplastic potentiates triclosan toxicity to the marine copepod Acartia tonsa (Dana)Syberg, Kristian; Nielsen, Anne; Khan, Farhan R.; Banta, Gary T.; Palmqvist, Annemette; Jepsen, Per M.Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A: Current Issues (2017), 80 (23-24), 1369-1371CODEN: JTEHF8; ISSN:1528-7394. (Taylor & Francis, Inc.)Microplastics (MP) are contaminants of environmental concern partly due to plastics ability to sorb and transport hydrophobic org. contaminants (HOC). The importance of this "vector effect" is currently being debated in the scientific community. This debate largely ignores that the co-exposures of MP and HOC are mixts. of hazardous agents, which can be addressed from a mixt. toxicity perspective. In this study, mixt. effects of polyethylene microbeads (MP) and triclosan (TCS) (a commonly used antibacterial agent in cosmetics) were assessed on the marine copepod Acartia tonsa. Data indicated that MP potentiate the toxicity of TCS, illustrating the importance of understanding the mixt. interaction between plastics and HOC when addressing the environmental importance of the vector effect.
- 19Wright, S.; Rowe, D.; Thompson, R. C.; Galloway, T. S. Microplastic ingestion decreases energy reserves in marine worms. Curr. Biol. 2013, 23 (23), 1031– 1033, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.10.068[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar19https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFOhu7fM&md5=fd7785903665a6118172c54e87fa03e1Microplastic ingestion decreases energy reserves in marine wormsWright, Stephanie L.; Rowe, Darren; Thompson, Richard C.; Galloway, Tamara S.Current Biology (2013), 23 (23), R1031-R1033CODEN: CUBLE2; ISSN:0960-9822. (Cell Press)Deposit-feeding marine worms maintained in sediments spiked with microscopic unplasticised polyvinylchloride (UPVC) at concns. overlapping those in the environment had significantly depleted energy reserves by ≤50%. Our results suggest that depleted energy reserves arise from a combination of reduced feeding activity, longer gut residence times of ingested material, and inflammation.
- 20Wegner, A.; Besseling, E.; Foekema, E.; Kamermans, P.; Koelmans, A. Effects of nanopolystyrene on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2012, 31 (11), 2490– 2497, DOI: 10.1002/etc.1984[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar20https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xhs1Khtr%252FE&md5=7954afa820255d63b729a3ed0bf93d85Effects of nanopolystyrene on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.)Wegner, A.; Besseling, E.; Foekema, E. M.; Kamermans, P.; Koelmans, A. A.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2012), 31 (11), 2490-2497CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)As the industrial prodn. of nanoplastic and the degrdn. of microplastic into smaller particles at sea increase, the potential amt. of nanoplastics in the marine environment rises. It has been reported that mussels uptake 100-nm polystyrene (PS) beads; to date, however, the effects of this uptake on the organism are unknown. In the present study, the authors investigated the effects of 30-nm PS on the feeding behavior of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) by exposing the organism to different nano PS and different algae (Pavlova lutheri) concns. The state of nano PS aggregation in the exposure medium was assessed using dynamic light scattering. In all treatments that contained nano PS, M. edulis produced pseudofeces. The total wt. of the feces and pseudofeces increased with increasing nano PS and increasing algae concn. Furthermore, M. edulis reduced its filtering activity when nano PS was present but still caused a decrease in the apparent nano PS concn. in the water. The presence of nano PS around the foot of M. edulis after the bioassay confirmed that the organism removed nano PS from the water. Chronic effect studies are therefore needed to investigate the effects of nanoplastics in M. edulis and possible consequences for its predators, including humans.
- 21Besseling, E.; Wegner, A.; Foekema, E. M.; van den Heuvel-Greve, M. J.; Koelmans, A. A. Effects of Microplastic on Fitness and PCB Bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (1), 593– 600, DOI: 10.1021/es302763x[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar21https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhslaksL%252FK&md5=ce3dc18bddc466d67e46bc8a621eca53Effects of Microplastic on Fitness and PCB Bioaccumulation by the Lugworm Arenicola marina (L.)Besseling, Ellen; Wegner, Anna; Foekema, Edwin M.; van den Heuvel-Greve, Martine J.; Koelmans, Albert A.Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (1), 593-600CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)It has been speculated that marine microplastics may cause neg. effects on benthic marine organisms and increase bioaccumulation of persistent org. pollutants (POPs). Here, we provide the first controlled study of plastic effects on benthic organisms including transfer of POPs. The effects of polystyrene (PS) microplastic on survival, activity, and bodyweight, as well as the transfer of 19 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), were assessed in bioassays with Arenicola marina (L.). PS was preequilibrated in natively contaminated sediment. A pos. relation was obsd. between microplastic concn. in the sediment and both uptake of plastic particles and wt. loss by A. marina. Furthermore, a redn. in feeding activity was obsd. at a PS dose of 7.4% dry wt. A low PS dose of 0.074% increased bioaccumulation of PCBs by a factor of 1.1-3.6, an effect that was significant for ΣPCBs and several individual congeners. At higher doses, bioaccumulation decreased compared to the low dose, which however, was only significant for PCB105. PS had statistically significant effects on the organisms' fitness and bioaccumulation, but the magnitude of the effects was not high. This may be different for sites with different plastic concns., or plastics with a higher affinity for POPs.
- 22Cole, M.; Lindeque, P.; Fileman, E.; Halsband, C.; Galloway, T. The impact of polystyrene microplastics on feeding, function and fecundity in the marine copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (2), 1130– 1137, DOI: 10.1021/es504525u[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXkvFemsw%253D%253D&md5=324a25f2226a3f52ebc6e0f85784ac7cThe Impact of Polystyrene Microplastics on Feeding, Function and Fecundity in the Marine Copepod Calanus helgolandicusCole, Matthew; Lindeque, Pennie; Fileman, Elaine; Halsband, Claudia; Galloway, Tamara S.Environmental Science & Technology (2015), 49 (2), 1130-1137CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Microscopic plastic debris, termed "microplastics", are of increasing environmental concern. Recent studies have demonstrated that a range of zooplankton, including copepods, can ingest microplastics. Copepods are a globally abundant class of zooplankton that form a key trophic link between primary producers and higher trophic marine organisms. Ingestion of microplastics can significantly alter the feeding capacity of the pelagic copepod Calanus helgolandicus. Exposed to 20 μm polystyrene beads (75 microplastics mL-1) and cultured algae (250 μg C L-1) for 24 h, C. helgolandicus ingested 11% fewer algal cells and 40% less carbon biomass. There was a net downward shift in the mean size of algal prey consumed, with a 3.6-fold increase in ingestion rate for the smallest size class of algal prey (11.6-12.6 μm), suggestive of postcapture or postingestion rejection. Prolonged exposure to polystyrene microplastics significantly decreased reproductive output, but there were no significant differences in egg prodn. rates, respiration or survival. The authors constructed a conceptual energetic (carbon) budget showing that microplastic-exposed copepods suffer energetic depletion over time. The authors conclude that microplastics impede feeding in copepods, which over time could lead to sustained redns. in ingested carbon biomass.
- 23Sussarellu, R.; Suquet, M.; Thomas, Y.; Lambert, C.; Fabioux, C.; Pernet, M. E. J.; Le Goïc, N.; Quillien, V.; Mingant, C.; Epelboin, Y. Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplastics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (9), 2430– 2435, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1519019113[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhslWgsLw%253D&md5=3e45fdb2ecf3e34e4c4e64bac9811336Oyster reproduction is affected by exposure to polystyrene microplasticsSussarellu, Rossana; Suquet, Marc; Thomas, Yoann; Lambert, Christophe; Fabioux, Caroline; Pernet, Marie Eve Julie; Le Goic, Nelly; Quillien, Virgile; Mingant, Christian; Epelboin, Yanouk; Corporeau, Charlotte; Guyomarch, Julien; Robbens, Johan; Paul-Pont, Ika; Soudant, Philippe; Huvet, ArnaudProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (9), 2430-2435CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Plastics are persistent synthetic polymers that accumulate as waste in the marine environment. Microplastic (MP) particles are derived from the breakdown of larger debris or can enter the environment as microscopic fragments. Because filter-feeder organisms ingest MP while feeding, they are likely to be impacted by MP pollution. To assess the impact of polystyrene microspheres (micro-PS) on the physiol. of the Pacific oyster, adult oysters were exptl. exposed to virgin micro-PS (2 and 6 μm in diam.; 0.023 mg·L-1) for 2 mo during a reproductive cycle. Effects were investigated on ecophysiol. parameters; cellular, transcriptomic, and proteomic responses; fecundity; and offspring development. Oysters preferentially ingested the 6-μm micro-PS over the 2-μm-diam. particles. Consumption of microalgae and absorption efficiency were significantly higher in exposed oysters, suggesting compensatory and phys. effects on both digestive parameters. After 2 mo, exposed oysters had significant decreases in oocyte no. (-38%), diam. (-5%), and sperm velocity (-23%). The D-larval yield and larval development of offspring derived from exposed parents decreased by 41% and 18%, resp., compared with control offspring. Dynamic energy budget modeling, supported by transcriptomic profiles, suggested a significant shift of energy allocation from reprodn. to structural growth, and elevated maintenance costs in exposed oysters, which is thought to be caused by interference with energy uptake. Mol. signatures of endocrine disruption were also revealed, but no endocrine disruptors were found in the biol. samples. This study provides evidence that micro-PS cause feeding modifications and reproductive disruption in oysters, with significant impacts on offspring.
- 24Cole, M.; Lindeque, P. K.; Fileman, E.; Clark, J.; Lewis, C.; Halsband, C.; Galloway, T. S. Microplastics alter the properties and sinking rates of zooplankton faecal pellets. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 3239– 3246, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05905[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar24https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XivVOjsrY%253D&md5=35bbb9a3be687aae282045b94313bb47Microplastics Alter the Properties and Sinking Rates of Zooplankton Fecal PelletsCole, Matthew; Lindeque, Penelope K.; Fileman, Elaine; Clark, James; Lewis, Ceri; Halsband, Claudia; Galloway, Tamara S.Environmental Science & Technology (2016), 50 (6), 3239-3246CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Plastic debris is a widespread contaminant, prevalent in aquatic ecosystems across the globe. Zooplankton readily ingest microscopic plastic (microplastic, <1 mm), which are later egested within their fecal pellets. These pellets are a source of food for marine organisms, and contribute to the oceanic vertical flux of particulate org. matter as part of the biol. pump. The effects of microplastics on fecal pellet properties are currently unknown. We test the hypotheses that (1) fecal pellets are a vector for transport of microplastics, (2) polystyrene microplastics can alter the properties and sinking rates of zooplankton egests and, (3) fecal pellets can facilitate the transfer of plastics to coprophagous biota. Following exposure to 20.6 μm polystyrene microplastics (1000 microplastics/mL) and natural prey (∼1650 algae/mL) the copepod Calanus helgolandicus egested fecal pellets with significantly (p <0.001) reduced densities, a 2.25-fold redn. in sinking rates, and a higher propensity for fragmentation. We further show that microplastics, encapsulated within egests of the copepod Centropages typicus, could be transferred to C. helgolandicus via coprophagy. Our results support the proposal that sinking fecal matter represents a mechanism by which floating plastics can be vertically transported away from surface waters.
- 25Galloway, T. S.; Cole, M.; Lewis, C. Interactions of microplastic debris throughout the marine ecosystem. Nature Ecology & Evolution 2017, 1 (5), s41559, DOI: 10.1038/s41559-017-0116
- 26Irigoien, X.; Harris, R. P.; Verheye, H. M.; Joly, P.; Runge, J.; Starr, M.; Pond, D.; Campbell, R.; Shreeve, R.; Ward, P. Copepod hatching success in marine ecosystems with high diatom concentrations. Nature 2002, 419 (6905), 387– 389, DOI: 10.1038/nature01055[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar26https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD38XntlGgsbs%253D&md5=eae19663b0e7956c659d9d0e07f20770Copepod hatching success in marine ecosystems with high diatom concentrationsIrigoien, Xabier; Harris, Roger P.; Verheye, Hans M.; Joly, Pierre; Runge, Jeffrey; Starr, Michel; Pond, David; Campbell, Robert; Shreeve, Rachael; Ward, Peter; Smith, Amy N.; Dam, Hans G.; Peterson, William; Tirelli, Valentina; Koski, Marja; Smith, Tania; Harbour, Derek; Davidson, RussellNature (London, United Kingdom) (2002), 419 (6905), 387-389CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)Diatoms dominate spring bloom phytoplankton assemblages in temperate waters and coastal upwelling regions of the global ocean. Copepods usually dominate the zooplankton in these regions and are the prey of many larval fish species. Recent lab. studies suggest that diatoms may have a deleterious effect on the success of copepod egg hatching. These findings challenge the classical view of marine food-web energy flow from diatoms to fish by means of copepods. Egg mortality is an important factor in copepod population dynamics, thus, if diatoms have a deleterious in situ effect, paradoxically, high diatom abundance could limit secondary prodn. Therefore, the current understanding of energy transfer from primary prodn. to fisheries in some of the most productive and economically important marine ecosystems may be seriously flawed. Here we present in situ ests. of copepod egg hatching success from twelve globally distributed areas, where diatoms dominate the phytoplankton assemblage. We did not observe a neg. relationship between copepod egg hatching success and either diatom biomass or dominance in the microplankton in any of these regions. The classical model for diatom-dominated system remains valid.
- 27Cole, M.; Lindeque, P.; Fileman, E.; Halsband, C.; Goodhead, R.; Moger, J.; Galloway, T. S. Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (12), 6646– 6655, DOI: 10.1021/es400663f[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar27https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXnvFSksr8%253D&md5=e0f6677a3d6ca22597e3047732c188eaMicroplastic Ingestion by ZooplanktonCole, Matthew; Lindeque, Pennie; Fileman, Elaine; Halsband, Claudia; Goodhead, Rhys; Moger, Julian; Galloway, Tamara S.Environmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (12), 6646-6655CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Small plastic detritus, termed microplastics, are a widespread and ubiquitous contaminant of marine ecosystems across the globe. Ingestion of microplastics by marine biota, including mussels, worms, fish, and seabirds, has been widely reported, but despite their vital ecol. role in marine food-webs, the impact of microplastics on zooplankton remains under-researched. We show that microplastics are ingested by, and may impact upon, zooplankton. We used bioimaging techniques to document ingestion, egestion, and adherence of microplastics in a range of zooplankton common to the northeast Atlantic, and used feeding rate studies to det. the impact of plastic detritus on algal ingestion rates in copepods. Using fluorescence and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy we identified that 13 zooplankton taxa had the capacity to ingest 1.7-30.6 μm polystyrene beads, with uptake varying by taxa, life-stage and bead-size. Post-ingestion, copepods egested fecal pellets laden with microplastics. We further obsd. microplastics adhered to the external carapace and appendages of exposed zooplankton. Exposure of the copepod Centropages typicus to natural assemblages of algae with and without microplastics showed that 7.3 μm microplastics (>4000/mL) significantly decreased algal feeding. Our findings imply that marine microplastic debris can neg. impact upon zooplankton function and health.
- 28Setälä, O.; Fleming-Lehtinen, V.; Lehtiniemi, M. Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 77– 83, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.013[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar28https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFylsr%252FM&md5=74e5445a29a1548a3ae3b928212da777Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food webSetala, Outi; Fleming-Lehtinen, Vivi; Lehtiniemi, MaijuEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 185 (), 77-83CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Expts. were carried out with different Baltic Sea zooplankton taxa to scan their potential to ingest plastics. Mysid shrimps, copepods, cladocerans, rotifers, polychaete larvae and ciliates were exposed to 10 μm fluorescent polystyrene microspheres. These expts. showed ingestion of microspheres in all taxa studied. The highest percentage of individuals with ingested spheres was found in pelagic polychaete larvae, Marenzelleria spp. Expts. with the copepod Eurytemora affinis and the mysid shrimp Neomysis integer showed egestion of microspheres within 12 h. Food web transfer expts. were done by offering zooplankton labeled with ingested microspheres to mysid shrimps. Microscopy observations of mysid intestine showed the presence of zooplankton prey and microspheres after 3 h incubation. This study shows for the first time the potential of plastic microparticle transfer via planktonic organisms from one trophic level (mesozooplankton) to a higher level (macrozooplankton). The impacts of plastic transfer and possible accumulation in the food web need further investigations.
- 29Lee, K.-W.; Shim, W. J.; Kwon, O. Y.; Kang, J.-H. Size-Dependent Effects of Micro Polystyrene Particles in the Marine Copepod Tigriopus japonicus. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (19), 11278– 11283, DOI: 10.1021/es401932b[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhtlClsbzL&md5=1978297c8da5c1d7a44e1dd7f181cba9Size-Dependent Effects of Micro Polystyrene Particles in the Marine Copepod Tigriopus japonicusLee, Kyun-Woo; Shim, Won Joon; Kwon, Oh Youn; Kang, Jung-HoonEnvironmental Science & Technology (2013), 47 (19), 11278-11283CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)The authors investigated the effects of three sizes of polystyrene (PS) microbeads (0.05, 0.5, and 6-μm diam.) on the survival, development, and fecundity of the copepod Tigriopus japonicus using acute and chronic toxicity tests. T. japonicus ingested and egested all three sizes of PS beads used and exhibited no selective feeding when phytoplankton were added. The copepods (nauplius and adult females) survived all sizes of PS beads and the various concns. tested in the acute toxicity test for 96 h. In the two-generation chronic toxicity test, 0.05-μm PS beads at a concn. greater than 12.5 μg/mL caused the mortality of nauplii and copepodites in the F0 generation and even triggered mortality at a concn. of 1.25 μg/mL in the next generation. In the 0.5-μm PS bead treatment, despite there being no significant effect on the F0 generation, the highest concn. (25 μg/mL) induced a significant decrease in survival compared with the control population in the F1 generation. The 6-μm PS beads did not affect the survival of T. japonicus over two generations. The 0.5- and 6-μm PS beads caused a significant decrease in fecundity at all concns. These results suggest that microplastics such as micro- or nanosized PS beads may have neg. impacts on marine copepods.
- 30Vroom, R. J.; Koelmans, A. A.; Besseling, E.; Halsband, C. Aging of microplastics promotes their ingestion by marine zooplankton. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 231, 987– 996, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.088[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsVKksr3I&md5=7f7038a51ea71b5472f935150e3d223dAging of microplastics promotes their ingestion by marine zooplanktonVroom, Renske J. E.; Koelmans, Albert A.; Besseling, Ellen; Halsband, ClaudiaEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 231 (Part_1), 987-996CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics (<5 mm) are ubiquitous in the marine environment and are ingested by zooplankton with possible neg. effects on survival, feeding, and fecundity. The majority of lab. studies has used new and pristine microplastics to test their impacts, while aging processes such as weathering and biofouling alter the characteristics of plastic particles in the marine environment. We investigated zooplankton ingestion of polystyrene beads (15 and 30 μm) and fragments (≤30 μm), and tested the hypothesis that microplastics previously exposed to marine conditions (aged) are ingested at higher rates than pristine microplastics. Polystyrene beads were aged by soaking in natural local seawater for three weeks. Three zooplankton taxa ingested microplastics, excluding the copepod Pseudocalanus spp., but the proportions of individuals ingesting plastic and the no. of particles ingested were taxon and life stage specific and dependent on plastic size. All stages of Calanus finmarchicus ingested polystyrene fragments. Aged microbeads were preferred over pristine ones by females of Acartia longiremis as well as juvenile copepodites CV and adults of Calanus finmarchicus. The preference for aged microplastics may be attributed to the formation of a biofilm. Such a coating, made up of natural microbes, may contain similar prey as the copepods feed on in the water column and secrete chem. exudates that aid chemodetection and thus increase the attractiveness of the particles as food items. Much of the ingested plastic was, however, egested within a short time period (2-4 h) and the survival of adult Calanus females was not affected in an 11-day exposure. Neg. effects of microplastics ingestion were thus limited. Our findings emphasize, however, that aging plays an important role in the transformation of microplastics at sea and ingestion by grazers, and should thus be considered in future microplastics ingestion studies and ests. of microplastics transfer into the marine food web.
- 31Sun, X.; Li, Q.; Zhu, M.; Liang, J.; Zheng, S.; Zhao, Y. Ingestion of microplastics by natural zooplankton groups in the northern South China Sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 115 (1–2), 217– 224, DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.12.004[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XitVOltLnI&md5=ea595206f1a99fbdd256302fdcdca93dIngestion of microplastics by natural zooplankton groups in the northern South China SeaSun, Xiaoxia; Li, Qingjie; Zhu, Mingliang; Liang, Junhua; Zheng, Shan; Zhao, YongfangMarine Pollution Bulletin (2017), 115 (1-2), 217-224CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The ingestion of microplastics by five natural zooplankton groups in the northern South China Sea was studied for the first time and two types of sampling nets (505 μm and 160 μm in mesh size) were compared. The microplastics were detected in zooplankton sampled from 16 stations, with the fibrous microplastics accounting for the largest proportion (70%). The main component of the found microplastics was polyester. The av. length of the microplastics was 125 μm and 167 μm for Nets I and II, resp. The encounter rates of microplastics/zooplankton increased with trophic levels. The av. encounter rate of microplastics/zooplankton was 5%, 15%, 34%, 49%, and 120% for Net I, and 8%, 21%, 47%, 60%, and 143% for Net II for copepods, chaetognaths, jellyfish, shrimp, and fish larvae, resp. The av. abundance of microplastics that were ingested by zooplankton was 4.1 pieces/m3 for Net I and 131.5 pieces/m3 for Net II.
- 32Desforges, J.-P. W.; Galbraith, M.; Ross, P. S. Ingestion of Microplastics by Zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2015, 69 (4), 320– 330, DOI: 10.1007/s00244-015-0172-5[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVaitL3F&md5=b578b825f5644f6c0af2bc86d18ca962Ingestion of Microplastics by Zooplankton in the Northeast Pacific OceanDesforges, Jean-Pierre W.; Galbraith, Moira; Ross, Peter S.Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2015), 69 (3), 320-330CODEN: AECTCV; ISSN:0090-4341. (Springer)Microplastics are increasingly recognized as being widespread in the world's oceans, but relatively little is known about ingestion by marine biota. In light of the potential for microplastic fibers and fragments to be taken up by small marine organisms, we examd. plastic ingestion by two foundation species near the base of North Pacific marine food webs, the calanoid copepod Neocalanus cristatus and the euphausiid Euphausia pacifia. We developed an acid digestion method to assess plastic ingestion by individual zooplankton and detected microplastics in both species. Encounter rates resulting from ingestion were 1 particle/every 34 copepods and 1/every 17 euphausiids (euphausiids > copepods; p = 0.01). Consistent with differences in the size selection of food between these two zooplankton species, the ingested particle size was greater in euphausiids (816 ± 108 μm) than in copepods (556 ± 149 μm) (p = 0.014). The contribution of ingested microplastic fibers to total plastic decreased with distance from shore in euphausiids (r2 = 70, p = 0.003), corresponding to patterns in our previous observations of microplastics in seawater samples from the same locations. This first evidence of microplastic ingestion by marine zooplankton indicate that species at lower trophic levels of the marine food web are mistaking plastic for food, which raises fundamental questions about potential risks to higher trophic level species. One concern is risk to salmon: We est. that consumption of microplastic-contg. zooplankton will lead to the ingestion of 2-7 microplastic particles/day by individual juvenile salmon in coastal British Columbia, and ≤91 microplastic particles/day in returning adults.
- 33Gray, A. D.; Weinstein, J. E. Size-and shape-dependent effects of microplastic particles on adult daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2017, 36 (11), 3074– 3080, DOI: 10.1002/etc.3881[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtFynsbvJ&md5=74563cba41c2c19d993bb0e975b37890Size- and shape-dependent effects of microplastic particles on adult daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio)Gray, Austin D.; Weinstein, John E.Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2017), 36 (11), 3074-3080CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)The incidence of microplastics in marine environments has been increasing over the past several decades. The objective of the present study was to characterize the size- and shape-dependent effects of microplastic particles (spheres, fibers, and fragments) on the adult daggerblade grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio). Grass shrimp were exposed to 11 sizes of plastic: spheres (30, 35, 59, 75, 83, 116, and 165 μm), fragments (34 and 93 μm), and fibers (34 and 93 μm) at a concn. of 2000 particles/400 mL (= 50 000 particles/L) for 3 h. Following exposure, grass shrimp were monitored for survival, ingested and ventilated microplastics, and residence time. Mortality ranged from 0% to 55%. Spheres and fragments <50 μm were not acutely toxic. Mortality rates in expts. with spheres and fragments >50 μm ranged from 5% to 40%. Mortality was significantly higher in the exposure to 93-μm fibers than other sizes tested (p < 0.001). The shape of the particle had a significant influence on the no. of particles ingested by the shrimp (p < 0.001). The residence time of particles in the gut ranged from 27 to 75 h, with an av. of 43.0 ± 13.8 h. Within the gills, the residence time ranged from 27 to 45 h, with an av. of 36.9 ± 5.4 h. The results suggest that microplastic particles of various sizes and shapes can be ingested and ventilated by adult daggerblade grass shrimp, resulting in acute toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;9999:1-7. © 2017 SETAC.
- 34Botterell, Z. L.; Beaumont, N.; Dorrington, T.; Steinke, M.; Thompson, R. C.; Lindeque, P. K. Bioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A review. Environ. Pollut. 2019, 245, 98– 110, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.10.065[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar34https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXitFCgt7%252FL&md5=25cb1306a247d5a9577ce5daa5ec751fBioavailability and effects of microplastics on marine zooplankton: A reviewBotterell, Zara L. R.; Beaumont, Nicola; Dorrington, Tarquin; Steinke, Michael; Thompson, Richard C.; Lindeque, Penelope K.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2019), 245 (), 98-110CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics are abundant and widespread in the marine environment. They are a contaminant of global environmental and economic concern. Due to their small size a wide range of marine species, including zooplankton can ingest them. Research has shown that microplastics are readily ingested by several zooplankton taxa, with assocd. neg. impacts on biol. processes. Zooplankton is a crucial food source for many secondary consumers, consequently this represents a route whereby microplastic could enter the food web and transfer up the trophic levels. In this review we aim to: (1) evaluate the current knowledge base regarding microplastic ingestion by zooplankton in both the lab. and the field; and (2) summarise the factors which contribute to the bioavailability of microplastics to zooplankton. Current literature shows that microplastic ingestion has been recorded in 39 zooplankton species from 28 taxonomic orders including holo- and meroplanktonic species. The majority of studies occurred under lab. conditions and neg. effects were reported in ten studies (45%) demonstrating effects on feeding behavior, growth, development, reprodn. and lifespan. In contrast, three studies (14%) reported no neg. effects from microplastic ingestion. Several phys. and biol. factors can influence the bioavailability of microplastics to zooplankton, such as size, shape, age and abundance. We identified that microplastics used in expts. are often different to those quantified in the marine environment, particularly in terms of concn., shape, type and age. We therefore suggest that future research should include microplastics that are more representative of those found in the marine environment at relevant concns. Addnl., investigating the effects of microplastic ingestion on a broader range of zooplankton species and life stages, will help to answer key knowledge gaps regarding the effect of microplastic on recruitment, species populations and ultimately broader economic consequences such as impacts on shell- and finfish stocks.
- 35Paul-Pont, I.; Tallec, K.; Gonzalez-Fernandez, C.; Lambert, C.; Vincent, D.; Mazurais, D.; Zambonino-Infante, J.-L.; Brotons, G.; Lagarde, F.; Fabioux, C. Constraints and priorities for conducting experimental exposures of marine organisms to microplastics. Front. Mar. Sci. 2018, 5 (252) DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2018.00252 .
- 36Melle, W.; Runge, J.; Head, E.; Plourde, S.; Castellani, C.; Licandro, P.; Pierson, J.; Jonasdottir, S.; Johnson, C.; Broms, C. The North Atlantic Ocean as habitat for Calanus finmarchicus: Environmental factors and life history traits. Prog. Oceanogr. 2014, 129, 244– 284, DOI: 10.1016/j.pocean.2014.04.026
- 37Pond, D. W. The physical properties of lipids and their role in controlling the distribution of zooplankton in the oceans. J. Plankton Res. 2012, 34 (6), 443– 453, DOI: 10.1093/plankt/fbs027[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar37https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XmsFeitLs%253D&md5=fc95763356b9fcab7657d1fc79aabee6The physical properties of lipids and their role in controlling the distribution of zooplankton in the oceansPond, David W.Journal of Plankton Research (2012), 34 (6), 443-453CODEN: JPLRD9; ISSN:0142-7873. (Oxford University Press)A review. A new perspective on the role of lipids in zooplankton is proposed, with solid-liq. phase transitions of lipids being a factor regulating their buoyancy. These phase transitions are controlled by zooplankton in relation to their phys. environment, through the selective accumulation of specific lipids with optimum levels of unsatn. The necessity to control buoyancy and maintain an optimum depth is a fundamental evolutionary force, driving anatomical, biochem. and behavioral adaptations of all organisms within the aquatic realm. It is hypothesized that each species adjusts the amt., compn. and anatomical location of lipids, to maximize fitness according to their preferred habitat and life history traits. Recent discoveries regarding the role of phase transitions of lipids in marine zooplankton and their role in regulating buoyancy will require re-interpretation of existing data and stimulate future scientific endeavours in zooplankton research.
- 38Marker, T.; Andreassen, P.; Arashkewich, E.; Hansen, B. W. Lipid deposition and sexual maturation in cohorts of Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus) originating from Bergen (60 N) and Tromsø (69 N) reared in Tromsø, Norway. Mar. Biol. 2003, 143 (2), 283– 296, DOI: 10.1007/s00227-003-1089-5[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar38https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXmvVWqs7c%253D&md5=69199ed65d9b6e5b5707e44a93d2bd4fLipid deposition and sexual maturation in cohorts of Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus) originating from Bergen (60°N) and Tromso (69°N) reared in Tromso, NorwayMarker, Tue; Andreassen, Peter; Arashkewich, Elena; Hansen, Benni W.Marine Biology (Berlin, Germany) (2003), 143 (2), 283-296CODEN: MBIOAJ; ISSN:0025-3162. (Springer-Verlag)Two cohorts of Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus), with habitats in Bergen (60°N) and Tromso (69°N), were reared from copepodite stage III (CIII) in mesocosms in Tromso from Apr. 24 1998 to June 30 1998. The aim was to study whether the two cohorts diverged phenotypically with respect to indication of physiol. prepn. for diapause as opposed to initiating another generation. At the end of the expt. the fractions of the cohorts that had reached sexual maturation, based on obsd. stage shifts to adults, was ∼45% within the Bergen cohort and ∼35% for the Tromso cohort, within which males appeared before females. Examn. of the mandibular gnathobase of copepodites at stage V (CV) revealed that <10% of the Bergen cohort, but >40% of the Tromso cohort were ready for ecdysis, eventually to become adults in the same year. The physiol. expression of the range in individual maturity within the cohorts was revealed in individual carbon and nitrogen content. Both cohorts incorporated the storage lipids wax esters (WE) and triacylglycerols (TAG) rapidly, primarily during CV (0.16-0.21 μg total neutral lipid/individual/day), with no significant difference. Lipid storage was incorporated from CIII and the max. was reached at the CV stage. Presumably due to excess food, high WE, TAG and free fatty acid levels were obsd. in both cohorts. A relative decrease in neutral lipids was obsd. later in females from both cohorts. The authors suggest that part of the Bergen population, but also a fraction of the Tromso population, prepd. for diapause in CV. A possible reason for the sexual maturation among the rest of the CV copepodites could be a shift in life strategy caused by an unusually high rise in temp. in the mesocosms during the last 10 days of the expt.
- 39Lee, R. F.; Hagen, W.; Kattner, G. Lipid storage in marine zooplankton. Mar. Ecol.: Prog. Ser. 2006, 307, 273– 306, DOI: 10.3354/meps307273[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28XktlektLY%253D&md5=2251548c88cce340387251e47f1867c3Lipid storage in marine zooplanktonLee, Richard F.; Hagen, Wilhelm; Kattner, GerhardMarine Ecology: Progress Series (2006), 307 (), 273-306CODEN: MESEDT; ISSN:0171-8630. (Inter-Research)A review. Zooplankton storage lipids play an important role during reprodn., food scarcity, ontogeny and diapause, as shown by studies in various oceanic regions. While triacylglycerols, the primary storage lipid of terrestrial animals, are found in almost all zooplankton species, wax esters are the dominant storage lipid in many deep-living and polar zooplankton taxa. Phospholipids and diacylglycerol ethers are the unique storage lipids used by polar euphausiids and pteropods, resp. In zooplankton with large stores of wax esters, triacylglycerols are more rapidly turned over and used for short-term energy needs, while wax esters serve as long-term energy deposits. Zooplankton groups found in polar, westerlies, upwelling and coastal biomes are characterized by accumulation of large lipid stores. In contrast, zooplankton from the trades/tropical biomes is mainly composed of omnivorous species with only small lipid reserves. Diapausing copepods, which enter deep water after feeding on phytoplankton during spring/summer blooms or at the end of upwelling periods, are characterized by large oil sacs filled with wax esters. The thermal expansion and compressibility of wax esters may allow diapausing copepods and other deep-water zooplankton to be neutrally buoyant in cold deep waters, and they can thus avoid spending energy to remain at these depths. Lipid droplets are often noted in zooplankton ovaries, and a portion of these droplets can be transferred to developing oocytes. In addn. to lipid droplets, zooplankton eggs have yolks with lipovitellin, a lipoprotein with approx. equal amts. of protein and lipid. The lipovitellin lipid is predominantly phosphatidylcholine, so during reprodn. females must convert a portion of their storage lipid into this phospholipid. Developing embryos use their lipovitellin and lipid droplets for energy and materials until feeding begins. The various functions storage lipids serve during the different life history stages of zooplankton are very complex and still not fully understood and hence offer a multitude of fascinating research perspectives.
- 40Tarrant, A. M.; Baumgartner, M. F.; Hansen, B. H.; Altin, D.; Nordtug, T.; Olsen, A. J. Transcriptional profiling of reproductive development, lipid storage and molting throughout the last juvenile stage of the marine copepod Calanus finmarchicus. Front. Zool. 2014, 11 (1), 91, DOI: 10.1186/s12983-014-0091-8[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXitleltbk%253D&md5=897d346830bc953efd8ae5977ddc91beTranscriptional profiling of reproductive development, lipid storage and molting throughout the last juvenile stage of the marine copepod Calanus finmarchicusTarrant, Ann M.; Baumgartner, Mark F.; Hansen, Bjoern Henrik; Altin, Dag; Nordtug, Trond; Olsen, Anders J.Frontiers in Zoology (2014), 11 (), 91/1-91/12, 29 pp.CODEN: FZROAJ; ISSN:1742-9994. (BioMed Central Ltd.)Calanus finmarchicus, a highly abundant copepod that is an important primary consumer in North Atlantic ecosystems, has a flexible life history in which copepods in the last juvenile developmental stage (5th copepodid, C5) may either delay maturation and enter diapause or molt directly into adults. The factors that regulate this developmental plasticity are poorly understood, and few tools have been developed to assess the physiol. condition of individual copepods. We sampled a cultured population of C. finmarchicus copepods daily throughout the C5 stage and assessed molt stage progression, gonad development, and lipid storage. We used high-throughput sequencing to identify genes that were differentially expressed during progression through the molt stage and then used qPCR to profile daily expression of individual genes. Based on expression profiles of 12 genes, samples were clustered into 3 groups: (1) early period occurring prior to sepn. of the cuticle from the epidermis (apolysis) when expression of genes assocd. with lipid synthesis and transport (FABP and ELOV) and 2 nuclear receptors (ERR and HR78) was highest, (2) middle period of rapid change in both gene expression and physiol. condition, including local min. and maxima in several nuclear receptors (FTZ-F1, HR38b, and EcR), and (3) late period when gonads were differentiated and expression of genes assocd. with molting (Torso-like, HR38a) peaked. The ratio of Torso-like to HR38b strongly differentiated the early and late groups. This study provides the 1st dynamic profiles of gene expression anchored with morphol. markers of lipid accumulation, development, and gonad maturation throughout a copepod molt cycle. Transcriptomic profiling revealed significant changes over the molt cycle in genes with presumed roles in lipid synthesis, molt regulation, and gonad development, suggestive of a coupling of these processes in C. finmarchicus. Finally, we identified gene expression profiles that strongly differentiate between early and late development within the C5 copepodid stage. We anticipate that these findings and continued development of robust gene expression biomarkers that distinguish between diapause prepn. and continuous development will ultimately enable novel studies of the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that govern diapause initiation in C. finmarchicus.
- 41Jones, R. H.; Flynn, K. J.; Anderson, T. R. Effect of food quality on carbon and nitrogen growth efficiency in the copepod Acartia tonsa. Mar. Ecol.: Prog. Ser. 2002, 235, 147– 156, DOI: 10.3354/meps235147
- 42Cole, M., Novel method for preparing microplastic fibres. Sci. Rep. 2016 DOI: 10.1038/srep34519 .
- 43Frost, B. W. Effect of size and concentration of food particles on the feeding behaviour of the marine planktoinic copepod Calanus pacificus. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1972, 17, 805– 815, DOI: 10.4319/lo.1972.17.6.0805
- 44Folch, J.; Lees, M.; Sloane Stanley, G. A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 1957, 226 (1), 497– 509[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar44https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADyaG2sXmslWgsw%253D%253D&md5=7e0487aa74d7652046f855f729a6f369A simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipides from animal tissuesFolch-Pi, Jordi; Lees, M.; Stanley, G. H. SloaneJournal of Biological Chemistry (1957), 226 (), 497-509CODEN: JBCHA3; ISSN:0021-9258.cf. C.A. 46, 159i. A simple method is described for the prepn. of total pure lipide exts. from various tissues: it consists of homogenizing the tissue with a 2:1 CHCl3-MeOH mixt. and washing the ext. by addn. of 0.2 its vol. of water or an appropriate salt soln. The resulting mixt. seps. into 2 phases; the lower phase is the total pure lipide ext. The washing removes essentially all the nonlipide contaminants from the ext. with a concomitant loss of about 0.3% of the tissue lipides in the case of white matter and about 0.6% in the case of gray matter. Even these small losses can be reduced by the addn. of a definite amt. of certain mineral salts. The efficiency of the washing depends upon the presence of mineral salts in the crude ext. These salts alter the distribution of the lipides and practically eliminate them from the upper phase. In the absence of salts, substantial amts. of acidic lipides are present in the upper phase and would be lost during the washing. The advantages and limitations of the procedure were established for brain gray and white matter, liver, and muscle.
- 45R. C. Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2016.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46Meyer-Harms, B.; Irigoien, X.; Head, R.; Harris, R. Selective feeding on natural phytoplankton by Calanus finmarchicus before, during, and after the 1997 spring bloom in the Norwegian Sea. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1999, 44 (1), 154– 165, DOI: 10.4319/lo.1999.44.1.0154
- 47Leiknes, Ø.; Striberny, A.; Tokle, N. E.; Olsen, Y.; Vadstein, O.; Sommer, U. Feeding selectivity of Calanus finmarchicus in the Trondheimsfjord. J. Sea Res. 2014, 85, 292– 299, DOI: 10.1016/j.seares.2013.05.012
- 48Meyer, B.; Irigoien, X.; Graeve, M.; Head, R.; Harris, R. Feeding rates and selectivity among nauplii, copepodites and adult females of Calanus finmarchicus and Calanus helgolandicus. Helgoland Marine Research 2002, 56 (3), 169– 176, DOI: 10.1007/s10152-002-0105-3
- 49Marshall, S.; Orr, A. On the biology of Calanus finmarchicus VIII. Food uptake, assimilation and excretion in adult and stage V Calanus. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 1955, 34 (3), 495– 529, DOI: 10.1017/S0025315400008778
- 50Jemec, A.; Horvat, P.; Kunej, U.; Bele, M.; Kržan, A. Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 219, 201– 209, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.037[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar50https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhslOqsLrK&md5=93538f94905008cfd5f4d2f72ae12896Uptake and effects of microplastic textile fibers on freshwater crustacean Daphnia magnaJemec, Anita; Horvat, Petra; Kunej, Urban; Bele, Marjan; Krzan, AndrejEnvironmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 219 (), 201-209CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastic fibers (MP) from textile weathering and washing are increasingly being recognized as environmental pollutants. The majority of studies on the bioavailability and effects of microplastic focused on small polystyrene spherical plastic particles, while less data are available for fibers and for other materials besides polystyrene. We investigated the ingestion and effects of ground polyethylene terephthalate (PET) textile microfibers (length range: 62-1400 μm, width 31-528 μm, thickness 1-21.5 μm) on the freshwater zooplankton crustacean Daphnia magna after a 48 h exposure and subsequent 24 h of recovery in MP free medium and algae. The majority of ingested fibers by D. magna were around 300 μm, but also some very large twisted MP fibers around 1400 μm were found inside the gut. Exposure to these fibers results in increased mortality of daphnids after 48 h only in the case where daphnids were not pre-fed with algae prior to expt., but no effect was found when daphnids were fed before the expts. Regardless of the feeding regime, daphnids were not able to recover from MP exposure after addnl. 24 h incubation period in a MP free medium with algae. The uptake and effects of PET textile MP on D. magna are presented here for the first time.
- 51Bakir, A.; Rowland, S. J.; Thompson, R. C. Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 185, 16– 23, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar51https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhvFyktrrI&md5=c6023c0ee6f8063ba12812ef98bb3040Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditionsBakir, Adil; Rowland, Steven J.; Thompson, Richard C.Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2014), 185 (), 16-23CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)Microplastics have the potential to uptake and release persistent org. pollutants (POPs); however, subsequent transfer to marine organisms is poorly understood. Some models estg. transfer of sorbed contaminants to organisms neglect the role of gut surfactants under differing physiol. conditions in the gut (varying pH and temp.), examd. here. We investigated the potential for polyvinylchloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) to sorb and desorb 14C-DDT, 14C-phenanthrene (Phe), 14C-perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and 14C-di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). Desorption rates of POPs were quantified in seawater and under simulated gut conditions. Influence of pH and temp. was examd. in order to represent cold and warm blooded organisms. Desorption rates were faster with gut surfactant, with a further substantial increase under conditions simulating warm blooded organisms. Desorption under gut conditions could be up to 30 times greater than in seawater alone. Of the POP/plastic combinations examd. Phe with PE gave the highest potential for transport to organisms.
- 52Litchman, E.; Ohman, M. D.; Kiørboe, T. Trait-based approaches to zooplankton communities. J. Plankton Res. 2013, 35 (3), 473– 484, DOI: 10.1093/plankt/fbt019
- 53Blarer, P.; Burkhardt-Holm, P. Microplastics affect assimilation efficiency in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus fossarum. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23 (23), 23522– 23532, DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7584-2[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar53https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhsFWjurfN&md5=45790115e05c0c7626eeb9de75a22520Microplastics affect assimilation efficiency in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus fossarumBlarer, Pascal; Burkhardt-Holm, PatriciaEnvironmental Science and Pollution Research (2016), 23 (23), 23522-23532CODEN: ESPLEC; ISSN:0944-1344. (Springer)An important issue in assessing microplastics is whether this newly emerging type of pollution affects freshwater invertebrates. This study was designed to examine the interactions between the amphipod Gammarus fossarum and two types of microplastics. To det. the ingestion and egestion of polyamide (PA) fibers (500 × 20 μm), amphipods were exposed to four concns. (100, 540, 2680, 13,380 PA fibers cm-2 base area of glass beakers) and four exposure times (0.5, 2, 8, 32 h) as well as four post-exposure times (1, 2, 4, 16 h). We demonstrate a pos. correlation between concn. and ingestion of PA fibers. Fibers were found in the gut after 0.5 h of exposure. Egestion was rapid and the digestive tract was empty 16 h after exposure ended. To investigate whether polystyrene (PS) beads (1.6 μm) can be taken up in the epithelial cells of the gut and the midgut glands, four concns. (500, 2500, 12,500, 60,000 PS beads mL-1) were tested. Cryosections exhibited fluorescent PS beads only within the gut lumen. In a 28-day feeding expt. with both, fibers and beads, we studied the amphipod's feeding rate, assimilation efficiency and wet wt. change. The exposure to PA fibers (2680 PA fibers cm-2 base area of glass beakers) significantly reduced the assimilation efficiency of the animals. While both tested polymer types are ingested and egested, PA fibers can impair the health and ecol. functions of freshwater amphipods under continuous exposure.
- 54Jónasdóttir, S. H. Lipid content of Calanus finmarchicus during overwintering in the Faroe–Shetland Channel. Fisheries Oceanography 1999, 8, 61– 72, DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2419.1999.00003.x
- 55Häfker, N. S.; Teschke, M.; Last, K. S.; Pond, D. W.; Hüppe, L.; Meyer, B. Calanus finmarchicus seasonal cycle and diapause in relation to gene expression, physiology, and endogenous clocks. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2018, 63 (6), 2815– 2838, DOI: 10.1002/lno.11011
- 56Crain, J. A.; Miller, C. B. Effects of starvation on intermolt development in Calanus finmarchicus copepodites: a comparison between theoretical models and field studies. Deep Sea Res., Part II 2001, 48 (1–3), 551– 566, DOI: 10.1016/S0967-0645(00)00078-3
- 57Rodríguez, E. M.; Medesani, D. A.; Fingerman, M. Endocrine disruption in crustaceans due to pollutants: a review. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., Part A: Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2007, 146 (4), 661– 671, DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.04.030[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar57https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXivVSiur0%253D&md5=b7675461cac804e2d35d397c00f308efEndocrine disruption in crustaceans due to pollutants: A reviewRodriguez, Enrique M.; Medesani, Daniel A.; Fingerman, MiltonComparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology (2007), 146A (4), 661-671CODEN: CBPAB5; ISSN:1095-6433. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. The main endocrine-regulated processes of crustaceans have been reviewed in relation to the effects of endocrine-disrupting compds. (EDCs). Molting has been shown to be inhibited by several org. pollutants, such as xenoestrogens and related compds., as well as by some pesticides. Most of these disrupters are thought to interfere with ecdysone at target tissues, although only for a few has this action been demonstrated in vitro. The heavy metal cadmium appears to inhibit some ecdysone secretion. Juvenoid compds. have also been shown to inhibit molting, likely by interfering with the stimulatory effect of Me farnesoate. A molt-promoting effect of Emamectin benzoate, a pesticide, has also been reported. As for reprodn., a variety of org. compds., including xenoestrogens, juvenoids, and ecdysteroids, has produced abnormal development of male and female secondary sexual characters, as well as alteration of the sex ratio. Cadmium and copper have been shown to interfere with hormones that stimulate reprodn., such as Me farnesoate, as well as with the secretion of the gonad-inhibiting hormone, therefore affecting, for example, ovarian growth. Several heavy metals were able to produce hyperglycemia in crustaceans during short times of exposure while a hypoglycemic response was noted after longer exposures, due to inhibition of secretion of the crustacean hyperglycemic hormone. The ecol. relevance of EDCs on crustaceans is discussed, mainly in relation to the identification of useful biomarkers and sentinel species. New exptl. approaches are also proposed.
- 58Andersen, H. R.; Wollenberger, L.; Halling-Sørensen, B.; Kusk, K. O. Development of copepod nauplii to copepodites—a parameter for chronic toxicity including endocrine disruption. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2001, 20 (12), 2821– 2829, DOI: 10.1002/etc.5620201222[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar58https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXovVSnt7g%253D&md5=d5fc0f9af44b89dfd1a3132cee80ffebDevelopment of copepod nauplii to copepodites-a parameter for chronic toxicity including endocrine disruptionAndersen, Henrik Rasmus; Wollenberger, Leah; Halling-Sorensen, Bent; Kusk, Kresten OleEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2001), 20 (12), 2821-2829CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (SETAC Press)Test compds. including natural hormones, endocrine disrupters, environmentally occurring compds., and ref. compds. were tested for acute toxicity and inhibitory effect on larval development in the copepod Acartia tonsa. Three compds., 17α-ethinylestradiol, p-octylphenol, and tamoxifen, known for their differing effects on the vertebrate estrogen system, were potent inhibitors of naupliar development. Other estrogens, 17β-estradiol, estrone, and bisphenol A, had little potency. Testosterone and progesterone did not inhibit development, but the antiandrogen flutamide had inhibitory effect. Juvenile hormone III was a potent inhibitor, as was expected based on the literature, whereas 20-hydroxyecdysone had no effect. 3,4-Dichloroaniline was inhibitory on development, whereas other control compds., potassium dichromate and 3,5-dichlorophenol, did not inhibit development. Six of the 17 test compds. had 50% lethal concn. to 50% effective concn. (EC50) ratios higher than 10. The results suggest that naupliar development, as a parameter, is able to detect hormonal disrupters in addn. to other chems. that have other specific modes of action.
- 59Waddy, S.; Burridge, L.; Hamilton, M.; Mercer, S.; Aiken, D.; Haya, K. Rapid communication/communication rapide emamectin benzoate induces molting in American lobster, Homarus americanus. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2002, 59 (7), 1096– 1099, DOI: 10.1139/f02-106[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar59https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD38Xns1elt7o%253D&md5=fec66f4e4f0f6368223829260431af5cEmamectin benzoate induces molting in American lobster, Homarus americanusWaddy, S. L.; Burridge, L. E.; Hamilton, M. N.; Mercer, S. M.; Aiken, D. E.; Haya, K.Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (2002), 59 (7), 1096-1099CODEN: CJFSDX; ISSN:0706-652X. (National Research Council of Canada)Emamectin benzoate (nominal dose 1 μg/g) caused female American lobster (Homarus americanus) to enter proecdysis and molt prematurely (44% vs. 0% of the control lobster). Lobster bearing eggs when proecdysis was induced aborted their broods. This chem. is the active ingredient in a new feed additive being used to control sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus spp.) infestations on farmed salmon (predominantly Salmo salar). The response of the American lobster to emamectin benzoate was unexpected, as avermectins inhibit or delay ecdysis in insects. The authors hypothesize that emamectin benzoate is interfering with the neuropeptides that modulate the prodn. of molting hormone in lobster and that the diametric response of insects and lobster to this chem. is due to the difference in the neuroendocrine control of the molting glands of these two groups of arthropods (inhibitory in crustaceans, but stimulatory in insects). This is the first report of a crustacean molting prematurely in response to chem. exposure and the first report that a GABAergic pesticide can cause premature molting in an arthropod.
- 60Guyon, A.; Smith, K. F.; Charry, M. P.; Champeau, O.; Tremblay, L. A. Effects of chronic exposure to benzophenone and diclofenac on DNA methylation levels and reproductive success in a marine copepod. J. Xenobiot. 2018, 8 (1), 7674, DOI: 10.4081/xeno.2018.7674[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar60https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhtVCms7%252FJ&md5=78fb7b315660f7ed99cc55ef9c70cddbEffects of chronic exposure to benzophenone and diclofenac on DNA methylation levels and reproductive success in a marine copepodGuyon, Anais; Smith, Kirsty F.; Charry, Maria P.; Champeau, Olivier; Tremblay, Louis A.Journal of Xenobiotics (2018), 8 (1), 7674CODEN: JXOEA4; ISSN:2039-4713. (PAGEPress Publications)The UV-filter benzophenone and the anti-inflammatory diclofenac are commonly detected in the environment. The aim of this study was to assess the multigenerational effects of chronic exposure to low concns. of these chems. on toxicity and DNA methylation levels in the copepod Gladioferens pectinatus. Acute toxicity tests were conducted to det. the sensitivity of G. pectinatus to the chems. All chems. impacted breeding, hatching and egg viability. Diclofenac (1 mg.L-1) reduced the no. of eggs per gravid female. Benzophenone (0.5 mg.L-1) decreased egg hatching success. Exposure to the ref. toxicant copper (0.02 mg.L-1) led to unsuccessful hatching. Effects on DNA methylation was estd. by the percentage of 5- methylcytosine. The treatments resulted in strong differences in DNA methylation with increased methylation in the exposed animals. The two chems. impacted both egg viability and the induction of differential DNA methylation, suggesting potential intra- and trans-generational evolutionary effects.
- 61Jarry, H.; Christoffel, J.; Rimoldi, G.; Koch, L.; Wuttke, W. Multi-organic endocrine disrupting activity of the UV screen benzophenone 2 (BP2) in ovariectomized adult rats after 5 days treatment. Toxicology 2004, 205 (1–2), 87– 93, DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2004.06.040[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar61https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXotF2mtr0%253D&md5=441ca0e8a33b1c0930af369dbeaacbbeMulti-organic endocrine disrupting activity of the UV screen benzophenone 2 (BP2) in ovariectomized adult rats after 5 days treatmentJarry, Hubertus; Christoffel, Julie; Rimoldi, Guillermo; Koch, Lilli; Wuttke, WolfgangToxicology (2004), 205 (1-2), 87-93CODEN: TXCYAC; ISSN:0300-483X. (Elsevier B.V.)The chem. industry has developed sun protection factor products, which contain a variety of so-called "UV screens", among others, benzophenones (BP). Based on the structure it can be assumed, that the variant BP2 may be a potent estrogenic endocrine disrupter (ED). Only very limited data are available in the literature about such action of BP2, which focused on the uterotrophic effect in immature rats. However, detn. of ED activity in the uterus is only a restricted approach with the potential risk of missing undesirable actions. Therefore, we examd. a putative multiple organ ED activity of BP2 by measuring gene expression of marker genes in the uterus, liver, vagina and pituitary after 5 days oral application in adult ovariectomized (ovx) rats. An effect on lipid metab. was assessed by detn. of cholesterol, high- and low-d. lipoproteins (HDL and LDL) in the blood. As control compd., estradiol (E2) was included in the study. A dose dependent E2-agonistic activity was obsd. in the uterus (increased wt.), vagina (increased IGF1 expression), pituitary (reduced LH synthesis), liver (increased IGF1 expression) and lipid parameters (redn.). A non-E2-like action of BP2 was obsd. on T4- and T3-levels, which were significantly reduced. Except for the action of BP2 on thyroid hormone levels where it may inhibit thyroid peroxidase, this UV screen exerts clear E2-agonistic actions. Application of BP2 for 5 days proved to be a sufficient treatment period to unravel a multi-org. endocrine disrupting activity of this UV screen.
- 62Kim, S.; Jung, D.; Kho, Y.; Choi, K. Effects of benzophenone-3 exposure on endocrine disruption and reproduction of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)—A two generation exposure study. Aquat. Toxicol. 2014, 155, 244– 252, DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.07.004[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar62https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXht1OrurzI&md5=340208495d0d234f48c6abc8429c1894Effects of benzophenone-3 exposure on endocrine disruption and reproduction of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)-A two generation exposure studyKim, Sujin; Jung, Dawoon; Kho, Younglim; Choi, KyunghoAquatic Toxicology (2014), 155 (), 244-252CODEN: AQTODG; ISSN:0166-445X. (Elsevier B.V.)Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) has been widely used in sunscreens and cosmetics to protect human skin from the harmful effects of UV irradn. While BP-3 has been frequently detected in surface waters, sediments and biota, only limited information is available on its in vivo toxicity, particularly in fish. In the present study the endocrine disrupting capacity of BP-3 and its underlying mechanisms were investigated using Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). Adult Japanese medaka pairs (F0) were exposed to 0, 4.7, 8.4, 26, or 90 μg/L (or 0, 15, 50, 150, or 500 μg/L of BP-3 based on nominal concn.) for 14 d and its effects on sex steroid hormones, and transcription of various assocd. genes were detd. Following addnl. 14 d of exposure, the F1 eggs reproduced were counted and were further exposed to 0, 5.4, 12, or 30 μg/L of BP-3 (or 0, 15, 50, or 150 μg/L based on nominal concns.) until 30 d after hatching. Chem. anal. of the exposed media confirmed transformation of BP-3 to benzophenone-1 (BP-1), a more potent estrogen agonist. After 14 d of the adult fish exposure, plasma concns. of testosterone (T) significantly increased in male fish. The 17β-estradiol (E2) to T (E2/T) ratio showed significant decreases in both male and female fish. Overall down-regulation of gonadal steroidogenic genes such as star, cyp11a, cyp17, hsd3b, hsd17b3, and cyp19a was also obsd. After 28 d of exposure, the daily av. egg reprodn. per female was significantly reduced at 26 μg/L of BP-3. However, hatchability of F1 eggs was not affected by continuous exposure. After continued exposure until 30 dph, juvenile fish showed concn.-dependent decrease of condition factor, but mortality was not affected. Our observation clearly indicates that endocrine balance and reprodn. performance in fish could be affected by μg/L level exposure to BP-3. Consequences of longer term exposure over multi-generations warrant further investigation.
- 63Kinnberg, K. L.; Petersen, G. I.; Albrektsen, M.; Minghlani, M.; Awad, S. M.; Holbech, B. F.; Green, J. W.; Bjerregaard, P.; Holbech, H. Endocrine-disrupting effect of the ultraviolet filter benzophenone-3 in zebrafish, Danio rerio. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2015, 34 (12), 2833– 2840, DOI: 10.1002/etc.3129[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar63https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhs1Ogsb7P&md5=d2b4b99ed6c7ece4f4aa6eaf3ee872dcEndocrine-disrupting effect of the ultraviolet filter benzophenone-3 in zebrafish, Danio rerioKinnberg, Karin L.; Petersen, Gitte I.; Albrektsen, Mette; Minghlani, Mita; Awad, Suad Mohamud; Holbech, Bente F.; Green, John W.; Bjerregaard, Poul; Holbech, HenrikEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2015), 34 (12), 2833-2840CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)The chem. UV filter benzophenone-3 (BP-3) is suspected to be an endocrine disruptor based on results from in vitro and in vivo testing. However, studies including endpoints of endocrine adversity are lacking. The present study investigated the potential endocrine-disrupting effects of BP-3 in zebrafish (Danio rerio) in the Fish Sexual Development Test (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development TG 234) and a 12-d adult male zebrafish study. In TG 234, exposure from 0 d to 60 d posthatch caused a monotone dose-dependent skewing of the phenotypic sex ratio toward fewer males and more female zebrafish (no obsd. effect concn. [NOEC]: 191 μg/L, lowest obsd. effect concn. [LOEC]: 388 μg/L). Besides, gonad maturation was affected in both female fish (NOEC 191 μg/L, LOEC 388 μg/L) and male fish (NOEC 388 μg/L, LOEC 470 μg/L). Exposure to BP-3 did not affect the vitellogenin concn. in TG 234. After 12 d exposure of adult male zebrafish, a slight yet significant increase in the vitellogenin concn. was obsd. at 268 μg/L but not at 63 μg/L and 437 μg/L BP-3. Skewing of the sex ratio is a marker of an endocrine-mediated mechanism as well as a marker of adversity, and therefore the conclusion of the present study is that BP-3 is an endocrine-disrupting chem. in accordance with the World Health Organization's definition. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;9999:1-8. © 2015 SETAC.
- 64Rochman, C. M.; Brookson, C.; Bikker, J.; Djuric, N.; Earn, A.; Bucci, K.; Athey, S.; Huntington, A.; McIlwraith, H.; Munno, K. Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suite. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2019, 38 (4), 703– 711, DOI: 10.1002/etc.4371[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar64https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXlvFehu7g%253D&md5=cedbc279d9fa5cbf9480d7c6cd995e42Rethinking microplastics as a diverse contaminant suiteRochman, Chelsea M.; Brookson, Cole; Bikker, Jacqueline; Djuric, Natasha; Earn, Arielle; Bucci, Kennedy; Athey, Samantha; Huntington, Aimee; McIlwraith, Hayley; Munno, Keenan; De Frond, Hannah; Kolomijeca, Anna; Erdle, Lisa; Grbic, Jelena; Bayoumi, Malak; Borrelle, Stephanie B.; Wu, Tina; Santoro, Samantha; Werbowski, Larissa M.; Zhu, Xia; Giles, Rachel K.; Hamilton, Bonnie M.; Thaysen, Clara; Kaura, Ashima; Klasios, Natasha; Ead, Lauren; Kim, Joel; Sherlock, Cassandra; Ho, Annissa; Hung, CharlotteEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2019), 38 (4), 703-711CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
- 65de Sá, L. C.; Oliveira, M.; Ribeiro, F.; Rocha, T. L.; Futter, M. N. Studies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future?. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 645, 1029– 1039, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.207[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar65https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtlOgsrjK&md5=3e5b1aadef8cabd1cb614a63c9303cbcStudies of the effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms: What do we know and where should we focus our efforts in the future?de Sa, Luis Carlos; Oliveira, Miguel; Ribeiro, Francisca; Rocha, Thiago Lopes; Futter, Martyn NormanScience of the Total Environment (2018), 645 (), 1029-1039CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. The effects of microplastics (MP) on aquatic organisms are currently the subject of intense research. Here, we provide a crit. perspective on published studies of MP ingestion by aquatic biota. We summarize the available research on MP presence, behavior and effects on aquatic organisms monitored in the field and on lab. studies of the ecotoxicol. consequences of MP ingestion. We consider MP polymer type, shape, size as well as group of organisms studied and type of effect reported. Specifically, we evaluate whether or not the available lab. studies of MP are representative of the types of MPs found in the environment and whether or not they have reported on relevant groups or organisms. Anal. of the available data revealed that (1) despite their widespread detection in field-based studies, polypropylene, polyester and polyamide particles were under-represented in lab. studies; (2) fibers and fragments (800-1600 μm) are the most common form of MPs reported in animals collected from the field; (3) to date, most studies have been conducted on fish; knowledge is needed about the effects of MPs on other groups of organisms, esp. invertebrates. Furthermore, there are significant mismatches between the types of MP most commonly found in the environment or reported in field studies and those used in lab. expts. Finally, there is an overarching need to understand the mechanism of action and ecotoxicol. effects of environmentally relevant concns. of MPs on aquatic organism health.
- 66Lusher, A.; Welden, N.; Sobral, P.; Cole, M. Sampling, isolating and identifying microplastics ingested by fish and invertebrates. Anal. Methods 2017, 9, 1346– 1360, DOI: 10.1039/C6AY02415G
- 67Erni-Cassola, G.; Zadjelovic, V.; Gibson, M. I.; Christie-Oleza, J. A. Distribution of plastic polymer types in the marine environment; A meta-analysis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2019, 369, 691– 698, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.02.067[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar67https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXjvFGhurY%253D&md5=a7a219bb47b09119ac192fb4d3c415d5Distribution of plastic polymer types in marine environment; A meta-analysisErni-Cassola, Gabriel; Zadjelovic, Vinko; Gibson, Matthew I.; Christie-Oleza, Joseph A.Journal of Hazardous Materials (2019), 369 (), 691-698CODEN: JHMAD9; ISSN:0304-3894. (Elsevier B.V.)Despite growing plastic discharge into the environment, researchers have struggled to detect expected increases of marine plastic debris in sea surfaces, sparking discussions about "missing plastics" and final sinks, which are hypothesized to be coastal and deep-sea sediments. While it holds true that the highest concns. of plastic particles are found in these locations (103-104 particles m-3 in sediments vs. 0.1-1 particles m-3 in the water column), our meta-anal. also highlights that in open oceans, microplastic polymer types segregated in the water column according to their d. Lower d. polymers, such as polypropylene and polyethylene, dominated sea surface samples (25% and 42%, resp.) but decreased in abundance through the water column (3% and 2% in the deep-sea, resp.), whereas only denser polymers (i.e. polyesters and acrylics) were enriched with depth (5% in surface seawater vs. 77% in deep-sea locations). Our meta-anal. demonstrates that some of the most abundant and recalcitrant manufd. plastics are more persistent in the sea surface than previously anticipated and that further research is required to det. the ultimate fate of these polymers as current knowledge does not support the deep sea as the final sink for all polymer types.
- 68Enders, K.; Lenz, R.; Stedmon, C. A.; Nielsen, T. G. Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics≥ 10 μm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distribution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 100 (1), 70– 81, DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.027[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar68https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhs1ehurjI&md5=a84c9a9e4238847d80bea39982655c07Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics ≥ 10 μm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distributionEnders, Kristina; Lenz, Robin; Stedmon, Colin A.; Nielsen, Torkel G.Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 100 (1), 70-81CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)We studied abundance, size and polymer type of microplastic down to 10 μm along a transect from the European Coast to the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (NASG) using an underway intake filtration technique and Raman micro-spectrometry. Concns. ranged from 13 to 501 items m- 3. Highest concns. were obsd. at the European coast, decreasing towards mid-Atlantic waters but elevated in the western NASG. We obsd. highest nos. among particles in the 10-20 μm size fraction, whereas the total vol. was highest in the 50-80 μm range. Based on a numerical model size-dependent depth profiles of polyethylene microspheres in a range from 10-1000 μm were calcd. and show a strong dispersal throughout the surface mixed layer for sizes smaller than 200 μm. From model and field study results we conclude that small microplastic is ubiquitously distributed over the ocean surface layer and has a lower residence time than larger plastic debris in this compartment.
- 69Huvet, A.; Paul-Pont, I.; Fabioux, C.; Lambert, C.; Suquet, M.; Thomas, Y.; Robbens, J.; Soudant, P.; Sussarellu, R. Reply to Lenz et al.: Quantifying the smallest microplastics is the challenge for a comprehensive view of their environmental impacts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (29), E4123– E4124, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1607221113[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar69https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtF2ht7fM&md5=f34e9366bfe83a8e6f58a5002bf765b1Reply to Lenz et al.: Quantifying the smallest microplastics is the challenge for a comprehensive view of their environmental impactsHuvet, Arnaud; Paul-Pont, Ika; Fabioux, Caroline; Lambert, Christophe; Suquet, Marc; Thomas, Yoann; Robbens, Johan; Soudant, Philippe; Sussarellu, RossanaProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (29), E4123-E4124CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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ARTICLE SECTIONSThe Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01853.
Images of the microalgae, microplastics, and copepods; chemical data for the nylon fibers and granules; data relating to the size and shape of microalgae; and fatty acid and alcohol data for copepods in control, fiber, and granule treatments (PDF)
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