ACS Publications. Most Trusted. Most Cited. Most Read
Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) in the Water Column of the Atlantic Ocean
My Activity

Figure 1Loading Img
  • Open Access
Contaminants in Aquatic and Terrestrial Environments

Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) in the Water Column of the Atlantic Ocean
Click to copy article linkArticle link copied!

Open PDFSupporting Information (2)

Environmental Science & Technology Letters

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2023, 10, 5, 418–424
Click to copy citationCitation copied!
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00119
Published April 12, 2023

Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under

CC-BY 4.0 .

Abstract

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are widely distributed in the oceans which are their largest global reservoir, but knowledge is limited about their vertical distribution and fate. This study measured the concentrations of PFAAs (perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) with 6 to 11 carbons and perfluoroalkanesulfonic acids (PFSAs) with 6 and 8 carbons) in the surface and deep ocean. Seawater depth profiles from the surface to a 5000 m depth at 28 sampling stations were collected in the Atlantic Ocean from ∼50° N to ∼50° S. The results demonstrated PFAA input from the Mediterranean Sea and the English Channel. Elevated PFAA concentrations were observed at the eastern edge of the Northern Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, suggesting that persistent contaminants may accumulate in ocean gyres. The median ΣPFAA surface concentration in the Northern Hemisphere (n = 17) was 105 pg L–1, while for the Southern Hemisphere (n = 11) it was 28 pg L–1. Generally, PFAA concentrations decreased with increasing distance to the coast and increasing depth. The C6–C9 PFCAs and C6 and C8 PFSAs dominated in surface waters, while longer-chain PFAAs (C10–C11 PFCAs) peaked at intermediate depths (500–1500 m). This profile may be explained by stronger sedimentation of longer-chain PFAAs, as they sorb more strongly to particulate organic matter.

This publication is licensed under

CC-BY 4.0 .
  • cc licence
  • by licence
Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society

Introduction

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Comparisons of the relative amounts of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in multiple environmental reservoirs (1,2) and global transport and fate modeling studies (3−10) have determined that the global oceans are the main environmental reservoir for PFAAs. Understanding the spatial distribution in global oceans is key to projecting how environmental levels respond to changed emissions (9) and to modeling ocean-to-atmosphere transport of PFAAs through sea spray aerosols (SSA). (11−13) As there is currently no oceanic monitoring program for PFAAs, current knowledge is built on data generated from research cruises. (14−25) Although numerous such studies have been carried out, the spatial distribution of data points in open oceans is insufficient for verifying high spatially resolved ocean transport models (9) or for accurate prediction of atmospheric emission of PFAAs via SSA. (11,12) A recent review of PFAAs in the global oceans revealed that the coastal areas of western Europe, China, Korea, and Japan account for most of the available concentration data. (26) Additionally, the scientific studies that make up the body of data have been carried out by different research groups over the course of an almost 20-year period, during which time analytical methods have improved significantly. (26,27)
In lieu of high spatial resolution surface seawater measurements, vertical profiles along a cruise transect can provide valuable information on the oceanic circulation of PFAAs and thus help in interpolation between surface water data points. Previously, only a few such studies have been carried out. (15,23,25,28,29) Due to a low number of data points and/or low detection frequencies, these have generally not been able to provide a high-resolution spatial distribution of oceanic PFAAs. (15,23) Moreover, due to contradictory observations, there is a debate as to whether PFAAs act as chemical tracers for ocean circulation (15) or sorb to particulate organic matter and sediment to deeper waters. (30−32) This illustrates the need for a better understanding of the fate of PFAAs in the ocean. More extensive deep-water measurements are needed for a range of PFAA homologues to elucidate the processes that control their vertical transport. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) extensively investigate the spatial distribution (horizontally and vertically) of PFAAs (perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkanesulfonic acids (PFSAs)) in the Atlantic oceanic water column and, through thorough interpretation of the data, (2) clarify the ongoing debate concerning their fate and behavior in the oceanic environment.

Materials and Methods

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Seawater samples were collected on the 29th Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT29) cruise, from Southampton (UK) to Punta Arenas (Chile) in the time period from October to November 2019. Depth profile samples were obtained at 28 stations with a conductivity, temperature, and depth (CTD) rosette containing 24 × 20 L Ocean Test Equipment (OTE) Niskin bottles (Figure 1). At each station, samples were taken from seven varying depths ranging from the surface down to 5000 m (see Table S1 for exact depths). Unfiltered seawater was extracted on Oasis weak ion exchange (wax) cartridges, using a previously published solid phase extraction method (SPE), (33) with minor modifications (see the Supporting Information (SI)). The samples (5 L) were loaded onto SPE cartridges on board using a multichannel peristaltic pump and then eluted later in the laboratory at Stockholm University. Field blanks were prepared by circulating 5 mL of Milli-Q through an SPE cartridge during the extraction of the samples (see SI). The analysis was performed on a Dionex Ultimate 3000 liquid chromatograph coupled to a Q Exactive HF Orbitrap (Thermo Scientific). The CTD samples (n = 196) were analyzed for 12 PFAAs (C6–C12). Due to contamination from reagents, all data points were blank subtracted for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), while a separate batch of samples were blank subtracted for perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA). Additionally, a CTD cast (CTD034; 35° W, 26° N) had to be removed from the data set due to this reagent contamination, resulting in 28 representative sampling stations instead of originally 29 (see SI). A full description of the materials and methods as well as of the batches is provided in the SI.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Map of the sampling stations along the transect and composition pattern of PFAAs (PFAAs below the detection limit are excluded) in the surface water samples (2 and 5 m) at the sampling stations.

Results and Discussion

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Trends of PFAA Concentrations in the Surface of the Water Column

Of the 12 PFAAs targeted, eight were detected in surface samples (n = 28), collected at 2 or 5 m (Figure 1, Table S1). Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) had the highest detection frequency in surface water (n = 28) with 89%, followed by perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA) (86%) and PFOA (78%). PFHxA, perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) had detection frequencies of 64%, 68%, 50%, 39%, and 21%, respectively. Perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoDA), and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS) were omitted from the study due to poor recoveries.
PFAA concentrations decreased from the coast to the open ocean (Figure 1). This has been observed in previous studies and is known as the dilution effect. (16,19,20) The highest ΣPFAA surface concentration (224 pg L–1) was measured at 45° N (CTD002, Figure 1) in this study. The higher concentrations at CTD002 compared to the rest of the sampling sites were probably due to the greater proximity to the coast. A bioaccumulation study on shellfish from this area also indicated extensive contamination with PFAAs, especially PFOS and long-chain PFCAs. (34) The findings of high PFAA contamination in the English Channel from this and previous studies indicate that the English Channel is a potentially important source of PFAAs in the open Atlantic Ocean.
The detection frequency was higher for all substances in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) compared to the Southern Hemisphere (SH). The median concentrations of ΣPFAAs in surface water were 105 pg L–1 (n = 17) and 28 pg L–1 (n = 11) in the NH and SH, respectively (Figure 2). The concentrations were shown to be statistically significantly lower in the SH compared to the NH for all PFAAs (Wilcoxon test, p < 0.05) (note that there were fewer sampling stations in the SH). Lower open ocean levels are expected in the SH, since most of the global manufacture and industrial use of PFAAs has occurred in the US, Europe, Japan, and China. (7) This is also observed in other studies where concentrations of PFAAs decreased to levels below detection limits for most cruises that followed transects from the Northern to the Southern Atlantic. (16,18,19) These previous studies were mostly limited to coastal samples, and therefore, it is difficult to compare them with open ocean data from the present study. This highlights the difficulty in interpolating the data currently available in the published literature to obtain estimates of seawater concentrations representative of larger open ocean regions. Contrary to other studies, González-Gaya et al. (2014) reported a higher median ΣPFAS concentration in the surface water in the SH (1440 pg L–1) compared to the NH (516 pg L–1) of the Atlantic Ocean. (20) Differences in concentrations can be due to different sampling locations and the size of the sample set.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of the sum of PFAAs in the northern and southern hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean. Black dots represent sample points where ΣPFAAs could be detected; gray triangles represent nondetects.

In our study, PFOS was detected throughout the English Channel and the North Atlantic southward to 10° N (CTD027, Figure 1). However, in the SH, the detection frequency for PFOS was only 18%, and this substance was observed in only two samples between 30° S and 40° S (CTD050 and CTD052, Figure 1). Although it was predicted that surface removal of PFOS would lead to higher concentrations in deeper water layers over time, (9) this study does not confirm such a trend. Other homologues such as PFNA (73%) and PFHpA (64%) had higher detection frequencies in the SH (note though that their MDLs were somewhat lower than that of PFOS, see SI). In addition to absolute concentrations, trends in homologue patterns can also be influenced by the choice of sampling location. As coastal areas are closer to emission sources, coastal waters may contain relatively higher concentrations of homologues that sorb to the particulate organic matter present in the water column. This is a possible explanation for the discrepancy between our results and previous studies reporting PFOS as the dominant compound on the surface of the SH. (17,19,20) High concentrations of PFOS have previously been measured off the Brazilian coast (19,20,33) and are suspected to be related to the widely used pesticide Sulfluramid in South America, which degrades in the environment to form PFOS and other PFAS.
The source of PFOS in the South Atlantic Ocean observed in our data set between 30° S and 40° S (CTD050 and CTD052, Figure 1) could be the outflow of the Rio de la Plata, which is a heavily polluted river. (35) In particular, pulp mills, which are common in Uruguay, could be a potential source of PFOS and other PFAS. (36) In a previous study by Langberg et al. (2021), the potential role of a pulp mill in Norway in PFOS contamination of a lake was highlighted. (37) However, the Rio de la Plata catchment area is highly populated and industrialized, making it difficult to pinpoint a specific source that could be responsible for the elevated concentrations of PFOS in these two CTD casts. For example, Sulfluramid could also be a source of PFOS in the Rio de la Plata, as it is imported from Brazil and used in Argentina and Uruguay. (38)
A subsurface sample (95 m) at approximately 30° N (CTD013, Figure 1) showed elevated PFAA concentrations. The sampling point is located in the eastern edge- or so-called Azores Front (39) of the Northern Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. This region receives input from North America and Europe (40−42) and is known for its plastic pollution, (43) as plastic gets trapped in the gyre and forms a patch (often referred to as the North Atlantic Garbage Patch). (41) Subsequently, plastic particles can sink from the surface to deep water. (44) Previous studies have indicated that plastic debris can act as carriers of organic contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), nonylphenols (NPs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). (45,46) Furthermore, studies have shown the sorption potential of PFOS and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) in microplastics. (47,48) Our finding could be the first indication that chemicals can potentially get trapped in this gyre via plastic debris.

Trends of PFAA Concentrations with Depth and Their Vertical Distribution

In the following section, the concentrations for the depth samples taken from intermediate depths (500–1500 m; n = 80) and deep waters (1500 m to bottom; n = 24) are presented and discussed. Apart from PFDoDA, all target compounds could be detected at depth (n = 104). The detection frequency of ΣPFAAs (one PFAA or more in a sample) for the intermediate depths was 48%, while for deep water it was only 29%. Including all depths, the detection frequency was highest for PFHpA (34%), followed by PFUnDA (32%). The lowest detection frequency was observed for PFOA (17%). Compared to surface samples, the detection frequency for PFUnDA increased with depth, while for PFDA it dropped. However, generally with increasing depth, a decrease in concentration was observed for C6–C9 PFCAs as well as C6 and C8 PFSAs, while for the longer-chain PFAAs (C10–C11 PFCAs) concentrations increased with increasing water depth.
Between 40° N and 30° N at 500–1500 m depth in the NH, concentrations were elevated relative to surrounding areas. In combination with oceanographic data (Figures S1 and S2) obtained from the CTD measurements, it appears that this elevated concentration area (CTD011–014) was Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW). This indicates a major input of PFAAs from the Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic Ocean. Previously, studies have concluded that the Atlantic Ocean is a source of contamination to the Mediterranean Sea (49) or that there is no significant flow of PFAAs between the water bodies. (28) These conclusions were based on comparisons of surface water measurements made in different studies in the Mediterranean Sea (28,49) and the Atlantic Ocean. (17,19,20) However, since outward transport of Mediterranean seawater into the Atlantic Ocean occurs at intermediate depth (500–1500 m) as well as at the surface, (50) comparisons of surface water measurements alone are not suitable to determine the flux of PFAAs between the two water bodies.
Due to the low detection frequencies at depth in the SH, our discussion on vertical profiles focuses on the NH between 50° N and the equator. In Figure 3, the vertical profiles of PFNA and PFUnDA are depicted as an example (for other homologues, see SI Figures S3–S9). Generally, PFAA concentrations at all depths decreased toward the equator. Exceptions from this trend were observed around 500 m at 25° N and 1500 m at 35° N (MOW) where concentrations of PFHxA, PFOA, PFHxS, and PFOS were higher than in surface waters. PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, and PFHxS showed similar distribution patterns. Concentrations of C6–C9 decreased with depth at latitudes from 50° N to 40° N. From around 28° N toward the equator, concentrations at depths below 500 m were mainly below the MDL. While PFAAs with chain lengths between C6 and C9 were mostly concentrated on the surface (0–500 m), the distribution pattern of PFUnDA looked different. PFUnDA had nondetects at the surface throughout most of the sampling stations. Higher concentrations of PFUnDA were observed from 50 °N to 20° N in intermediate waters (800–2000 m). This could be explained by the higher organic carbon–water partition coefficient (KOC) of PFUnDA in relation to the other homologues. (51) The propensity to sorb to particulate organic matter can allow PFUnDA to sediment out of surface waters. PFDA showed an irregular distribution pattern, having concentration hotspots and nondetects at a few sampling points in the surface, but also at 2000 m depth at around 30° N (CTD013). In the literature, the biogeochemical pump has been discussed as a mechanism for the surface removal of PFAA. (22) The increase in concentration around 30° N (CTD013, Figure 1) might indicate that PFUnDA sorbed to particulate matter or microplastic sinks from the Gyre/Azores front. This could also be true for PFDA (Figure S6). Our findings suggest that downward particle transport occurs for PFAAs with chain lengths that contain 10 or more carbon atoms. As such, these are inappropriate chemical tracers for ocean circulation. However, a complication is that PFCAs and PFSAs have multiple direct and indirect sources, (7) making interpretation of contamination patterns in the ocean challenging.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Distribution of PFNA in the vertical water column in the Northern Hemisphere. Black dots represent the sampling stations; gray triangles are nondetects (<MDL).

In conclusion, PFAA concentrations were higher in the NH compared to the SH, and there was a general decrease in PFAA concentrations with increasing distance to the coast and increasing depth. Homologues with a higher adsorption affinity tended to sorb to particulate matter and sink down the water column. Furthermore, vertical profiles enabled the Mediterranean to be identified as a likely source of PFAAs to the Atlantic, along with the English Channel. Finally, PFAAs were considered to be unsuitable ocean circulation tracers due to their complex origin of sources and partitioning behavior within the water column, i.e., their interaction with sinking particulate organic matter.

Supporting Information

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00119.

  • Additional information on materials and methods including additional tables and graphs (PDF)

  • All CTD data and concentrations (XLSX)

Terms & Conditions

Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

Acknowledgments

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

The Atlantic Meridional Transect is funded by the UK Natural Environment Research Council through its National Capability Long-term Single Centre Science Programme, Climate Linked Atlantic Sector Science (Grant Number NE/R015953/1). This study contributes to the international IMBeR project and is contribution number 390 of the AMT programme. The study received funding from the Swedish Research Council (2016-04131) and FORMAS (2016-00644 and 2020-01978).

References

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!

This article references 51 other publications.

  1. 1
    Prevedouros, K.; Cousins, I. T.; Buck, R. C.; Korzeniowski, S. H. Sources, Fate and Transport of Perfluorocarboxylates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40 (1), 3244,  DOI: 10.1021/es0512475
  2. 2
    Paul, A. G.; Jones, K. C.; Sweetman, A. J. A First Global Production, Emission, And Environmental Inventory For Perfluorooctane Sulfonate. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (2), 386392,  DOI: 10.1021/es802216n
  3. 3
    Wania, F. A Global Mass Balance Analysis of the Source of Perfluorocarboxylic Acids in the Arctic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41 (13), 45294535,  DOI: 10.1021/es070124c
  4. 4
    Armitage, J. M.; MacLeod, M.; Cousins, I. T. Comparative Assessment of the Global Fate and Transport Pathways of Long-Chain Perfluorocarboxylic Acids (PFCAs) and Perfluorocarboxylates (PFCs) Emitted from Direct Sources. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (15), 58305836,  DOI: 10.1021/es900753y
  5. 5
    Armitage, J. M.; Schenker, U.; Scheringer, M.; Martin, J. W.; MacLeod, M.; Cousins, I. T. Modeling the Global Fate and Transport of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Precursor Compounds in Relation to Temporal Trends in Wildlife Exposure. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (24), 92749280,  DOI: 10.1021/es901448p
  6. 6
    Armitage, J. M.; MacLeod, M.; Cousins, I. T. Modeling the Global Fate and Transport of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctanoate (PFO) Emitted from Direct Sources Using a Multispecies Mass Balance Model. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (4), 11341140,  DOI: 10.1021/es802900n
  7. 7
    Wang, P.; Lu, Y.; Wang, T.; Fu, Y.; Zhu, Z.; Liu, S.; Xie, S.; Xiao, Y.; Giesy, J. P. Occurrence and Transport of 17 Perfluoroalkyl Acids in 12 Coastal Rivers in South Bohai Coastal Region of China with Concentrated Fluoropolymer Facilities. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 190, 115122,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.03.030
  8. 8
    Wang, Z.; Boucher, J. M.; Scheringer, M.; Cousins, I. T.; Hungerbühler, K. Toward a Comprehensive Global Emission Inventory of C4–C10 Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids (PFSAs) and Related Precursors: Focus on the Life Cycle of C8-Based Products and Ongoing Industrial Transition. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (8), 44824493,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b06191
  9. 9
    Zhang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Dassuncao, C.; Lohmann, R.; Sunderland, E. M. North Atlantic Deep Water Formation Inhibits High Arctic Contamination by Continental Perfluorooctane Sulfonate Discharges. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2017, 31 (8), 13321343,  DOI: 10.1002/2017GB005624
  10. 10
    Boucher, J. M.; Cousins, I. T.; Scheringer, M.; Hungerbühler, K.; Wang, Z. Toward a Comprehensive Global Emission Inventory of C4–C10 Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids (PFSAs) and Related Precursors: Focus on the Life Cycle of C6- and C10-Based Products. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019, 6 (1), 17,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.8b00531
  11. 11
    Johansson, J. H.; Salter, M. E.; Acosta Navarro, J. C.; Leck, C.; Nilsson, E. D.; Cousins, I. T. Global Transport of Perfluoroalkyl Acids via Sea Spray Aerosol. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2019, 21 (4), 635649,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EM00525G
  12. 12
    Sha, B.; Johansson, J. H.; Benskin, J. P.; Cousins, I. T.; Salter, M. E. Influence of Water Concentrations of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) on Their Size-Resolved Enrichment in Nascent Sea Spray Aerosols. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (14), 94899497,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03804
  13. 13
    Sha, B.; Johansson, J. H.; Tunved, P.; Bohlin-Nizzetto, P.; Cousins, I. T.; Salter, M. E. Sea Spray Aerosol (SSA) as a Source of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) to the Atmosphere: Field Evidence from Long-Term Air Monitoring. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56 (1), 228238,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04277
  14. 14
    Wei, S.; Chen, L. Q.; Taniyasu, S.; So, M. K.; Murphy, M. B.; Yamashita, N.; Yeung, L. W. Y.; Lam, P. K. S. Distribution of Perfluorinated Compounds in Surface Seawaters between Asia and Antarctica. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2007, 54 (11), 18131818,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.08.002
  15. 15
    Yamashita, N.; Taniyasu, S.; Petrick, G.; Wei, S.; Gamo, T.; Lam, P. K. S.; Kannan, K. Perfluorinated Acids as Novel Chemical Tracers of Global Circulation of Ocean Waters. Chemosphere 2008, 70 (7), 12471255,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.07.079
  16. 16
    Ahrens, L.; Barber, J. L.; Xie, Z.; Ebinghaus, R. Longitudinal and Latitudinal Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Compounds in the Surface Water of the Atlantic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (9), 31223127,  DOI: 10.1021/es803507p
  17. 17
    Ahrens, L.; Xie, Z.; Ebinghaus, R. Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Compounds in Seawater from Northern Europe, Atlantic Ocean, and Southern Ocean. Chemosphere 2010, 78 (8), 10111016,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.11.038
  18. 18
    Zhao, Z.; Xie, Z.; Möller, A.; Sturm, R.; Tang, J.; Zhang, G.; Ebinghaus, R. Distribution and Long-Range Transport of Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Arctic, Atlantic Ocean and Antarctic Coast. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 170, 7177,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.004
  19. 19
    Benskin, J. P.; Muir, D. C. G.; Scott, B. F.; Spencer, C.; De Silva, A. O.; Kylin, H.; Martin, J. W.; Morris, A.; Lohmann, R.; Tomy, G.; Rosenberg, B.; Taniyasu, S.; Yamashita, N. Perfluoroalkyl Acids in the Atlantic and Canadian Arctic Oceans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (11), 58155823,  DOI: 10.1021/es300578x
  20. 20
    González-Gaya, B.; Dachs, J.; Roscales, J. L.; Caballero, G.; Jiménez, B. Perfluoroalkylated Substances in the Global Tropical and Subtropical Surface Oceans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (22), 1307613084,  DOI: 10.1021/es503490z
  21. 21
    Yeung, L. W. Y.; Dassuncao, C.; Mabury, S.; Sunderland, E. M.; Zhang, X.; Lohmann, R. Vertical Profiles, Sources, and Transport of PFASs in the Arctic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (12), 67356744,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00788
  22. 22
    Zhang, X.; Lohmann, R.; Sunderland, E. M. Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Seawater and Plankton from the Northwestern Atlantic Margin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (21), 1234812356,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03230
  23. 23
    Miranda, D. de A.; Leonel, J.; Benskin, J. P.; Johansson, J.; Hatje, V. Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Western Tropical Atlantic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (20), 1374913758,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01794
  24. 24
    Yamazaki, E.; Taniyasu, S.; Wang, X.; Yamashita, N. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water, Gas and Particle in Open Ocean and Coastal Environment. Chemosphere 2021, 272, 129869,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129869
  25. 25
    Han, T.; Chen, J.; Lin, K.; He, X.; Li, S.; Xu, T.; Xin, M.; Wang, B.; Liu, C.; Wang, J. Spatial Distribution, Vertical Profiles and Transport of Legacy and Emerging per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2022, 437, 129264,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129264
  26. 26
    Muir, D.; Miaz, L. T. Spatial and Temporal Trends of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Global Ocean and Coastal Waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (14), 95279537,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08035
  27. 27
    Al Amin, Md.; Sobhani, Z.; Liu, Y.; Dharmaraja, R.; Chadalavada, S.; Naidu, R.; Chalker, J. M.; Fang, C. Recent Advances in the Analysis of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)─A Review. Environmental Technology & Innovation 2020, 19, 100879,  DOI: 10.1016/j.eti.2020.100879
  28. 28
    Yamazaki, E.; Taniyasu, S.; Ruan, Y.; Wang, Q.; Petrick, G.; Tanhua, T.; Gamo, T.; Wang, X.; Lam, P. K. S.; Yamashita, N. Vertical Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Water Columns around the Japan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Chemosphere 2019, 231, 487494,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.132
  29. 29
    Joerss, H.; Xie, Z.; Wagner, C. C.; von Appen, W.-J.; Sunderland, E. M.; Ebinghaus, R. Transport of Legacy Perfluoroalkyl Substances and the Replacement Compound HFPO-DA through the Atlantic Gateway to the Arctic Ocean─Is the Arctic a Sink or a Source?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 (16), 99589967,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00228
  30. 30
    Sanchez-Vidal, A.; Llorca, M.; Farré, M.; Canals, M.; Barceló, D.; Puig, P.; Calafat, A. Delivery of Unprecedented Amounts of Perfluoroalkyl Substances towards the Deep-Sea. Science of The Total Environment 2015, 526, 4148,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.080
  31. 31
    Casal, P.; González-Gaya, B.; Zhang, Y.; Reardon, A. J. F.; Martin, J. W.; Jiménez, B.; Dachs, J. Accumulation of Perfluoroalkylated Substances in Oceanic Plankton. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (5), 27662775,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05821
  32. 32
    González-Gaya, B.; Casal, P.; Jurado, E.; Dachs, J.; Jiménez, B. Vertical Transport and Sinks of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Global Open Ocean. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2019, 21 (11), 19571969,  DOI: 10.1039/C9EM00266A
  33. 33
    Löfstedt Gilljam, J.; Leonel, J.; Cousins, I. T.; Benskin, J. P. Is Ongoing Sulfluramid Use in South America a Significant Source of Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)? Production Inventories, Environmental Fate, and Local Occurrence. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (2), 653659,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04544
  34. 34
    Catherine, M.; Nadège, B.; Charles, P.; Yann, A. Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in the Marine Environment: Spatial Distribution and Temporal Profile Shifts in Shellfish from French Coasts. Chemosphere 2019, 228, 640648,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.205
  35. 35
    Santucci, L.; Carol, E.; Tanjal, C. Industrial Waste as a Source of Surface and Groundwater Pollution for More than Half a Century in a Sector of the Río de La Plata Coastal Plain (Argentina). Chemosphere 2018, 206, 727735,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.084
  36. 36
    Bentancur, S.; López-Vázquez, C. M.; García, H. A.; Duarte, M.; Travers, D.; Brdjanovic, D. Resource Recovery Assessment at a Pulp Mill Wastewater Treatment Plant in Uruguay. Journal of Environmental Management 2020, 255, 109718,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109718
  37. 37
    Langberg, H. A.; Arp, H. P. H.; Breedveld, G. D.; Slinde, G. A.; Høiseter, Å.; Grønning, H. M.; Jartun, M.; Rundberget, T.; Jenssen, B. M.; Hale, S. E. Paper Product Production Identified as the Main Source of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in a Norwegian Lake: Source and Historic Emission Tracking. Environ. Pollut. 2021, 273, 116259,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116259
  38. 38
    No a La Sulfluramida: Razones para la Prohibición Mundial de este Agrótoxico. IPEN. https://ipen.org/documents/no-la-sulfluramida (accessed 2022–11–28).
  39. 39
    Rogerson, M.; Rohling, E. J.; Weaver, P. P. E.; Murray, J. W. The Azores Front since the Last Glacial Maximum. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2004, 222 (3), 779789,  DOI: 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.03.039
  40. 40
    Neuer, S.; Cianca, A.; Helmke, P.; Freudenthal, T.; Davenport, R.; Meggers, H.; Knoll, M.; Santana-Casiano, J. M.; González-Davila, M.; Rueda, M.-J.; Llinás, O. Biogeochemistry and Hydrography in the Eastern Subtropical North Atlantic Gyre. Results from the European Time-Series Station ESTOC. Progress in Oceanography 2007, 72 (1), 129,  DOI: 10.1016/j.pocean.2006.08.001
  41. 41
    Law, K. L.; Morét-Ferguson, S.; Maximenko, N. A.; Proskurowski, G.; Peacock, E. E.; Hafner, J.; Reddy, C. M. Plastic Accumulation in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. Science 2010, 329 (5996), 11851188,  DOI: 10.1126/science.1192321
  42. 42
    Reißig, S.; Nürnberg, D.; Bahr, A.; Poggemann, D.-W.; Hoffmann, J. Southward Displacement of the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre Circulation System During North Atlantic Cold Spells. Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 2019, 34 (5), 866885,  DOI: 10.1029/2018PA003376
  43. 43
    Ter Halle, A.; Jeanneau, L.; Martignac, M.; Jardé, E.; Pedrono, B.; Brach, L.; Gigault, J. Nanoplastic in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (23), 1368913697,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03667
  44. 44
    Egger, M.; Sulu-Gambari, F.; Lebreton, L. First Evidence of Plastic Fallout from the North Pacific Garbage Patch. Sci. Rep 2020, 10 (1), 7495,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64465-8
  45. 45
    Mato, Y.; Isobe, T.; Takada, H.; Kanehiro, H.; Ohtake, C.; Kaminuma, T. Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35 (2), 318324,  DOI: 10.1021/es0010498
  46. 46
    Rios, L. M.; Moore, C.; Jones, P. R. Persistent Organic Pollutants Carried by Synthetic Polymers in the Ocean Environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2007, 54 (8), 12301237,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022
  47. 47
    Wang, F.; Shih, K. M.; Li, X. Y. The Partition Behavior of Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) on Microplastics. Chemosphere 2015, 119, 841847,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.047
  48. 48
    Islam, N.; Garcia da Fonseca, T.; Vilke, J.; Gonçalves, J. M.; Pedro, P.; Keiter, S.; Cunha, S. C.; Fernandes, J. O.; Bebianno, M. J. Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid (PFOS) Adsorbed to Polyethylene Microplastics: Accumulation and Ecotoxicological Effects in the Clam Scrobicularia Plana. Marine Environmental Research 2021, 164, 105249,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105249
  49. 49
    Brumovský, M.; Karásková, P.; Borghini, M.; Nizzetto, L. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Western Mediterranean Sea Waters. Chemosphere 2016, 159, 308316,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.06.015
  50. 50
    García-Gallardo, Á.; Grunert, P.; Piller, W. E. Variations in Mediterranean–Atlantic Exchange across the Late Pliocene Climate Transition. Climate of the Past 2018, 14 (3), 339350,  DOI: 10.5194/cp-14-339-2018
  51. 51
    Lyu, X.; Xiao, F.; Shen, C.; Chen, J.; Park, C. M.; Sun, Y.; Flury, M.; Wang, D. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Subsurface Environments: Occurrence, Fate, Transport, and Research Prospect. Reviews of Geophysics 2022, 60 (3), e2021RG000765  DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000765

Cited By

Click to copy section linkSection link copied!
Citation Statements
Explore this article's citation statements on scite.ai

This article is cited by 11 publications.

  1. Cheng-Shiuan Lee, Oliver N. Shipley, Xiayan Ye, Nicholas S. Fisher, Austin J. Gallagher, Michael G. Frisk, Brendan S. Talwar, Eric V.C. Schneider, Arjun K. Venkatesan. Accumulation of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Coastal Sharks from Contrasting Marine Environments: The New York Bight and The Bahamas. Environmental Science & Technology 2024, 58 (29) , 13087-13098. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c02044
  2. Susan D. Richardson, Tarek Manasfi. Water Analysis: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues. Analytical Chemistry 2024, 96 (20) , 8184-8219. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.4c01423
  3. Matthew Dunn, Simon Vojta, Thomas Soltwedel, Wilken-Jon von Appen, Rainer Lohmann. Passive Sampler Derived Profiles and Mass Flows of Perfluorinated Alkyl Substances (PFASs) across the Fram Strait in the North Atlantic. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 2024, 11 (2) , 166-171. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00835
  4. Md Shahin Alam, Alireza Abbasi, Gang Chen. Fate, distribution, and transport dynamics of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in the environment. Journal of Environmental Management 2024, 371 , 123163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123163
  5. Yanhui Dai, Guopeng Tian, Hao Wang, Hanyu Yuan, Guodong Song, Honghai Zhang, Xia Liu, Tongtao Yue, Jian Zhao, Zhenyu Wang, Baoshan Xing. Distribution and bioaccumulation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Kuroshio Extension region of Northwest Pacific Ocean. Water Research 2024, 265 , 122256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122256
  6. Shuai Sun, Mengyuan Liang, Deling Fan, Wen Gu, Zhen Wang, Lili Shi, Ningbo Geng. Occurrence and profiles of perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewaters of chemical industrial parks and receiving river waters: Implications for the environmental impact of wastewater discharge. Science of The Total Environment 2024, 945 , 173993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173993
  7. Hui Lin, Yiyang Yang, Lihui Yang, Caiming Tang, Ying Yang, Shangtao Liang, Anqi Wang, Jiale Xu, Qingguo Huang. Treatment-train strategy realizes broad-spectrum capture of hundreds of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from fluorochemical wastewater. 2024https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4382526/v1
  8. Biraj Saha, Mohamed Ateia, Sujan Fernando, Jiale Xu, Thomas DeSutter, Syeed Md Iskander. PFAS occurrence and distribution in yard waste compost indicate potential volatile loss, downward migration, and transformation. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2024, 26 (4) , 657-666. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EM00538K
  9. Bo Sha, Jana H. Johansson, Matthew E. Salter, Sara M. Blichner, Ian T. Cousins. Constraining global transport of perfluoroalkyl acids on sea spray aerosol using field measurements. Science Advances 2024, 10 (14) https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl1026
  10. Olutobi Daniel Ogunbiyi, Neumiah Massenat, Natalia Quinete. Dispersion and stratification of Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in surface and deep-water profiles: A case study of the Biscayne Bay area. Science of The Total Environment 2024, 909 , 168413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168413
  11. Berrin Tansel. Geographical characteristics that promote persistence and accumulation of PFAS in coastal waters and open seas: Current and emerging hot spots. Environmental Challenges 2024, 14 , 100861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2024.100861
  12. C. Munschy, N. Bely, K. Héas-Moisan, N. Olivier, C. Pollono, R. Govinden, N. Bodin. Species-specific bioaccumulation of persistent organohalogen contaminants in a tropical marine ecosystem (Seychelles, western Indian Ocean). Chemosphere 2023, 336 , 139307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139307

Environmental Science & Technology Letters

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2023, 10, 5, 418–424
Click to copy citationCitation copied!
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00119
Published April 12, 2023

Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under

CC-BY 4.0 .

Article Views

3360

Altmetric

-

Citations

Learn about these metrics

Article Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.

Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.

The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated.

  • Abstract

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Map of the sampling stations along the transect and composition pattern of PFAAs (PFAAs below the detection limit are excluded) in the surface water samples (2 and 5 m) at the sampling stations.

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Spatial distribution of the sum of PFAAs in the northern and southern hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean. Black dots represent sample points where ΣPFAAs could be detected; gray triangles represent nondetects.

    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Distribution of PFNA in the vertical water column in the Northern Hemisphere. Black dots represent the sampling stations; gray triangles are nondetects (<MDL).

  • References


    This article references 51 other publications.

    1. 1
      Prevedouros, K.; Cousins, I. T.; Buck, R. C.; Korzeniowski, S. H. Sources, Fate and Transport of Perfluorocarboxylates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40 (1), 3244,  DOI: 10.1021/es0512475
    2. 2
      Paul, A. G.; Jones, K. C.; Sweetman, A. J. A First Global Production, Emission, And Environmental Inventory For Perfluorooctane Sulfonate. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (2), 386392,  DOI: 10.1021/es802216n
    3. 3
      Wania, F. A Global Mass Balance Analysis of the Source of Perfluorocarboxylic Acids in the Arctic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41 (13), 45294535,  DOI: 10.1021/es070124c
    4. 4
      Armitage, J. M.; MacLeod, M.; Cousins, I. T. Comparative Assessment of the Global Fate and Transport Pathways of Long-Chain Perfluorocarboxylic Acids (PFCAs) and Perfluorocarboxylates (PFCs) Emitted from Direct Sources. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (15), 58305836,  DOI: 10.1021/es900753y
    5. 5
      Armitage, J. M.; Schenker, U.; Scheringer, M.; Martin, J. W.; MacLeod, M.; Cousins, I. T. Modeling the Global Fate and Transport of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Precursor Compounds in Relation to Temporal Trends in Wildlife Exposure. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (24), 92749280,  DOI: 10.1021/es901448p
    6. 6
      Armitage, J. M.; MacLeod, M.; Cousins, I. T. Modeling the Global Fate and Transport of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctanoate (PFO) Emitted from Direct Sources Using a Multispecies Mass Balance Model. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (4), 11341140,  DOI: 10.1021/es802900n
    7. 7
      Wang, P.; Lu, Y.; Wang, T.; Fu, Y.; Zhu, Z.; Liu, S.; Xie, S.; Xiao, Y.; Giesy, J. P. Occurrence and Transport of 17 Perfluoroalkyl Acids in 12 Coastal Rivers in South Bohai Coastal Region of China with Concentrated Fluoropolymer Facilities. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 190, 115122,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.03.030
    8. 8
      Wang, Z.; Boucher, J. M.; Scheringer, M.; Cousins, I. T.; Hungerbühler, K. Toward a Comprehensive Global Emission Inventory of C4–C10 Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids (PFSAs) and Related Precursors: Focus on the Life Cycle of C8-Based Products and Ongoing Industrial Transition. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (8), 44824493,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b06191
    9. 9
      Zhang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Dassuncao, C.; Lohmann, R.; Sunderland, E. M. North Atlantic Deep Water Formation Inhibits High Arctic Contamination by Continental Perfluorooctane Sulfonate Discharges. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2017, 31 (8), 13321343,  DOI: 10.1002/2017GB005624
    10. 10
      Boucher, J. M.; Cousins, I. T.; Scheringer, M.; Hungerbühler, K.; Wang, Z. Toward a Comprehensive Global Emission Inventory of C4–C10 Perfluoroalkanesulfonic Acids (PFSAs) and Related Precursors: Focus on the Life Cycle of C6- and C10-Based Products. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019, 6 (1), 17,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.8b00531
    11. 11
      Johansson, J. H.; Salter, M. E.; Acosta Navarro, J. C.; Leck, C.; Nilsson, E. D.; Cousins, I. T. Global Transport of Perfluoroalkyl Acids via Sea Spray Aerosol. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2019, 21 (4), 635649,  DOI: 10.1039/C8EM00525G
    12. 12
      Sha, B.; Johansson, J. H.; Benskin, J. P.; Cousins, I. T.; Salter, M. E. Influence of Water Concentrations of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) on Their Size-Resolved Enrichment in Nascent Sea Spray Aerosols. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (14), 94899497,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03804
    13. 13
      Sha, B.; Johansson, J. H.; Tunved, P.; Bohlin-Nizzetto, P.; Cousins, I. T.; Salter, M. E. Sea Spray Aerosol (SSA) as a Source of Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs) to the Atmosphere: Field Evidence from Long-Term Air Monitoring. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56 (1), 228238,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04277
    14. 14
      Wei, S.; Chen, L. Q.; Taniyasu, S.; So, M. K.; Murphy, M. B.; Yamashita, N.; Yeung, L. W. Y.; Lam, P. K. S. Distribution of Perfluorinated Compounds in Surface Seawaters between Asia and Antarctica. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2007, 54 (11), 18131818,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.08.002
    15. 15
      Yamashita, N.; Taniyasu, S.; Petrick, G.; Wei, S.; Gamo, T.; Lam, P. K. S.; Kannan, K. Perfluorinated Acids as Novel Chemical Tracers of Global Circulation of Ocean Waters. Chemosphere 2008, 70 (7), 12471255,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.07.079
    16. 16
      Ahrens, L.; Barber, J. L.; Xie, Z.; Ebinghaus, R. Longitudinal and Latitudinal Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Compounds in the Surface Water of the Atlantic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43 (9), 31223127,  DOI: 10.1021/es803507p
    17. 17
      Ahrens, L.; Xie, Z.; Ebinghaus, R. Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Compounds in Seawater from Northern Europe, Atlantic Ocean, and Southern Ocean. Chemosphere 2010, 78 (8), 10111016,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.11.038
    18. 18
      Zhao, Z.; Xie, Z.; Möller, A.; Sturm, R.; Tang, J.; Zhang, G.; Ebinghaus, R. Distribution and Long-Range Transport of Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Arctic, Atlantic Ocean and Antarctic Coast. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 170, 7177,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.004
    19. 19
      Benskin, J. P.; Muir, D. C. G.; Scott, B. F.; Spencer, C.; De Silva, A. O.; Kylin, H.; Martin, J. W.; Morris, A.; Lohmann, R.; Tomy, G.; Rosenberg, B.; Taniyasu, S.; Yamashita, N. Perfluoroalkyl Acids in the Atlantic and Canadian Arctic Oceans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (11), 58155823,  DOI: 10.1021/es300578x
    20. 20
      González-Gaya, B.; Dachs, J.; Roscales, J. L.; Caballero, G.; Jiménez, B. Perfluoroalkylated Substances in the Global Tropical and Subtropical Surface Oceans. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (22), 1307613084,  DOI: 10.1021/es503490z
    21. 21
      Yeung, L. W. Y.; Dassuncao, C.; Mabury, S.; Sunderland, E. M.; Zhang, X.; Lohmann, R. Vertical Profiles, Sources, and Transport of PFASs in the Arctic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (12), 67356744,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b00788
    22. 22
      Zhang, X.; Lohmann, R.; Sunderland, E. M. Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Seawater and Plankton from the Northwestern Atlantic Margin. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (21), 1234812356,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03230
    23. 23
      Miranda, D. de A.; Leonel, J.; Benskin, J. P.; Johansson, J.; Hatje, V. Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Western Tropical Atlantic Ocean. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (20), 1374913758,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01794
    24. 24
      Yamazaki, E.; Taniyasu, S.; Wang, X.; Yamashita, N. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water, Gas and Particle in Open Ocean and Coastal Environment. Chemosphere 2021, 272, 129869,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129869
    25. 25
      Han, T.; Chen, J.; Lin, K.; He, X.; Li, S.; Xu, T.; Xin, M.; Wang, B.; Liu, C.; Wang, J. Spatial Distribution, Vertical Profiles and Transport of Legacy and Emerging per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2022, 437, 129264,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129264
    26. 26
      Muir, D.; Miaz, L. T. Spatial and Temporal Trends of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Global Ocean and Coastal Waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (14), 95279537,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08035
    27. 27
      Al Amin, Md.; Sobhani, Z.; Liu, Y.; Dharmaraja, R.; Chadalavada, S.; Naidu, R.; Chalker, J. M.; Fang, C. Recent Advances in the Analysis of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)─A Review. Environmental Technology & Innovation 2020, 19, 100879,  DOI: 10.1016/j.eti.2020.100879
    28. 28
      Yamazaki, E.; Taniyasu, S.; Ruan, Y.; Wang, Q.; Petrick, G.; Tanhua, T.; Gamo, T.; Wang, X.; Lam, P. K. S.; Yamashita, N. Vertical Distribution of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Water Columns around the Japan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. Chemosphere 2019, 231, 487494,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.132
    29. 29
      Joerss, H.; Xie, Z.; Wagner, C. C.; von Appen, W.-J.; Sunderland, E. M.; Ebinghaus, R. Transport of Legacy Perfluoroalkyl Substances and the Replacement Compound HFPO-DA through the Atlantic Gateway to the Arctic Ocean─Is the Arctic a Sink or a Source?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54 (16), 99589967,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00228
    30. 30
      Sanchez-Vidal, A.; Llorca, M.; Farré, M.; Canals, M.; Barceló, D.; Puig, P.; Calafat, A. Delivery of Unprecedented Amounts of Perfluoroalkyl Substances towards the Deep-Sea. Science of The Total Environment 2015, 526, 4148,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.080
    31. 31
      Casal, P.; González-Gaya, B.; Zhang, Y.; Reardon, A. J. F.; Martin, J. W.; Jiménez, B.; Dachs, J. Accumulation of Perfluoroalkylated Substances in Oceanic Plankton. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (5), 27662775,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05821
    32. 32
      González-Gaya, B.; Casal, P.; Jurado, E.; Dachs, J.; Jiménez, B. Vertical Transport and Sinks of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Global Open Ocean. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts 2019, 21 (11), 19571969,  DOI: 10.1039/C9EM00266A
    33. 33
      Löfstedt Gilljam, J.; Leonel, J.; Cousins, I. T.; Benskin, J. P. Is Ongoing Sulfluramid Use in South America a Significant Source of Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS)? Production Inventories, Environmental Fate, and Local Occurrence. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (2), 653659,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04544
    34. 34
      Catherine, M.; Nadège, B.; Charles, P.; Yann, A. Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in the Marine Environment: Spatial Distribution and Temporal Profile Shifts in Shellfish from French Coasts. Chemosphere 2019, 228, 640648,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.205
    35. 35
      Santucci, L.; Carol, E.; Tanjal, C. Industrial Waste as a Source of Surface and Groundwater Pollution for More than Half a Century in a Sector of the Río de La Plata Coastal Plain (Argentina). Chemosphere 2018, 206, 727735,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.084
    36. 36
      Bentancur, S.; López-Vázquez, C. M.; García, H. A.; Duarte, M.; Travers, D.; Brdjanovic, D. Resource Recovery Assessment at a Pulp Mill Wastewater Treatment Plant in Uruguay. Journal of Environmental Management 2020, 255, 109718,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109718
    37. 37
      Langberg, H. A.; Arp, H. P. H.; Breedveld, G. D.; Slinde, G. A.; Høiseter, Å.; Grønning, H. M.; Jartun, M.; Rundberget, T.; Jenssen, B. M.; Hale, S. E. Paper Product Production Identified as the Main Source of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in a Norwegian Lake: Source and Historic Emission Tracking. Environ. Pollut. 2021, 273, 116259,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116259
    38. 38
      No a La Sulfluramida: Razones para la Prohibición Mundial de este Agrótoxico. IPEN. https://ipen.org/documents/no-la-sulfluramida (accessed 2022–11–28).
    39. 39
      Rogerson, M.; Rohling, E. J.; Weaver, P. P. E.; Murray, J. W. The Azores Front since the Last Glacial Maximum. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2004, 222 (3), 779789,  DOI: 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.03.039
    40. 40
      Neuer, S.; Cianca, A.; Helmke, P.; Freudenthal, T.; Davenport, R.; Meggers, H.; Knoll, M.; Santana-Casiano, J. M.; González-Davila, M.; Rueda, M.-J.; Llinás, O. Biogeochemistry and Hydrography in the Eastern Subtropical North Atlantic Gyre. Results from the European Time-Series Station ESTOC. Progress in Oceanography 2007, 72 (1), 129,  DOI: 10.1016/j.pocean.2006.08.001
    41. 41
      Law, K. L.; Morét-Ferguson, S.; Maximenko, N. A.; Proskurowski, G.; Peacock, E. E.; Hafner, J.; Reddy, C. M. Plastic Accumulation in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. Science 2010, 329 (5996), 11851188,  DOI: 10.1126/science.1192321
    42. 42
      Reißig, S.; Nürnberg, D.; Bahr, A.; Poggemann, D.-W.; Hoffmann, J. Southward Displacement of the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre Circulation System During North Atlantic Cold Spells. Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 2019, 34 (5), 866885,  DOI: 10.1029/2018PA003376
    43. 43
      Ter Halle, A.; Jeanneau, L.; Martignac, M.; Jardé, E.; Pedrono, B.; Brach, L.; Gigault, J. Nanoplastic in the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (23), 1368913697,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03667
    44. 44
      Egger, M.; Sulu-Gambari, F.; Lebreton, L. First Evidence of Plastic Fallout from the North Pacific Garbage Patch. Sci. Rep 2020, 10 (1), 7495,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64465-8
    45. 45
      Mato, Y.; Isobe, T.; Takada, H.; Kanehiro, H.; Ohtake, C.; Kaminuma, T. Plastic Resin Pellets as a Transport Medium for Toxic Chemicals in the Marine Environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2001, 35 (2), 318324,  DOI: 10.1021/es0010498
    46. 46
      Rios, L. M.; Moore, C.; Jones, P. R. Persistent Organic Pollutants Carried by Synthetic Polymers in the Ocean Environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2007, 54 (8), 12301237,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022
    47. 47
      Wang, F.; Shih, K. M.; Li, X. Y. The Partition Behavior of Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanesulfonamide (FOSA) on Microplastics. Chemosphere 2015, 119, 841847,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.047
    48. 48
      Islam, N.; Garcia da Fonseca, T.; Vilke, J.; Gonçalves, J. M.; Pedro, P.; Keiter, S.; Cunha, S. C.; Fernandes, J. O.; Bebianno, M. J. Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid (PFOS) Adsorbed to Polyethylene Microplastics: Accumulation and Ecotoxicological Effects in the Clam Scrobicularia Plana. Marine Environmental Research 2021, 164, 105249,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105249
    49. 49
      Brumovský, M.; Karásková, P.; Borghini, M.; Nizzetto, L. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Western Mediterranean Sea Waters. Chemosphere 2016, 159, 308316,  DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.06.015
    50. 50
      García-Gallardo, Á.; Grunert, P.; Piller, W. E. Variations in Mediterranean–Atlantic Exchange across the Late Pliocene Climate Transition. Climate of the Past 2018, 14 (3), 339350,  DOI: 10.5194/cp-14-339-2018
    51. 51
      Lyu, X.; Xiao, F.; Shen, C.; Chen, J.; Park, C. M.; Sun, Y.; Flury, M.; Wang, D. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Subsurface Environments: Occurrence, Fate, Transport, and Research Prospect. Reviews of Geophysics 2022, 60 (3), e2021RG000765  DOI: 10.1029/2021RG000765
  • Supporting Information

    Supporting Information


    The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.3c00119.

    • Additional information on materials and methods including additional tables and graphs (PDF)

    • All CTD data and concentrations (XLSX)


    Terms & Conditions

    Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.