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Simplifying Microplastic via Continuous Probability Distributions for Size, Shape, and Density

  • Merel Kooi*
    Merel Kooi
    Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
    *E-mail: [email protected]
    More by Merel Kooi
  •  and 
  • Albert A. Koelmans
    Albert A. Koelmans
    Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
    More by Albert A. Koelmans
    Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-7176-4356
Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019, 6, 9, 551–557
Publication Date (Web):July 17, 2019
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00379

Copyright © 2022 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under CC-BY-NC-ND.

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Abstract

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Because of their diverse sizes, shapes, and densities, environmental microplastics are often perceived as complex. Many studies struggle with this complexity and either address only a part of this diversity or present data using discrete classifications for sizes, shapes, and densities. We argue that such classifications will never be fully satisfactory, as any definition using classes does not capture the essentially continuous nature of environmental microplastic. Therefore, we propose to simplify microplastics by fully defining them through a three-dimensional (3D) probability distribution, with size, shape, and density as dimensions. In addition to introducing the concept, we parametrize these probability distributions, using empirical data. This parametrization results in an approximate yet realistic representation of “true” environmental microplastic. This approach to simplifying microplastic could be applicable to exposure measurements, effect studies, and fate modeling. Furthermore, it allows for easy comparison between studies, irrespective of sampling or laboratory setup. We demonstrate how the 3D probability distribution of environmental versus ingested microplastic can be helpful in understanding the bioavailability of and exposure to microplastic. We argue that the concept of simplified microplastic will also be helpful in probabilistic risk modeling, which would greatly enhance our understanding of the risk that microplastics pose to the environment.

Introduction

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Microplastic particles are complex and diverse. (1) Their size, shape, and density vary along continuous scales. Additionally, microplastics consist of mixtures of polymers and chemical additives at various states of weathering. When microplastics are exposed in the natural environment, absorption of chemical contaminants and the formation of biofilms further enhance their complexity. (2,3) Consequently, the characteristics of environmental microplastics can be considered to cover a continuous parameter space rather than a limited set of discrete values. The research community sometimes struggles with the definition of microplastics. (4) Several recent reviews characterize microplastic particles using discrete size fractions, polymer types, and shape characteristics. (3,4) Such classifications using discrete categories may be useful for describing approximate properties or in regulatory frameworks. (5) However, we argue that such characterizations will never be fully satisfactory. After all, any definition using classes does not capture the continuous nature of microplastics. Whatever boundaries are taken, within those boundaries the actual distribution still can be manifold. This is perhaps most conspicuous for particle size, but microplastic density and shape also have a continuous nature. Defining a polymer type may be useful when referring to pristine materials or studying the origin of particles but is less useful when studying the physical properties of environmental microplastic. After all, in the environment, each original polymer has become more or less dense due to weathering, embrittlement, and biofouling. (6) Shape is continuous, as well, and no classification (e.g., beads, fibers, foam, fragments, and sheets) will ever be able to accurately capture the full variability of shapes.
Here, we propose that environmental microplastics can best be simplified using a set of distribution functions capturing their main characteristics along continuous scales. This concerns the characteristics of the particles and not the abundance in the environment. The abundance of microplastic is highly relevant to understand the risks of the presence of the particles; however, this is not as such a characteristic of the material, and microplastic abundance has been studied and summarized extensively previously. (3,7,8) The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the added value of simplifying microplastics using continuous distributions for size, density, and shape. In addition to introducing the concept of environmental microplastic via probability distributions, we propose mathematical functions that can capture the measured variability of microplastics with respect to size, shape, and density. Distribution functions are selected and fitted, which represent empirical data on microplastics more accurately than when using discrete categorizations. This leads to a characterization that is more loyal to the real material. We discuss how the concept may be used in fate modeling, exposure and effect assessments, and, ultimately, risk assessment.

Materials and Methods

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Simplifying Size

Particle size distributions of natural particles in aquatic systems have been studied extensively. Different distributions have been found, with log-normal, bimodal, and power law distributions proven to be effective models. (9−11) Microplastic is usually expected to also show a power law distribution, because fragmentation causes the particles to break down in ever smaller pieces. (12−14) Hence, we fitted a power law curve to data of peer-reviewed studies. These studies were found using databases such as Scopus and Google Scholar, with the final search in May 2019. For a study to be included, results had to be presented in ≥10 size bins in the microplastic size range (<5 mm) to allow for meaningful data fitting. The exponent α was fitted using
(1)
where x is the particle size (micrometers) in its longest dimension and y is the abundance (percent). Fitted values for b were not very relevant, because they depend on the unit of y (e.g., abundance in percent, number, or number per cubic meter). However, b could be rewritten as a function of xmin and α:
(2)
where xmin is the minimum particle size for which the equation is valid. Linear regression was used to assess the values and statistical significance of α.

Simplifying Shape

Microplastics are often classified in several shape categories, commonly named fragments, fibers, films, foam, and beads. (3) However, no universal definition exists to classify particles on the basis of shape, whereas per category the actual shapes still are highly diverse. (4,15) Additionally, while they might be useful for legislation, descriptive shape categories have little meaning when studying the fate of particles. Therefore, we propose a more generalized approach using length:width:height (L:W:H) ratios for the different shape categories. Being the largest dimension, all lengths were assigned a value of 1, resulting in widths and heights of ≤1. Because the relative dimensions of each shape category vary, we included upper and lower limits for the particle widths and heights. For fragments and foam, a W:H ratio of 1 was assumed as an upper limit, while for the lower limit, we assumed the W:H ratio to be equal to the L:W ratio. (16) Fibers are usually cylindrical with respect to their primary shape (i.e., not coiled up), so the W:H ratio = 1. The L:W = H ratio can vary between 0.5 and 0.001. (17−19) Films were assumed to have an L:W ratio similar to that of fragments but usually are thinner. Therefore, the height was assumed to be 10 times smaller than that for fragments. This assumption is valid for microplastics, because a 5 mm film with a thickness of 20 μm, a thin plastic bag, results in an L:H ratio of 0.004, which falls inside our range. Finally, beads vary between perfect spheres with an L:W:H of 1 to more ellipsoidal particles. On the basis of analysis of published pictures with ImageJ, an L:W ratio of 0.60 was found for beads. (20) Again assuming a similar ratio for the W:H ratio, the smaller height limit was set at 0.36. Please note that these ratios were defined for microplastic, not macroplastic. A plastic bag (30 cm) can still be 20 μm thin and would thus have a ratio of 10–5. For these larger plastics, it is better to use the actual size instead of normalized ratios.
We assumed a triangular distribution to capture the variability in each shape category, with the upper and lower limits as the minimum and maximum, respectively, and the most abundant shape in the middle of the lower and upper limit. (21,22) On the basis of the resulting L:W:H ratio distributions, we calculated dimensionless Corey shape factor (CSF) distributions: (23,24)
(3)
Other shape factors have also been applied to microplastics, such as the aspect ratio, (25) the equivalent spherical diameter, (26) or a shape factor based on the surface area and perimeter. (27) By using the CSF, some of the key implications of shape for fate processes are preserved, such as the three-dimensional (3D) aspect needed to describe settling behavior. For the relative abundances of shape categories, their average abundances in water (based on 46 studies) and sediment (based on 45 studies) were used. (3) Given this high number and the diversity of the studies used, the data cover a large range of locations as well as a wide range of ages and weathering stages of the plastic particles. (28,29) By combining the triangular shape factor distributions and the relative abundance of each of the shape categories, we generated a universal shape distribution for environmental microplastic (random number generator; n = 107). The distribution showed a bimodal shape (eq 4), which was fitted using the package mixtools in RStudio. (30,31)
(4)
where f, μ, and σ are the relative contribution, mean, and standard deviation of the two normal distributions, respectively. A Pearson χ2 test was used to test if the fit of the modeled distribution to the data was statistically significant.

Simplifying Density

Data on the abundance of microplastic polymer types in water and sediment were combined with lower and upper density limits of pristine polymers, as reported in the literature. The effect of weathering, e.g., biofouling, ultraviolet degradation, or mechanical abrasion, on polymer density was taken into account using the work of Kaiser et al. (32) According to their work, the settling velocity of polystyrene particles (PS, 1 mm) can increase by 81% when they are fouled. This corresponds to an 81% increase in the density difference between the particle and water, assuming a constant size and flow regime. We applied this percent increase to the upper density limit of all nonfloating polymers. Floating polyethylene particles (PE, 1 mm) were found to settle after fouling, with settling velocities as high as 0.04 m/s. (32) Given this settling velocity, the water density, and the particle size, we estimated an equivalent particle density of 1.099 g/cm3 based on the Stokes settling equation. Because the initial particles had a density of 0.955 g/cm3, the density increased by 15%. We applied this density increase percentage to the upper limit of all floating polymers.
All common polymer types have been found in surface water samples. (3,33) This indicates that despite the lower limit of pristine polymer density exceeding that of water, they remain in suspension. Because very little is known about the degradation and the subsequent density decrease of polymers, we assumed a lower limit of 1 g/cm3 for these polymers (summarized in Table S3). Triangular distributions for the density of individual polymers were assumed, with the upper and lower limit as the minimum and maximum, respectively, for the distribution. Random data points (n = 107) were generated with the triangular distributions and the relative abundance of each polymer type as inputs.
The resulting continuous density distribution showed a normal-inverse Gaussian shape, which was fitted accordingly (eq 5).
(5)
where μ, δ, α, and β represent the location, scale, tail heaviness, and asymmetry of the distribution, respectively. K1 is a modified Bessel function of the third kind with order 1. (34) A Pearson χ2 test was used to test if the fit of the modeled distribution to the data was statistically significant.

Results and Discussion

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A Probability Distribution for Size

Nineteen particle size distributions with data for ≥10 size bins were available from 11 studies, with some studies presenting their results separately for different locations or plastic types (Table S1). (35−45) The data of these studies showed one of two different patterns. Either they showed a decrease in particle concentration with an increase in size, or they found an initial increase in concentration with particle size, followed by a decrease similar to the first mentioned pattern. There are two explanations for this initial increase. First, small microplastics at the surface of the water are more susceptible to wind mixing, fouling, and aggregation, (46−48) which would decrease their abundance. Second, the smallest particles are easily overlooked in the sample analyses, leading to an analysis bias, especially because some studies used visual inspection for <0.5 mm particles. (49) However, because we aim to address environmental microplastic particles, and not just those at the water surface, and because underestimation of abundances in the lower size ranges is likely, we here included only the data showing a decreasing concentration with an increasing particle size. Because number concentrations are lower for larger particles (Figure 1), in some studies the detection limit was reached for these larger particles. Below this limit, detecting a single particle is a matter of chance, leading to binary number concentrations (i.e., irregularly intermittent 0 and 1 counts), which can easily be seen in the data. (40−42) We calculated the detection limit of these studies and included only data higher than the detection limit (explanation provided as Supporting Information). The fitted power law resulted in an average ± standard deviation exponent α = 1.6 ± 0.5 (n = 19) (Figure 1). The goodness of fit (R2) varied between 0.53 and 0.97 (Table S4). For microplastic, we propose that xmin (eq 2) equals 20 μm, which is a common detection limit for the analysis of microplastics using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. (50,51) Because the function has an infinite tail toward the larger particles, a cutoff at 5 mm was assumed. Theoretically, the slope (α) can range between 0 and 3, with a value of 3 representing 3D fragmentation with full conservation of mass. (14,52) Therefore, a value of 1.6 suggests that fragmentation of plastic might partly be two-dimensional (2D) (e.g., for sheets). (52) Additionally, the size distribution not only is driven by fragmentation but also depends on size selective emissions and processes. (52) The agreement in the value of α across data sets confirms our hypothesis with respect to the generic features of the microplastic size distributions, which subsequently can be used to generalize this aspect of the material for prospective purposes. With lower and upper boundaries of 20 μm and 5 mm, respectively, this results in a generic continuous particle size distribution, which can be compared to any study reporting continuous data, independent of the sampling design.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Relative microplastic abundance for different particle sizes. The fitted trend lines, y = bx–α or log(y) = c – α log(x), have similar slopes on a log–log scale, with an average exponent value of α = 1.6 (n = 19). The legend refers to the marine (“Sea”) or freshwater (“Fresh”) environment, where samples were taken in the water (“Surf”) or in the sediment (“Sed”). Some studies differentiated between different plastic types, namely, fibers (“Fiber”) and fragments (“Frag”). Studies that did not specify their plastic types are labeled “All”. FP refers to floodplain. L1–L4 refer to four different locations studied by Isobe et al. (42) The data and the data selection steps are available in the Supporting Information. A graph including all data points, that is, including zero values and data below and beyond the detection limits, is included in the Supporting Information (Figure S1).

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A Probability Distribution for Shape

The most abundant shape category of microplastic in water and sediment is fibers (48.5%), followed by fragments (31%), beads (6.5%), films (5.5%), and foam (3.5%). (3) Combining these abundance data with the triangular shape distributions (Table S2 and Figure S2) resulted in a continuous bimodal microplastic shape distribution (Figure 2A). The fitted parameter values for eq 4 were as follows: f1 = 0.06, f2 = 0.94, σ1 = 0.03, σ2 = 0.19, μ1 = 0.08, and μ2 = 0.44 (see Table S5 for standard errors). A Pearson χ2 test indicated that the optimized distribution fits the data well (the fitted model did not differ significantly from the data; p = 0.231 > 0.05). The distribution is dominated by fibers and fragments (CSF = 0.25–0.75) but also has a distinct second peak at a CSF of 0.07, which is mainly attributed to sheets (Figure 2A). The distribution captures the main features of shapes encountered in the environment as well as the relative abundances of these (now continuous) shapes in one go. Most illustrative though is the continuous character of microplastic shape.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Distributions and fitted models for randomly generated data (n = 106). (A) Shape distribution of microplastic, expressed as Corey shape factor. A bimodal distribution was fitted through the data (solid line), which is the sum of two normal distributions (dotted lines). (B) Density distribution of microplastic, with a fitted normal-inverse Gaussian distribution (solid line).

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A Probability Distribution for Density

The most common microplastic polymer types in the aquatic environment are PE (25%), PET (16.5%), PA (12%), PP (14%), PS (8.5%), PVA (6%), and PVC (2%). (3,33) Lower and upper density limits (grams per cubic centimeter) of these microplastic polymer types as reported in microplastic literature are 0.89–0.98 for PE, 0.96–1.45 for PET, 1.02–1.16 for PA, 0.83–0.92 for PP, 1.04–1.10 for PS, 1.19–1.31 for PVA, and 1.10–1.58 for PVC. (6,53−56) We assumed triangular density distributions for the different polymer types, given these lower and upper limits. These distributions were combined with the occurrence percentages, which resulted in a trimodal distribution, with a clear gap around 1.0 g/cm3 (Figure S3a). When the aforementioned effect of biofouling was included, a more continuous distribution was obtained (Figure S3b and Table S3). Finally, assuming all polymers can have a density as low as 1 g/cm3, we obtain a continuous density distribution (Figure 2B). The normal-inverse Gaussian distribution was fitted, resulting in the following parameter values for eq 5: μ = 0.84, δ = 0.097, α = 75.1, and β = 71.3 (see Table S6 for standard errors). The normal-inverse Gaussian distribution with the parameters mentioned above significantly fitted the data, because the Pearson χ2 test gives p = 0.234 > 0.05, so the data did not differ significantly from the model. The distribution successfully captures the continuous nature of microplastic densities in the environment.

Environmental Microplastic as a Three-Dimensional Probability Distribution of Size, Shape, and Density

With these defined distributions for microplastic size, shape, and density, we can illustrate the concept of microplastic as a probability distribution in three dimensions, a 3D microplastic space. Independent random numbers (n = 104) were generated for microplastic size, shape, and density, using the newly obtained distributions as input. Here, we used the best estimate for the parameter values, but the standard errors can also be utilized to further account for the uncertainty and diversity in these estimates. We assumed size, shape, and density to be independent, because a large majority of plastic is secondary and all particles are subject to similar weathering processes. The 3D probability distribution was created by plotting each combination of the three plastic properties (Figure 3A). Additionally, 2D kernel density contour plots were obtained for each combination of the plastic properties (Figure 3B and Figure S3). In the contour plots, the imposed boundaries for particle size (20–5000 μm) and shape (0–1) are visible. On average, environmental microplastic appears to have a density of ∼1 g/cm3, a size of 20 μm, and a CSF of 0.4 (Figure 3 and Figure S4).

Figure 3

Figure 3. (A) Environmental microplastic as a probability distribution in three dimensions, defining the features of microplastic in the 3D parameter space. Colors indicate the CSF from 0 (blue) to 1 (red). The dots are the randomly generated points (n = 104) in the 3D space, and the lines illustrate the location on the x–y plane. (B) Kernel density plot of the same parameter space, with the black contours representing the kernel density for the whole microplastic space and the white contours for those of only the microplastics found in the body of Gammarus pulex. (57)

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Merits and Limitations of Microplastic Represented as 3D Probability Distributions

Fate modeling, exposure assessments, effect studies, and risk assessments may benefit from representing environmental microplastic as a distribution in 3D parameter space. Recognizing the 3D microplastic space as depicted in Figure 3A may be helpful in communicating the continuous nature of microplastic, which makes the material difficult to understand and different from other environmental stressors. At the same time, the concept we propose is a substantial simplification of the current approaches. After all, the number of parameters required by the three mathematical functions (n = 12 parameters) is far lower than the number of descriptors currently used to define the numerous discrete shape, size, and polymer identities of environmental microplastic. Furthermore, this replacement by continuous functions has an advantage in that it interpolates between discrete categorical descriptors and thus is more accurate.
Studies of microplastic abundance and fate can report data as distributions and compare them with the here reported parametrized distribution functions. For example, a recent study illustrated the use of continuous distributions for microplastic settling velocities. (58) Another example is that effect studies often consider the size fraction that is bioavailable (27,57) and the effect of particle morphology on ingestion and egestion rates. (59,60) Such size fractions or shapes now can easily be selected from the generic distributions for different species, such that they best fit their species-specific traits. For instance, we can plot the characteristics of the microplastic ingested by Gammarus pulex, as found by Redondo-Hasselerharm et al., in a 2D kernel density plot (Figure 3B). From this figure, we can see that a large portion of the size range of environmental microplastic is bioavailable for Gammarus and that the organisms mainly ingested the particles of the most common shape (Figure 3B). (57) With this kind of comparison, a clear view of which part of the parameter space would be relevant for assessing risks of microplastic exposure for this species is provided.
Model studies often use distributions to capture the variability and uncertainty of certain parameters. (61,62) We propose that the distributions presented here can be used as a first approximation of environmental microplastic, in such model simulations. We emphasize that these calibrations are provisional and probably tend toward the aquatic environment. We did not provide distributions for some other processes or properties, e.g., for complex aggregate characteristics, color, biofilm features, or chemical composition. If more data become available, parameter values may be reset or tuned to other specific environments. Also, these distributions will not necessarily be equal to microplastic distributions for all specific locations, because we aimed to represent the average material and therefore combined data sets. For many applications, including prospective modeling and risk assessments, such average characteristics are of interest. To date, probabilistic approaches have not been applied in microplastic risk research. It is, however, common practice in comparable research fields, such as for the assessment of nanoparticles (63−65) and chemicals. (66,67) The limited number of microplastic risk assessments performed so far all had to deal with limited, fragmented, and often incomparable data. (3,68,69) When future studies would strive at reporting microplastic characteristics along continuous scales, more rigorous probabilistic risk assessments could be made, which would greatly enhance the understanding of the risk that microplastic poses.

Supporting Information

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The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00379.

  • Description of the data selection for the size distribution; details of the studies used for the size distributions (Table S1); size distributions including zero values and concentrations below and beyond the detection limits (Figure S1); L:W:H ratios for different shape classes (Figure S2 and Table S2); abundance and density distributions for pristine and weathered plastics (Figure S3 and Table S3); kernel density plots for microplastic size, shape, and density (Figure S4); regression statistics for the size distributions (Table S4); statistics for the bimodal distribution fitting (Table S5); and statistics for the inverse Gaussian distribution fitting (Table S6) (PDF)

  • All data collected from the original published figures (XLSX)

Terms & Conditions

Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Author
    • Merel Kooi - Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;  Email: [email protected]
  • Author
    • Albert A. Koelmans - Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0001-7176-4356
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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The authors thank Paula Redondo-Hasselerharm for providing data on ingestion of microplastics. This study was funded by the Dutch Technology Foundation NWO-TTW (Project 13940). The authors acknowledge additional support from KWR, IMARES, NVWA, RIKILT, the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, The Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, Wageningen Food & Biobased Research, STOWA, RIWA, and water boards Hoogheemraadschap van Delfland, Zuiderzeeland, Rijn en IJssel, Vechtstromen, Scheldestromen, Aa en Maas, de Dommel, and Rivierenland.

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    The size, mass, and composition of plastic debris in the western North Atlantic Ocean
    Moret-Ferguson, Skye; Law, Kara Lavender; Proskurowski, Giora; Murphy, Ellen K.; Peacock, Emily E.; Reddy, Christopher M.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2010), 60 (10), 1873-1878CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    This study reports the first inventory of phys. properties of individual plastic debris in the North Atlantic. We analyzed 748 samples for size, mass, and material compn. collected from surface net tows on 11 expeditions from Cape Cod, Massachusetts to the Caribbean Sea between 1991 and 2007. Particles were mostly fragments less than 10 mm in size with nearly all lighter than 0.05 g. Material densities ranged from 0.808 to 1.24 g ml-1, with about half between 0.97 and 1.04 g ml-1, a range not typically found in virgin plastics. Elemental anal. suggests that samples in this d. range are consistent with polypropylene and polyethylene whose densities have increased, likely due to biofouling. Pelagic densities varied considerably from that of beach plastic debris, suggesting that plastic particles are modified during their residence at sea. These analyses provide clues in understanding particle fate and potential debris sources, and address ecol. implications of pelagic plastic debris.
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    Li, J.; Liu, H.; Chen, J. P. Microplastics in Freshwater Systems: A Review on Occurrence, Environmental Effects, and Methods for Microplastics Detection. Water Res. 2018, 137, 362– 374,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.056
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    Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review on occurrence, environmental effects, and methods for microplastics detection
    Li, Jingyi; Liu, Huihui; Chen, J. Paul
    Water Research (2018), 137 (), 362-374CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    The continuous increase in synthetic plastic prodn. and poor management in plastic waste have led to a tremendous increase in the dumping into our aq. environment. Consequently, microplastics commonly defined as sizes less than 5 mm are produced and stay in both seawater and freshwater environment. The presence of microplastics as a new type of emerging contaminant has become a great issue of concerns from public and government authorities. The sources of microplastics to freshwater systems are many with the largest portion from wastewater treatment plants. The abundance of microplastics varies with the location, from above 1 million pieces per cubic meter to less than 1 piece in 100 cubic meters. Microplastics can cause several harmful phys. effects on humans and living organisms through such mechanisms as entanglement and ingestion. The microplastics can act as carriers of various toxins such as additives from industrial prodn. processes and persistent contaminants by the sorption in waters. Those toxins may cause great health problems to humans. A few studies on the fishes demonstrated that the microplastics and the assocd. toxins are bio-accumulated and cause such problems as intestinal damage and change in metabolic profiles. In studies of microplastics, fresh water is first sampled by the nets with typical mesh size of 330 μm for collection of microplastics. After the vol. reducing process, the samples will then go through the purifn. process including d. sepn. by such inorg. salts as sodium chloride and digestion process by oxidizing agents or enzymes. The sequence of these two processes (namely purifn. and digestion) is dependent on the sample type. The purified samples can be studied by several anal. methods. The commonly used methods for the qualification studies are FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, pyrolysis-GC/MS, and liq. chromatog. A tagging method can be used in the quantification study. Our literature study finds that there is still no universal accepted quantification and qualification tools of microplastics in fresh waters. More work is anticipated so as to obtain accurate information on microplastics in freshwater, which can then be used for the better assessment of the environmental risk.
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    Koelmans, A. A.; Mohamed Nor, N. H.; Hermsen, E.; Kooi, M.; Mintenig, S. M.; De France, J. Microplastics in Freshwaters and Drinking Water: Critical Review and Assessment of Data Quality. Water Res. 2019, 155, 410– 422,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.02.054
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    Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking water: Critical review and assessment of data quality
    Koelmans, Albert A.; Mohamed Nor, Nur Hazimah; Hermsen, Enya; Kooi, Merel; Mintenig, Svenja M.; De France, Jennifer
    Water Research (2019), 155 (), 410-422CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Microplastics have recently been detected in drinking water as well as in drinking water sources. This presence has triggered discussions on possible implications for human health. However, there have been questions regarding the quality of these occurrence studies since there are no std. sampling, extn. and identification methods for microplastics. Accordingly, we assessed the quality of fifty studies researching microplastics in drinking water and in its major freshwater sources. This includes an assessment of microplastic occurrence data from river and lake water, groundwater, tap water and bottled drinking water. Studies of occurrence in wastewater were also reviewed. We review and propose best practices to sample, ext. and detect microplastics and provide a quant. quality assessment of studies reporting microplastic concns. Further, we summarize the findings related to microplastic concns., polymer types and particle shapes. Microplastics are frequently present in freshwaters and drinking water, and no. concns. spanned ten orders of magnitude (1 × 10-2 to 108 #/m3) across individual samples and water types. However, only four out of 50 studies received pos. scores for all proposed quality criteria, implying there is a significant need to improve quality assurance of microplastic sampling and anal. in water samples. The order in globally detected polymers in these studies is PE ≈ PP > PS > PVC > PET, which probably reflects the global plastic demand and a higher tendency for PVC and PET to settle as a result of their higher densities. Fragments, fibers, film, foam and pellets were the most frequently reported shapes. We conclude that more high quality data is needed on the occurrence of microplastics in drinking water, to better understand potential exposure and to inform human health risk assessments.
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    Cózar, A.; Echevarría, F.; González-Gordillo, J. I.; Irigoien, X.; Ubeda, B.; Hernández-León, S.; Palma, A. T.; Navarro, S.; García-de-Lomas, J.; Ruiz, A. Plastic Debris in the Open Ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2014, 111, 10239– 10244,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1314705111
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    Plastic debris in the open ocean
    Cozar, Andres; Echevarria, Fidel; Gonzalez-Gordillo, J. Ignacio; Irigoien, Xabier; Ubeda, Barbara; Hernandez-Leon, Santiago; Palma, Alvaro T.; Navarro, Sandra; Garcia-de-Lomas, Juan; Ruiz, Andrea; Fernandez-de-Puelles, Maria L.; Duarte, Carlos M.
    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2014), 111 (28), 10239-10244CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
    There is a rising concern regarding the accumulation of floating plastic debris in the open ocean. However, the magnitude and the fate of this pollution are still open questions. Using data from the Malaspina 2010 circumnavigation, regional surveys, and previously published reports, we show a worldwide distribution of plastic on the surface of the open ocean, mostly accumulating in the convergence zones of each of the five subtropical gyres with comparable d. However, the global load of plastic on the open ocean surface was estd. to be on the order of tens of thousands of tons, far less than expected. Our observations of the size distribution of floating plastic debris point at important size-selective sinks removing millimeter-sized fragments of floating plastic on a large scale. This sink may involve a combination of fast nano-fragmentation of the microplastic into particles of microns or smaller, their transference to the ocean interior by food webs and ballasting processes, and processes yet to be discovered. Resolving the fate of the missing plastic debris is of fundamental importance to det. the nature and significance of the impacts of plastic pollution in the ocean.
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    Shim, W. J.; Hong, S. H.; Eo, S. Marine Microplastics: Abundance, Distribution, and Composition. In Microplastic Contamination in Aquatic Environments; Elsevier, 2018; pp 1– 26.
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    Simon, M.; van Alst, N.; Vollertsen, J. Quantification of Microplastic Mass and Removal Rates at Wastewater Treatment Plants Applying Focal Plane Array (FPA)-Based Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Imaging. Water Res. 2018, 142, 1,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.019
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    Quantification of microplastic mass and removal rates at wastewater treatment plants applying Focal Plane Array (FPA)-based Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) imaging
    Simon, Marta; van Alst, Nikki; Vollertsen, Jes
    Water Research (2018), 142 (), 1-9CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    This paper presents a method for microplastic (MP) mass quantification using a Focal Plane Array-based Fourier Transform IR imaging technique. It discusses the issue that particle no. is not a conserved base quantity and hence less suited than mass to compare independent studies on MP in the environment. It concludes that MP mass should be included when quantifying MP pollution in the environment, supplementing the conventional approach of reporting particle nos. Applying mass as the unit of MP measurement, the paper presents data showing that Danish wastewater treatment plants discharge around 3 t/yr of MP in the size range 10-500μm. This value corresponds to an annual per capita emission from these plants of 0.56 g MP/(capita year). The distribution of polymer types by mass and particle no. differed because the size of MP particles of the different material types varied.
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    Dris, R.; Gasperi, J.; Saad, M.; Mirande, C.; Tassin, B. Synthetic Fibers in Atmospheric Fallout: A Source of Microplastics in the Environment?. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 104 (1–2), 290– 293,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.006
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    17
    Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment?
    Dris, Rachid; Gasperi, Johnny; Saad, Mohamed; Mirande, Cecile; Tassin, Bruno
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 104 (1-2), 290-293CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Sources, pathways and reservoirs of microplastics, plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, remain poorly documented in an urban context. While some studies pointed out wastewater treatment plants as a potential pathway of microplastics, none have focused on the atm. compartment. In this work, the atm. fallout of microplastics was investigated in two different urban and sub-urban sites. Microplastics were collected continuously with a stainless steel funnel. Samples were then filtered and obsd. with a stereomicroscope. Fibers accounted for almost all the microplastics collected. An atm. fallout between 2 and 355 particles/m2/day was highlighted. Registered fluxes were systematically higher at the urban than at the sub-urban site. Chem. characterization allowed to est. at 29% the proportion of these fibers being all synthetic (made with petrochems.), or a mixt. of natural and synthetic material. Extrapolation using wt. and vol. ests. of the collected fibers, allowed a rough estn. showing that between 3 and 10 tons of fibers are deposited by atm. fallout at the scale of the Parisian agglomeration every year (2500 km2). These results could serve the scientific community working on the different sources of microplastic in both continental and marine environments.
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    Cole, M. A Novel Method for Preparing Microplastic Fibers. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34519,  DOI: 10.1038/srep34519
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    A novel method for preparing microplastic fibers
    Cole, Matthew
    Scientific Reports (2016), 6 (), 34519CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Microscopic plastic (microplastic, 0.1 μm-5 mm) is a widespread pollutant impacting upon aquatic ecosystems across the globe. Environmental sampling has revealed synthetic fibers are prevalent in seawater, sediments and biota. However, microplastic fibers are rarely used in lab. studies as they are unavailable for purchase and existing prepn. techniques have limited application. To facilitate the incorporation of environmentally relevant microplastic fibers into future studies, new methods are required. Here, a novel cryotome protocol has been developed. Nylon, polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene fibers (10-28 μm diam.) were aligned, embedded in water-sol. freezing agent, and sectioned (40-100 μm length) using a cryogenic microtome. Microplastic fibers were prepd. to specified lengths (P < 0.05, ANOVA) and proved consistent in size. Fluorescent labeling of Nylon microfibers with Nile Red facilitated imaging. A 24 h feeding expt. confirmed bioavailability of 10 × 40 μm Nylon fibers to brine shrimp (Artemia sp). This protocol provides a consistent method for prepg. standardized fibrous microplastics, with widths similar to those obsd. in the natural environment, which could ultimately lead to a better understanding of the biol. and ecol. effects of microplastic debris in the environment.
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    Hernandez, E.; Nowack, B.; Mitrano, D. M. Polyester Textiles as a Source of Microplastics from Households: A Mechanistic Study to Understand Microfiber Release during Washing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (12), 7036– 7046,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b01750
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    19
    Polyester Textiles as a Source of Microplastics from Households: A Mechanistic Study to Understand Microfiber Release During Washing
    Hernandez, Edgar; Nowack, Bernd; Mitrano, Denise M.
    Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (12), 7036-7046CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Microplastic fibers make up a large proportion of microplastics found in the environment, esp. in urban areas. There is good reason to consider synthetic textiles a major source of microplastic fibers and it will not diminish since the use of synthetic fabrics, esp. polyester, continues to increase. In this study we provide quant. data regarding the size and mass of microplastic fibers released from synthetic (polyester) textiles during simulated home washing under controlled lab. conditions. Consideration of fabric structure, washing conditions (use of detergents, temp., wash duration, sequential washings) allowed us to study the propensity of fiber shedding in a mechanistic way. Thousands of individual fibers were measured (no., length) from each wash soln. to provide a robust data set on which to draw conclusions. Among all the variables tested, the use of detergent appeared to affect the total mass of fibers released the most, yet the detergent compn. (liq. or powder) or overdosing of detergent did not significantly influence microplastic release. Despite different release quantities due to the addn. of a surfactant (approx. 0.025 and 0.1 mg fibers/g textile washed, without and with detergent, resp.), the overall microplastic fiber length profile remained similar regardless of wash condition or fabric structure, with the vast majority of fibers ranging between 100 μm and 800 μm in length irresp. of wash cycle no. This indicates that the fiber staple length and/or debris encapsulated inside the fabric from the yarn spinning could be directly responsible for releasing stray fibers. This study serves as a first look towards understanding the phys. properties of the textile itself to better understand the mechanisms of fiber shedding in the context of microplastic fiber release into laundry wash water.
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    Tanaka, K.; Takada, H. Microplastic Fragments and Microbeads in Digestive Tracts of Planktivorous Fish from Urban Coastal Waters. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34351,  DOI: 10.1038/srep34351
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    20
    Microplastic fragments and microbeads in digestive tracts of planktivorous fish from urban coastal waters
    Tanaka, Kosuke; Takada, Hideshige
    Scientific Reports (2016), 6 (), 34351CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
    We investigated microplastics in the digestive tracts of 64 Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus) sampled in Tokyo Bay. Plastic was detected in 49 out of 64 fish (77%), with 2.3 pieces on av. and up to 15 pieces per individual. All of the plastics were identified by Fourier transform IR spectroscopy. Most were polyethylene (52.0%) or polypropylene (43.3%). Most of the plastics were fragments (86.0%), but 7.3% were beads, some of which were microbeads, similar to those found in facial cleansers. Eighty percent of the plastics ranged in size from 150 μm to 1000 μm, smaller than the reported size range of floating microplastics on the sea surface, possibly because the subsurface foraging behavior of the anchovy reflected the different size distribution of plastics between surface waters and subsurface waters. Engraulis spp. are important food for many humans and other organisms around the world. Our observations further confirm that microplastics have infiltrated the marine ecosystem, and that humans may be exposed to them. Because microplastics retain hazardous chems., increase in fish chem. exposure by the ingested plastics is of concern. Such exposure should be studied and compared with that in the natural diet.
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    Johnson, D. The Triangular Distribution as a Proxy for the Beta Distribution in Risk Analysis. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. D (The Stat. 1997, 46 (3), 387– 398,  DOI: 10.1111/1467-9884.00091
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    Stein, W. E.; Keblis, M. F. A New Method to Simulate the Triangular Distribution. Math. Comput. Model. 2009, 49 (5–6), 1143– 1147,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mcm.2008.06.013
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    Khatmullina, L.; Isachenko, I. Settling Velocity of Microplastic Particles of Regular Shapes. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 114 (2), 871– 880,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.024
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    Settling velocity of microplastic particles of regular shapes
    Khatmullina, Liliya; Isachenko, Igor
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), 114 (2), 871-880CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Terminal settling velocity of around 600 microplastic particles, ranging from 0.5 to 5 mm, of three regular shapes was measured in a series of sink expts.: Polycaprolactone (material d. 1131 kg m- 3) spheres and short cylinders with equal dimensions, and long cylinders cut from fishing lines (1130-1168 kg m- 3) of different diams. (0.15-0.71 mm). Settling velocities ranging from 5 to 127 mm s- 1 were compared with several semi-empirical predictions developed for natural sediments showing reasonable consistency with observations except for the case of long cylinders, for which the new approxn. is proposed. The effect of particle's shape on its settling velocity is highlighted, indicating the need of further expts. with real marine microplastics of different shapes and the necessity of the development of reasonable parameterization of microplastics settling for proper modeling of their transport in the water column.
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    Waldschläger, K.; Schüttrumpf, H. Effects of Particle Properties on the Settling and Rise Velocities of Microplastics in Freshwater under Laboratory Conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 1958,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06794
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    Effects of Particle Properties on the Settling and Rise Velocities of Microplastics in Freshwater under Laboratory Conditions
    Waldschlager Kryss; Schuttrumpf Holger
    Environmental science & technology (2019), 53 (4), 1958-1966 ISSN:.
    Microplastic (MP) contaminates terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric environments. Although the number of river sampling studies with regard to MP concentrations is increasing, comprehension of the predominant transport processes of MP in the watercourse is still very limited. In order to gain a better process understanding, around 500 physical experiments were conducted to shed more light on the effects of particle shape, size and density on the rise and settling velocities of MP. The determined velocities ranged between 0.39 cm/s for polyamide fibers (settling) and 31.4 cm/s for expanded polystyrene pellets (rise). Subsequently, the determined velocities were compared with formulas from sediment transport and, as there were large differences between theoretically and experimentally determined velocities, own formulas were developed to describe settling and rise velocities of MP particles with a large variety of shapes, sizes and densities. This study shows that MP differs significantly from sediment in its behavior and that a transfer of common sediment transport formulas should be treated with caution. Furthermore, the established formulas can now be used in numerical simulations to describe the settling and rising of MP more precisely.
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    Kreider, M. L.; Panko, J. M.; McAtee, B. L.; Sweet, L. I.; Finley, B. L. Physical and Chemical Characterization of Tire-Related Particles: Comparison of Particles Generated Using Different Methodologies. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408 (3), 652– 659,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.10.016
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    Physical and chemical characterization of tire-related particles: Comparison of particles generated using different methodologies
    Kreider, Marisa L.; Panko, Julie M.; McAtee, Britt L.; Sweet, Leonard I.; Finley, Brent L.
    Science of the Total Environment (2010), 408 (3), 652-659CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
    This work characterized the physicochem. properties of particles generated from the interaction of tires and road surfaces. Morphol., size distribution, and chem. compn. were compared between particles generated by different methods: on-road collection, lab.-generation under simulated driving conditions, and cryogenic breaking of tread rubber. On-road collected and lab.-generated particles exhibited an elongated shape typical of tire wear particles; tread particles were more angular. Despite similar morphol. for on-road collected and lab. generated particles, the former were smaller on av. It is not clear if the difference is significant to particle physicochem. behavior. Particle chem. compn. differed: on-road generated particles contained chem. contributions from sources other than tires (pavement, particulates generated from other traffic-related sources). Understanding differences among these particles is essential to apportion environmental pollutant contributions to tires, roads, and other sources, and to evaluate the representativeness of toxicity studies using different types of generated particles.
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    Kowalski, N.; Reichardt, A. M.; Waniek, J. J. Sinking Rates of Microplastics and Potential Implications of Their Alteration by Physical, Biological, and Chemical Factors. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 109 (1), 310– 319,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.064
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    Sinking rates of microplastics and potential implications of their alteration by physical, biological, and chemical factors
    Kowalski, Nicole; Reichardt, Aurelia M.; Waniek, Joanna J.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 109 (1), 310-319CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    To follow the pathways of microplastics in aquatic environments, profound knowledge about the behavior of microplastics is necessary. Therefore, sinking expts. were conducted with diverse polymer particles using fluids with different salinity. Particles ranged from 0.3 and 3.6 mm with sinking rates between 6 and 91 × 10- 3 ms- 1. The sinking velocity was not solely related to particle d., size and fluid d. but also to the particles shape leading to considerable deviation from calcd. theor. values. Thus, exptl. studies are indispensable to get basic knowledge about the sinking behavior and to gain representative datasets for model approaches estg. the distribution of microplastics in aquatic systems. The sinking behavior may be altered considerably by weathering and biofouling demanding further studies with aged and fouled plastic particles. Furthermore, assumptions are made about the influence of sinking fouled microplastics on the marine carbon pump by transferring org. carbon to deeper water depths.
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    Zhao, S.; Ward, J. E.; Danley, M.; Mincer, T. J. Field-Based Evidence for Microplastic in Marine Aggregates and Mussels: Implications for Trophic Transfer. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (19), 11038– 11048,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b03467
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    27
    Field-Based Evidence for Microplastic in Marine Aggregates and Mussels: Implications for Trophic Transfer
    Zhao, Shiye; Ward, J. Evan; Danley, Meghan; Mincer, Tracy J.
    Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (19), 11038-11048CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Marine aggregates incorporate particles from the environment, including microplastic (MP). The characteristics of MP in aggregates and the role of aggregates in linking MP with marine organisms, however, are poorly understood. To address these issues, we collected aggregates and blue mussels, Mytulis edulis, at Avery Point, CT, and analyzed samples with microspectrometers. Results indicate that over 70% of aggregates sampled harbored MP (1290 ± 1510 particles/m3). Fifteen polymer types were identified, with polypropylene, polyester and synthetic-cellulose accounting for 44.7%, 21.2% and 10.6%, resp., of the total MP count. Over 90% of MP in aggregates were ≤1000 μm, suggesting that aggregations are a sink for this size fraction. Although size, shape, and chem. type of MP captured by mussels were representative of those found in aggregates, differences in the sizes of MP in pseudofeces, feces and digestive gland/gut were found, suggesting size-dependent particle ingestion. Over 40% of the MP particles were either rejected in pseudofeces or egested in feces. Our results are the first to identify a connection between field-collected marine aggregates and bivalves, and indicate that aggregates may play an important role in removing MP from the ocean surface and facilitating their transfer to marine food webs.
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    Ter Halle, A.; Ladirat, L.; Martignac, M.; Mingotaud, A. F.; Boyron, O.; Perez, E. To What Extent Are Microplastics from the Open Ocean Weathered?. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 227, 167– 174,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.051
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    To what extent are microplastics from the open ocean weathered?
    ter Halle, Alexandra; Ladirat, Lucie; Martignac, Marion; Mingotaud, Anne Francoise; Boyron, Olivier; Perez, Emile
    Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 227 (), 167-174CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    It is necessary to better characterize plastic marine debris in order to understand its fate in the environment and interaction with organisms, the most common type of debris being made of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). In this work, plastic debris was collected in the North Atlantic sub-tropical gyre during the Expedition 7th Continent sea campaign and consisted mainly in PE. While the mechanisms of PE photodegrdn. and biodegrdn. in controlled lab. conditions are well known, plastic weathering in the environment is not well understood. This is a difficult task to examine because debris comes from a variety of manufd. objects, the original compns. and properties of which vary considerably. A statistical approach was therefore used to compare four sample sets: ref. PE, manufd. objects, mesoplastics (5-20 mm) and microplastics (0.3-5 mm). IR spectroscopy showed that the surface of all debris presented a higher oxidn. state than the ref. samples. Differential scanning calorimetry anal. revealed that the microplastics were more cryst. contrarily to the mesoplastics which were similar to refs. samples. Size exclusion chromatog. showed that the molar mass decreased from the refs. to meso- and microplastics, revealing a clear degrdn. of the polymer chains. It was thus concluded that the morphol. of marine microplastic was much altered and that an unambiguous shortening of the polymer chains took place even for this supposedly robust and inert polymer.
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    Brandon, J.; Goldstein, M.; Ohman, M. D. Long-Term Aging and Degradation of Microplastic Particles: Comparing in Situ Oceanic and Experimental Weathering Patterns. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 110 (1), 299– 308,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.048
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    Long-term aging and degradation of microplastic particles: Comparing in situ oceanic and experimental weathering patterns
    Brandon, Jennifer; Goldstein, Miriam; Ohman, Mark D.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 110 (1), 299-308CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Polypropylene, low-d. polyethylene, and high-d. polyethylene pre-prodn. plastic pellets were weathered for three years in three exptl. treatments: dry/sunlight, seawater/sunlight, and seawater/darkness. Changes in chem. bond structures (hydroxyl, carbonyl groups and carbon-oxygen) with weathering were measured via Fourier Transform IR (FTIR) spectroscopy. These indexes from exptl. weathered particles were compared to microplastic particles collected from oceanic surface waters in the California Current, the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, and the transition region between the two, in order to est. the exposure time of the oceanic plastics. Although chem. bonds exhibited some nonlinear changes with environmental exposure, they can potentially approx. the weathering time of some plastics, esp. high-d. polyethylene. The majority of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre polyethylene particles we measured have inferred exposure times > 18 mo, with some > 30 mo. Inferred particle weathering times are consistent with ocean circulation models suggesting a long residence time in the open ocean.
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    Benaglia, T.; Chauveau, D.; Hunter, D. R.; Young, D. {mixtools}: An {R} Package for Analyzing Finite Mixture Models. Journal of Statistical Software 2009, 32 (6), 1– 29,  DOI: 10.18637/jss.v032.i06
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    Kaiser, D.; Kowalski, N.; Waniek, J. J. Effects of Biofouling on the Sinking Behavior of Microplastics. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 124003,  DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa8e8b
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    Effects of biofouling on the sinking behavior of microplastics
    Kaiser, David; Kowalski, Nicole; Waniek, Joanna J.
    Environmental Research Letters (2017), 12 (12), 124003/1-124003/10CODEN: ERLNAL; ISSN:1748-9326. (IOP Publishing Ltd.)
    A review. Although plastic is ubiquitous in marine systems, our current knowledge of transport mechanisms is limited. Much of the plastic entering the ocean sinks; this is intuitively obvious for polymers such as polystyrene (PS), which have a greater d. than seawater, but lower d. polymers like polyethylene (PE) also occur in sediments. Biofouling can cause large plastic objects to sink, but this phenomenon has not been described for microplastics <5 mm. We incubated PS and PE microplastic particles in estuarine and coastal waters to det. how biofouling changes their sinking behavior. Sinking velocities of PS increased by 16% in estuarine water (salinity 9.8) and 81% in marine water (salinity 36) after 6 wk of incubation. Thereafter sinking velocities decreased due to lower water temps. and reduced light availability. Biofouling did not cause PE to sink during the 14 wk of incubation in estuarine water, but PE started to sink after six weeks in coastal water when sufficiently colonized by blue mussels Mytilus edulis, and its velocity continued to increase until the end of the incubation period. Sinking velocities of these PE pellets were similar irresp. of salinity (10 vs. 36). Biofilm compn. differed between estuarine and coastal stations, presumably accounting for differences in sinking behavior. We demonstrate that biofouling enhances microplastic deposition to marine sediments, and our findings should improve microplastic transport models.
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    Bond, T.; Ferrandiz-Mas, V.; Felipe-Sotelo, M.; van Sebille, E. The Occurrence and Degradation of Aquatic Plastic Litter Based on Polymer Physicochemical Properties: A Review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 48, 685,  DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2018.1483155
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    Bergmann, M.; Wirzberger, V.; Krumpen, T.; Lorenz, C.; Primpke, S.; Tekman, M. B.; Gerdts, G. High Quantities of Microplastic in Arctic Deep-Sea Sediments from the HAUSGARTEN Observatory. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (19), 11000– 11010,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03331
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    High Quantities of Microplastic in Arctic Deep-Sea Sediments from the HAUSGARTEN Observatory
    Bergmann, Melanie; Wirzberger, Vanessa; Krumpen, Thomas; Lorenz, Claudia; Primpke, Sebastian; Tekman, Mine B.; Gerdts, Gunnar
    Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (19), 11000-11010CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Although mounting evidence suggests the ubiquity of microplastic in aquatic ecosystems worldwide, our knowledge of its distribution in remote environments such as Polar Regions and the deep sea is scarce. Here, we analyzed nine sediment samples taken at the HAUSGARTEN observatory in the Arctic at 2340-5570 m depth. D. sepn. by MicroPlastic Sediment Separator and treatment with Fenton's reagent enabled anal. via Attenuated Total Reflection FTIR and μFTIR spectroscopy. Our analyses indicate the wide spread of high nos. of microplastics (42-6595 microplastics kg-1). The northernmost stations harbored the highest quantities, indicating sea ice as a possible transport vehicle. A pos. correlation between microplastic abundance and chlorophyll a content suggests vertical export via incorporation in sinking (ice-) algal aggregates. Overall, 18 different polymers were detected. Chlorinated polyethylene accounted for the largest proportion (38%), followed by polyamide (22%) and polypropylene (16%). Almost 80% of the microplastics were ≤25 μm. The microplastic quantities are among the highest recorded from benthic sediments. This corroborates the deep sea as a major sink for microplastics and the presence of accumulation areas in this remote part of the world, fed by plastics transported to the North via the Thermohaline Circulation.
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    Cai, M.; He, H.; Liu, M.; Li, S.; Tang, G.; Wang, W.; Huang, P.; Wei, G.; Lin, Y.; Chen, B. Lost but Can’t Be Neglected: Huge Quantities of Small Microplastics Hide in the South China Sea. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 633, 1206– 1216,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.197
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    Lost but can't be neglected: Huge quantities of small microplastics hide in the South China Sea
    Cai, Minggang; He, Haixia; Liu, Mengyang; Li, Siwei; Tang, Guowen; Wang, Weimin; Huang, Peng; Wei, Ge; Lin, Yan; Chen, Bin; Hu, Jiahui; Cen, Zhengnan
    Science of the Total Environment (2018), 633 (), 1206-1216CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
    Large quantities of microplastics with small particle sizes were found in the South China Sea (SCS). The abundances of microplastics in seawater were 0.045 ± 0.093 and 2569 ± 1770 particles/m3 according to the bongo net and pumping sampling methods, resp. Smaller-size fractions (size < 0.3 mm) contributed 92% of the no. of microplastics to the total load. Continental slope is the largest reservoir of microplastics with an inventory of 295 tons. 21 polymer types were found in the samples using the micro Fourier Transform IR Spectroscopy (FTIR), among which alkyds (22.5%) and polycaprolactone (PCL) (20.9%) accounted for almost half of the total polymer content. Lighter plastics would not only conc. upon the coastal area, being more likely to drift further into open seas with ocean currents. The distribution characteristics showed that it was mainly controlled by terrestrial input of the Pearl River. This study, as the first report from SCS on microplastics in water for its distribution and influence factors, provided impetus for further research on the transportation fate and the behavior of this emerging pollutant from coastal zone to the open oceans.
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    Zhang, B.; Wu, D.; Yang, X.; Teng, J.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, C.; Zhao, J.; Yin, X.; You, L.; Liu, Y. Microplastic Pollution in the Surface Sediments Collected from Sishili Bay, North Yellow Sea, China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 141, 9– 15,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.02.021
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    Microplastic pollution in the surface sediments collected from Sishili Bay, North Yellow Sea, China
    Zhang, Bin; Wu, Di; Yang, Xin; Teng, Jia; Liu, Yongliang; Zhang, Chen; Zhao, Jianmin; Yin, Xiaonan; You, Liping; Liu, Yanfang; Wang, Qing
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2019), 141 (), 9-15CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    As a new emergence pollutant, microplastic has aroused wide concern from both scholars and the public. In this study, microplastic pollution in surface sediments from 28 stations in Sishili Bay was investigated. The av. abundance of microplastics was 499.76 ± 370.07 items/kg (d.w.). Fiber was the majority shape of microplastics (86.37%), followed by film, fragment and pellet. Microplastics <500 μm accounted for more than half of the total microplastics. Eight polymer types including rayon, PE, PP, PA, PET, PS, PMMA and PU were identified. The main component was rayon (58.41%), followed by PP and PET. The microplastic pollution in surface sediments of Sishili Bay is moderate compared with other studies. Microplastic pollution level in port, sewage outfall, estuary and aquaculture area of Sishili Bay was relatively high, which indicated that microplastic pollution was mainly sourced from river and sewage discharge and maritime activities.
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    Enders, K.; Lenz, R.; Stedmon, C. A.; Nielsen, T. G. Abundance, Size and Polymer Composition of Marine Microplastics≥ 10μm in the Atlantic Ocean and Their Modelled Vertical Distribution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 100 (1), 70– 81,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.027
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    Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics ≥ 10 μm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distribution
    Enders, Kristina; Lenz, Robin; Stedmon, Colin A.; Nielsen, Torkel G.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 100 (1), 70-81CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    We studied abundance, size and polymer type of microplastic down to 10 μm along a transect from the European Coast to the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (NASG) using an underway intake filtration technique and Raman micro-spectrometry. Concns. ranged from 13 to 501 items m- 3. Highest concns. were obsd. at the European coast, decreasing towards mid-Atlantic waters but elevated in the western NASG. We obsd. highest nos. among particles in the 10-20 μm size fraction, whereas the total vol. was highest in the 50-80 μm range. Based on a numerical model size-dependent depth profiles of polyethylene microspheres in a range from 10-1000 μm were calcd. and show a strong dispersal throughout the surface mixed layer for sizes smaller than 200 μm. From model and field study results we conclude that small microplastic is ubiquitously distributed over the ocean surface layer and has a lower residence time than larger plastic debris in this compartment.
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    Eo, S.; Hong, S. H.; Song, Y. K.; Han, G. M.; Shim, W. J. Spatiotemporal Distribution and Annual Load of Microplastics in the Nakdong River, South Korea. Water Res. 2019, 160, 228– 237,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.053
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    Spatiotemporal distribution and annual load of microplastics in the Nakdong River, South Korea
    Eo, Soeun; Hong, Sang Hee; Song, Young Kyoung; Han, Gi Myung; Shim, Won Joon
    Water Research (2019), 160 (), 228-237CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Although rivers represent an important pathway for the transport of microplastics to the oceans, research on riverine microplastics is limited compared to the marine environment. Hence, we investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics in the Nakdong River down to 20μm in size and characterized them using Fourier transform IR spectroscopy in surface and mid waters and sediment. The mean (±std. deviation) abundance of microplastic in the Nakdong River was in the range of 293 ± 83 (upstream, Feb. 2017) to 4760 ± 5242 (downstream, August 2017) particles/m3 in water, and 1970 ± 62 particles/kg in sediment. The abundance of microplastics was about three times higher in surface than mid waters in the downstream area. Polypropylene and polyester accounted for 41.8% and 23.1% of microplastics in the water, resp., whereas about 50% in the sediment was composed of polypropylene and polyethylene. Microplastics smaller than 300μm in size accounted for 74% in the water and 81% in sediment, and the distribution peaked in the 50-150μm size range. Based on these results, we estd. the annual load of microplastics carried by the Nakdong River in 2017 to be 5.4-11 trillion by no. and 53.3-118 tons by wt. The proportions of the total load transported through surface water and the water column were 8% and 92%, resp. In addn., the microplastic load was concd. in the wet season, which makes up 71% in no. and 81% in wt.
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    Erni-Cassola, G.; Gibson, M. I.; Thompson, R. C.; Christie-Oleza, J. A. Lost, but Found with Nile Red: A Novel Method for Detecting and Quantifying Small Microplastics (1 mm to 20 μm) in Environmental Samples. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (23), 13641– 13648,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04512
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    Lost, but Found with Nile Red: A Novel Method for Detecting and Quantifying Small Microplastics (1 mm to 20 μm) in Environmental Samples
    Erni-Cassola, Gabriel; Gibson, Matthew I.; Thompson, Richard C.; Christie-Oleza, Joseph A.
    Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (23), 13641-13648CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Marine plastic debris is a global environmental problem. Surveys have shown that <5 mm plastic particles, known as microplastics, are significantly more abundant in surface seawater and on shorelines than larger plastic particles are. Nevertheless, quantification of microplastics in the environment is hampered by a lack of adequate high-throughput methods for distinguishing and quantifying smaller size fractions (<1 mm), and this has probably resulted in an underestimation of actual microplastic concns. Here we present a protocol that allows high-throughput detection and automated quantification of small microplastic particles (20-1000 μm) using the dye Nile red, fluorescence microscopy, and image anal. software. This protocol has proven to be highly effective in the quantification of small polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and nylon-6 particles, which frequently occur in the water column. Our preliminary results from sea surface tows show a power-law increase in small microplastics (i.e., <1 mm) with a decreasing particle size. Hence, our data help to resolve speculation about the "apparent" loss of this fraction from surface waters. We consider that this method presents a step change in the ability to detect small microplastics by substituting the subjectivity of human visual sorting with a sensitive and semiautomated procedure.
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    Imhof, H. K.; Laforsch, C.; Wiesheu, A. C.; Schmid, J.; Anger, P. M.; Niessner, R.; Ivleva, N. P. Pigments and Plastic in Limnetic Ecosystems: A Qualitative and Quantitative Study on Microparticles of Different Size Classes. Water Res. 2016, 98, 64– 74,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.015
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    Pigments and plastic in limnetic ecosystems: A qualitative and quantitative study on microparticles of different size classes
    Imhof, Hannes K.; Laforsch, Christian; Wiesheu, Alexandra C.; Schmid, Johannes; Anger, Philipp M.; Niessner, Reinhard; Ivleva, Natalia P.
    Water Research (2016), 98 (), 64-74CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Recently, macroplastic (>5 mm) and esp. microplastic (<5 mm) particles have been reported as emerging contaminants in marine and limnetic ecosystems. Their coloration is gained by the addn. of pigments to the polymer blend which is the major component of the resp. product. However, color is also a feature of paint and coatings whereby the pigment is the major component. Once abraded from a surface, paint particles may enter the environment via similar pathways as microplastic particles. So far no detailed studies of microplastic particles (pigmented and non-pigmented) as well as paint particles have been performed focusing on very small microparticles (1-50 μm), in either marine or limnetic ecosystems. Using Raman microspectroscopy with a spatial resoln. down to 1 μm, we report a remarkable increase in the occurrence of (pigmented) microplastic particles below 500 μm. Among those, most particles were found at a size of ∼130 μm in a freshwater ecosystem (subalpine Lake Garda, Italy). Moreover, our qual. and quant. analyses revealed that the no. of paint microparticles significantly increased below the size range of 50 μm due to their brittleness (the smallest detected paint particle had a size of 4 μm). Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry measurements showed that both colored particles found in nature as well as virgin particles contain a high variety of metals such as cadmium, lead and copper. These additives may elicit adverse effects in biota ingesting these microparticles, thus paints and assocd. compds. may act as formerly overlooked contaminants in freshwater ecosystems.
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    Isobe, A.; Kubo, K.; Tamura, Y.; Kako, S.; Nakashima, E.; Fujii, N. Selective Transport of Microplastics and Mesoplastics by Drifting in Coastal Waters. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 89 (1), 324– 330,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.09.041
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    Selective transport of microplastics and mesoplastics by drifting in coastal waters
    Isobe, Atsuhiko; Kubo, Kenta; Tamura, Yuka; Kako, Shin'ichio; Nakashima, Etsuko; Fujii, Naoki
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2014), 89 (1-2), 324-330CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    The quantity and size distributions of small plastic fragments in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan were investigated using field surveys and a numerical particle-tracking model. The model was used to interpret the distributions of small plastic fragments and the possible transport processes in coastal waters. Of note, the size and quantity of mesoplastics (approx. >5 mm) gradually increased close to the coast irresp. of the existence of river mouths, which probably act as a major source of anthropogenic marine debris. Addnl., microplastics were more dominant as we moved further offshore. The numerical model reproduced the near-shore trapping of mesoplastics, suggesting that mesoplastics are selectively conveyed onshore by a combination of Stokes drift and terminal velocity, dependent on fragment sizes. It is suggested that mesoplastics washed ashore on beaches degrade into microplastics, and that the microplastics, which are free from near-shore trapping, are thereafter spread offshore in coastal waters.
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    Isobe, A.; Uchida, K.; Tokai, T.; Iwasaki, S. East Asian Seas: A Hot Spot of Pelagic Microplastics. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 101 (2), 618– 623,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.10.042
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    East Asian seas: A hot spot of pelagic microplastics
    Isobe, Atsuhiko; Uchida, Keiichi; Tokai, Tadashi; Iwasaki, Shinsuke
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 101 (2), 618-623CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    To investigate concns. of pelagic micro- (< 5 mm in size) and mesoplastics (> 5 mm) in the East Asian seas around Japan, field surveys using two vessels were conducted concurrently in summer 2014. The total particle count (pieces km- 2) was computed based on obsd. concns. (pieces m- 3) of small plastic fragments (both micro- and mesoplastics) collected using neuston nets. The total particle count of microplastics within the study area was 1,720,000 pieces km- 2, 16 times greater than in the North Pacific and 27 times greater than in the world oceans. The proportion of mesoplastics increased upstream of the northeastward ocean currents, such that the small plastic fragments collected in the present surveys were considered to have originated in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea southwest of the study area.
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    Scheurer, M.; Bigalke, M. Microplastics in Swiss Floodplain Soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (6), 3591– 3598,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06003
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    Microplastics in Swiss Floodplain Soils
    Scheurer, Michael; Bigalke, Moritz
    Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (6), 3591-3598CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Microplastics (MPs) are small (<5 mm diam.) but have clear implications for the environment. These artificial particles are found in and pose threats to aquatic systems worldwide. MPs have terrestrial sources, but their concns. and fates in the terrestrial environment are poorly understood. While global plastic prodn. continues to increase, so do the environmental concns. and impacts of MPs. In this first study of MPs in floodplain soils, we developed a method for identifying, quantifying, and measuring the sizes of most commonly produced MPs in soil by FT-IR microscopy. For small MP (<1 mm) anal., MP were sepd. by d. sepn. and oxidn. of org. matter. In this study we analyzed 29 floodplains in Swiss nature reserves assocd. with catchments covering 53% of Switzerland. We found evidence that 90% of Swiss floodplain soils contain MPs. The highest MP concns. were assocd. with the concn. of mesoplastics (5 mm - 2.5 cm diam.), indicating plastic waste as source. Furthermore, MP concn. was correlated with the population of the catchment. The wide distribution of MPs, their presence in remote unsettled high mountain areas, decoupling of MEP and MP compns., and the dominance of MPs by small (<500 μm diam.) particles, indicate that MPs enter soils via diffuse aeolian transport.
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    Song, Y. K.; Hong, S. H.; Eo, S.; Jang, M.; Han, G. M.; Isobe, A.; Shim, W. J. Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Microplastics in Korean Coastal Waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (21), 12188– 12197,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04032
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    45
    Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Microplastics in Korean Coastal Waters
    Song, Young Kyoung; Hong, Sang Hee; Eo, Soeun; Jang, Mi; Han, Gi Myung; Isobe, Atsuhiko; Shim, Won Joon
    Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (21), 12188-12197CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    This is the first survey to investigate the vertical distribution and compn. of microplastics >20 μm at the surface (0-0.2 m; bulk sample) and in the water column (3-58 m depth; pump) of six semi-enclosed bays and two nearshore areas of South Korea. The av. microplastic abundance of 41 stations at all sampling depths was 871 particles/m3, and the microplastic abundance near urban areas (1051 particles/m3) was significantly higher than that near rural areas (560 particles/m3). Although the av. microplastic abundances in the midcolumn (423 particles/m3) and bottom water (394 particles/m3) were approx. 4 times lower than that of surface water (1736 particles/m3), microplastics prevailed throughout the water column in concns. of 10-2000 particles/m3. The av. sizes of fragment and fiber type microplastics were 197 and 752 μm, resp. Although the polymer compn. differed by depth depending on the particle size and d., polypropylene and polyethylene predominated throughout the water column regardless of their low d. and particle size. Finally, the middle and bottom water samples contained higher abundances of microplastics than predicted by a model based on phys. mixing, indicating that biol. interactions also influence the downward movement of low-d. microplastics.
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    Kooi, M.; Reisser, J.; Slat, B.; Ferrari, F. F.; Schmid, M. S.; Cunsolo, S.; Brambini, R.; Noble, K.; Sirks, L.-A.; Linders, T. E. W.; Schoeneich-Argent, R. I.; Koelmans, A. A. The Effect of Particle Properties on the Depth Profile of Buoyant Plastics in the Ocean. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 33882,  DOI: 10.1038/srep33882
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    The effect of particle properties on the depth profile of buoyant plastics in the ocean
    Kooi, Merel; Reisser, Julia; Slat, Boyan; Ferrari, Francesco F.; Schmid, Moritz S.; Cunsolo, Serena; Brambini, Roberto; Noble, Kimberly; Sirks, Lys-Anne; Linders, Theo E. W.; Schoeneich-Argent, Rosanna I.; Koelmans, Albert A.
    Scientific Reports (2016), 6 (), 33882CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
    Most studies on buoyant microplastics in the marine environment rely on sea surface sampling. Consequently, microplastic amts. can be underestimated, as turbulence leads to vertical mixing. Models that correct for vertical mixing are based on limited data. In this study we report measurements of the depth profile of buoyant microplastics in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre, from 0 to 5 m depth. Microplastics were sepd. into size classes (0.5-1.5 and 1.5-5.0 mm) and types ('fragments' and 'lines'), and assocd. with a sea state. Microplastic concns. decreased exponentially with depth, with both sea state and particle properties affecting the steepness of the decrease. Concns. approached zero within 5 m depth, indicating that most buoyant microplastics are present on or near the surface. Plastic rise velocities were also measured, and were found to differ significantly for different sizes and shapes. Our results suggest that (1) surface samplers such as manta trawls underestimate total buoyant microplastic amts. by a factor of 1.04-30.0 and (2) estns. of depth-integrated buoyant plastic concns. should be done across different particle sizes and types. Our findings can assist with improving buoyant ocean plastic vertical mixing models, mass balance exercises, impact assessments and mitigation strategies.
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    Kooi, M.; van Nes, E. H.; Scheffer, M.; Koelmans, A. A. Ups and Downs in the Ocean: Effects of Biofouling on the Vertical Transport of Microplastics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (14), 7963– 7971,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04702
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    Ups and Downs in the Ocean: Effects of Biofouling on Vertical Transport of Microplastics
    Kooi, Merel; Nes, Egbert H. van; Scheffer, Marten; Koelmans, Albert A.
    Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (14), 7963-7971CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Recent studies suggest size-selective removal of small plastic particles from the ocean surface, an observation that remains unexplained. We studied one of the hypotheses regarding this size-selective removal: the formation of a biofilm on the microplastics (biofouling). We developed the first theor. model that is capable of simulating the effect of biofouling on the fate of microplastic. The model is based on settling, biofilm growth, and ocean depth profiles for light, water d., temp., salinity, and viscosity. Using realistic parameters, the model simulates the vertical transport of small microplastic particles over time, and predicts that the particles either float, sink to the ocean floor, or oscillate vertically, depending on the size and d. of the particle. The predicted size-dependent vertical movement of microplastic particles results in a max. concn. at intermediate depths. Consequently, relatively low abundances of small particles are predicted at the ocean surface, while at the same time these small particles may never reach the ocean floor. Our results hint at the fate of "lost" plastic in the ocean, and provide a start for predicting risks of exposure to microplastics for potentially vulnerable species living at these depths.
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    Besseling, E.; Quik, J. T. K.; Sun, M.; Koelmans, A. A. Fate of Nano- and Microplastic in Freshwater Systems: A Modeling Study. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 540– 548,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.001
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    Fate of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems: A modeling study
    Besseling, Ellen; Quik, Joris T. K.; Sun, Muzhi; Koelmans, Albert A.
    Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 540-548CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Riverine transport to the marine environment is an important pathway for microplastic. However, information on fate and transport of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems is lacking. Here we present scenario studies on the fate and transport of nano-to millimetre sized spherical particles like microbeads (100 nm-10 mm) with a state of the art spatiotemporally resolved hydrol. model. The model accounts for advective transport, homo- and heteroaggregation, sedimentation-resuspension, polymer degrdn., presence of biofilm and burial. Literature data were used to parameterize the model and addnl. the attachment efficiency for heteroaggregation was detd. exptl. The attachment efficiency ranged from 0.004 to 0.2 for 70 nm and 1050 nm polystyrene particles aggregating with kaolin or bentonite clays in natural freshwater. Modeled effects of polymer d. (1-1.5 kg/L) and biofilm formation were not large, due to the fact that variations in polymer d. are largely overwhelmed by excess mass of suspended solids that form heteroaggregates with microplastic. Particle size had a dramatic effect on the modeled fate and retention of microplastic and on the positioning of the accumulation hot spots in the sediment along the river. Remarkably, retention was lowest (18-25%) for intermediate sized particles of about 5 μm, which implies that the smaller submicron particles as well as larger micro- and millimetre sized plastic are preferentially retained. Our results suggest that river hydrodynamics affect microplastic size distributions with profound implications for emissions to marine systems.
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    Löder, M. G. J.; Gerdts, G. Methodology Used for the Detection and Identification of Microplastics—A Critical Appraisal. In Marine anthropogenic litter; Springer, 2015; pp 201– 227.
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    Löder, M. G. J.; Kuczera, M.; Mintenig, S.; Lorenz, C.; Gerdts, G. Focal Plane Array Detector-Based Micro-Fourier-Transform Infrared Imaging for the Analysis of Microplastics in Environmental Samples. Environ. Chem. 2015, 12 (5), 563– 581,  DOI: 10.1071/EN14205
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    Mintenig, S. M.; Int-Veen, I.; Löder, M. G. J.; Primpke, S.; Gerdts, G. Identification of Microplastic in Effluents of Waste Water Treatment Plants Using Focal Plane Array-Based Micro-Fourier-Transform Infrared Imaging. Water Res. 2017, 108, 365– 372,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.11.015
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    Identification of microplastic in effluents of waste water treatment plants using focal plane array-based micro-Fourier-transform infrared imaging
    Mintenig, S. M.; Int-Veen, I.; Loeder, M. G. J.; Primpke, S.; Gerdts, G.
    Water Research (2017), 108 (), 365-372CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    The global presence of microplastic (MP) in aquatic ecosystems has been shown by various studies. However, neither MP concns. nor their sources or sinks are completely known. Waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered as significant point sources discharging MP to the environment. This study investigated MP in the effluents of 12 WWTPs in Lower Saxony, Germany. Samples were purified by a plastic-preserving enzymic-oxidative procedure and subsequent d. sepn. using a zinc chloride soln. For anal., attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR) and focal plane array (FPA)-based transmission micro-FT-IR imaging were applied. This allowed the identification of polymers of all MP down to a size of 20 μm. In all effluents MP was found with quantities ranging from 0 to 5 × 101 m-3 MP > 500 μm and 1 × 101 to 9 × 103 m-3 MP < 500 μm. By far, polyethylene was the most frequent polymer type in both size classes. Quantities of synthetic fibers ranged from 9 × 101 to 1 × 103 m-3 and were predominantly made of polyester. Considering the annual effluxes of tested WWTPs, total discharges of 9 × 107 to 4 × 109 MP particles and fibers per WWTP could be expected. Interestingly, one tertiary WWTP had an addnl. installed post-filtration that reduced the total MP discharge by 97%. Furthermore, the sewage sludge of six WWTPs was examd. and the existence of MP, predominantly polyethylene, revealed. Our findings suggest that WWTPs could be a sink but also a source of MP and thus can be considered to play an important role for environmental MP pollution.
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    Lenz, R.; Enders, K.; Nielsen, T. G. Microplastic Exposure Studies Should Be Environmentally Realistic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (29), E4121– E4122,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1606615113
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    Microplastic exposure studies should be environmentally realistic
    Lenz, Robin; Enders, Kristina; Nielsen, Torkel Gissel
    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (29), E4121-E4122CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
    There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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    Andrady, A. L. The Plastic in Microplastics: A Review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 119 (1), 12– 22,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082
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    The plastic in microplastics: A review
    Andrady, Anthony L.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), 119 (1), 12-22CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Microplastics [MPs], now a ubiquitous pollutant in the oceans, pose a serious potential threat to marine ecol. and has justifiably encouraged focused biol. and ecol. research attention. But, their generation, fate, fragmentation and their propensity to sorb/release persistent org. pollutants (POPs) are detd. by the characteristics of the polymers that constitutes them. Yet, physico-chem. characteristics of the polymers making up the MPs have not received detailed attention in published work. This review assesses the relevance of selected characteristics of plastics that composes the microplastics, to their role as a pollutant with potentially serious ecol. impacts. Fragmentation leading to secondary microplastics is also discussed underlining the likelihood of a surface-ablation mechanism that can lead to preferential formation of smaller sized MPs.
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    Hidalgo-ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R. C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the Marine Environment: A Review of the Methods Used for Identification and Quantification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (6), 3060– 3075,  DOI: 10.1021/es2031505
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    Microplastics in marine environment review of methods for identification and quantification
    Hidalgo-Ruz, Valeria; Gutow, Lars; Thompson, Richard C.; Thiel, Martin
    Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (6), 3060-3075CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, vol.-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: d. sepn., filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degrdn. stage, and color as criteria). Chem. and phys. characteristics (e.g., specific d.) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chem. compn. of microplastics is by IR spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance ests. are "items per m2" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m3" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance ests. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
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    Hanvey, J. S.; Lewis, P. J.; Lavers, J. L.; Crosbie, N. D.; Pozo, K.; Clarke, B. O. A Review of Analytical Techniques for Quantifying Microplastics in Sediments. Anal. Methods 2017, 9 (9), 1369– 1383,  DOI: 10.1039/C6AY02707E
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    Duis, K.; Coors, A. Microplastics in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment: Sources (with a Specific Focus on Personal Care Products), Fate and Effects. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2016, 28 (1), 1– 25,  DOI: 10.1186/s12302-015-0069-y
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    Microplastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus on personal care products), fate and effects
    Duis, Karen; Coors, Anja
    Environmental Sciences Europe (2016), 28 (1), 1-25CODEN: ESENCT; ISSN:2190-4715. (Springer)
    Due to the widespread use and durability of synthetic polymers, plastic debris occurs in the environment worldwide. In the present work, information on sources and fate of microplastic particles in the aquatic and terrestrial environment, and on their uptake and effects, mainly in aquatic organisms, is reviewed. Microplastics in the environment originate from a variety of sources. Quant. information on the relevance of these sources is generally lacking, but first ests. indicate that abrasion and fragmentation of larger plastic items and materials contg. synthetic polymers are likely to be most relevant. Microplastics are ingested and, mostly, excreted rapidly by numerous aquatic organisms. So far, there is no clear evidence of bioaccumulation or biomagnification. In lab. studies, the ingestion of large amts. of microplastics mainly led to a lower food uptake and, consequently, reduced energy reserves and effects on other physiol. functions. Based on the evaluated data, the lowest microplastic concns. affecting marine organisms exposed via water are much higher than levels measured in marine water. In lugworms exposed via sediment, effects were obsd. at microplastic levels that were higher than those in subtidal sediments but in the same range as max. levels in beach sediments. Hydrophobic contaminants are enriched on microplastics, but the available exptl. results and modeling approaches indicate that the transfer of sorbed pollutants by microplastics is not likely to contribute significantly to bioaccumulation of these pollutants. Prior to being able to comprehensively assess possible environmental risks caused by microplastics a no. of knowledge gaps need to be filled. However, in view of the persistence of microplastics in the environment, the high concns. measured at some environmental sites and the prospective of strongly increasing concns., the release of plastics into the environment should be reduced in a broad and global effort regardless of a proof of an environmental risk.
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    Redondo Hasselerharm, P. E.; Falahudin, D.; Peeters, E.; Koelmans, A. A. Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (4), 2278– 2286,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b05367
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    Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates
    Redondo-Hasselerharm, Paula E.; Falahudin, Dede; Peeters, Edwin T. H. M.; Koelmans, Albert A.
    Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (4), 2278-2286CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Now that microplastics have been detected in lakes, rivers, and estuaries all over the globe, evaluating their effects on biota has become an urgent research priority. This is the first study that aims at detg. the effect thresholds for a battery of six freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates with different species traits, using a wide range of microplastic concns. Standardized 28 days single species bioassays were performed under environmentally relevant exposure conditions using polystyrene microplastics (20-500 μm) mixed with sediment at concns. ranging from 0 to 40% sediment dry wt. (dw). Microplastics caused no effects on the survival of Gammarus pulex, Hyalella azteca, Asellus aquaticus, Sphaerium corneum, and Tubifex spp. and no effects were found on the reprodn. of Lumbriculus variegatus. No significant differences in growth were found for H. azteca, A. aquaticus, S. corneum, L. variegatus, and Tubifex spp. However, G. pulex showed a significant redn. in growth (EC10 = 1.07% sediment dw) and microplastic uptake was proportional with microplastic concns. in sediment. These results indicate that although the risks of environmentally realistic concns. of microplastics may be low, they still may affect the biodiversity and the functioning of aquatic communities which after all also depend on the sensitive species.
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    Kaiser, D.; Estelmann, A.; Kowalski, N.; Glockzin, M.; Waniek, J. J. Sinking Velocity of Sub-Millimeter Microplastic. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 139, 214– 220,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.12.035
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    Sinking velocity of sub-millimeter microplastic
    Kaiser, David; Estelmann, Arne; Kowalski, Nicole; Glockzin, Michael; Waniek, Joanna J.
    Marine Pollution Bulletin (2019), 139 (), 214-220CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
    Sinking expts. were conducted using irregularly shaped polyamide (PA), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) particles sized 6 to 251μm. Certified PS spheres were used to validate expts. and showed that the effect of particle size on terminal sinking velocity is well reproduced by the method. As expected sinking velocities of irregularly shaped particles were considerably lower than theor. values for spheres of the same size range calcd. via several approxns. available in the literature. Despite the influence of particle shape, the dependence of terminal sinking velocity on particle size can reasonably well be described by a quadratic linear regression, with an av. detn. of 63%. To generalize results we present a model that predicts terminal sinking velocity as a function of particle size and particle excess d. over the fluid. Improving the predictive power of this model requires further expts. with a range of particle characteristics.
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    Frydkjær, C. K.; Iversen, N.; Roslev, P. Ingestion and Egestion of Microplastics by the Cladoceran Daphnia Magna: Effects of Regular and Irregular Shaped Plastic and Sorbed Phenanthrene. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2017, 99 (6), 655– 661,  DOI: 10.1007/s00128-017-2186-3
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    Ingestion and Egestion of Microplastics by the Cladoceran Daphnia magna: Effects of Regular and Irregular Shaped Plastic and Sorbed Phenanthrene
    Frydkjaer, Camilla Krogh; Iversen, Niels; Roslev, Peter
    Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2017), 99 (6), 655-661CODEN: BECTA6; ISSN:0007-4861. (Springer)
    The presence of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems is of increasing global concern. This study investigated ingestion, egestion and acute effects of polyethylene microplastics in Daphnia magna. Fate of regular shaped microplastic beads (10-106 μm) were compared with irregular shaped microplastic fragments (10-75 μm). Daphnia magna ingested regular and irregular microplastic with uptake between 0.7 and 50 plastic particles/animal/day when exposed to microplastic concns. of 0.0001-10 g/L. Egestion of irregular fragments was slower than that of microplastic beads. The EC50 for irregular microplastic was 0.065 g/L whereas microplastic beads were less inhibitory. The potential of microplastic to act as vector for hydrophobic pollutants was examd. using [14C]phenanthrene as tracer. Polyethylene microplastic sorbed less [14C]phenanthrene compared to natural plankton organisms (bacteria, algae, yeast). As microplastics are much less abundant in most aquatic ecosystems compared to plankton organisms this suggests a limited role as vector for hydrophobic pollutants under current environmental conditions.
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    Au, S. Y.; Bruce, T. F.; Bridges, W. C.; Klaine, S. J. Responses of Hyalella Azteca to Acute and Chronic Microplastic Exposures. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2015, 34 (11), 2564– 2572,  DOI: 10.1002/etc.3093
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    Responses of Hyalella azteca to acute and chronic microplastic exposures
    Au, Sarah Y.; Bruce, Terri F.; Bridges, William C.; Klaine, Stephen J.
    Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2015), 34 (11), 2564-2572CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)
    Limited information is available on the presence of microplastics in freshwater systems, and even less is known about the toxicol. implications of the exposure of aquatic organisms to plastic particles. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of microplastic ingestion on the freshwater amphipod, Hyalella azteca. Hyalella azteca was exposed to fluorescent polyethylene microplastic particles and polypropylene microplastic fibers in individual 250-mL chambers to det. 10-d mortality. In acute bioassays, polypropylene microplastic fibers were significantly more toxic than polyethylene microplastic particles; 10-d lethal concn. 50% values for polyethylene microplastic particles and polypropylene microplastic fibers were 4.64 × 104 microplastics/mL and 71.43 microplastics/mL, resp. A 42-d chronic bioassay using polyethylene microplastic particles was conducted to quantify effects on reprodn., growth, and egestion. Chronic exposure to polyethylene microplastic particles significantly decreased growth and reprodn. at the low and intermediate exposure concns. During acute exposures to polyethylene microplastic particles, the egestion times did not significantly differ from the egestion of normal food materials in the control; egestion times for polypropylene microplastic fibers were significantly slower than the egestion of food materials in the control. Amphipods exposed to polypropylene microplastic fibers also had significantly less growth. The greater toxicity of microplastic fibers than microplastic particles corresponded with longer residence times for the fibers in the gut. The difference in residence time might have affected the ability to process food, resulting in an energetic effect reflected in sublethal endpoints. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;9999:1-9. © 2015 SETAC.
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    Unice, K. M.; Weeber, M. P.; Abramson, M. M.; Reid, R. C. D.; van Gils, J. A. G.; Markus, A. A.; Vethaak, A. D.; Panko, J. M. Characterizing Export of Land-Based Microplastics to the Estuary-Part I: Application of Integrated Geospatial Microplastic Transport Models to Assess Tire and Road Wear Particles in the Seine Watershed. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 646, 1639– 1649,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.368
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    Characterizing export of land-based microplastics to the estuary - Part I: Application of integrated geospatial microplastic transport models to assess tire and road wear particles in the Seine watershed
    Unice, K. M.; Weeber, M. P.; Abramson, M. M.; Reid, R. C. D.; van Gils, J. A. G.; Markus, A. A.; Vethaak, A. D.; Panko, J. M.
    Science of the Total Environment (2019), 646 (), 1639-1649CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Relative microplastic abundance for different particle sizes. The fitted trend lines, y = bx–α or log(y) = c – α log(x), have similar slopes on a log–log scale, with an average exponent value of α = 1.6 (n = 19). The legend refers to the marine (“Sea”) or freshwater (“Fresh”) environment, where samples were taken in the water (“Surf”) or in the sediment (“Sed”). Some studies differentiated between different plastic types, namely, fibers (“Fiber”) and fragments (“Frag”). Studies that did not specify their plastic types are labeled “All”. FP refers to floodplain. L1–L4 refer to four different locations studied by Isobe et al. (42) The data and the data selection steps are available in the Supporting Information. A graph including all data points, that is, including zero values and data below and beyond the detection limits, is included in the Supporting Information (Figure S1).

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Distributions and fitted models for randomly generated data (n = 106). (A) Shape distribution of microplastic, expressed as Corey shape factor. A bimodal distribution was fitted through the data (solid line), which is the sum of two normal distributions (dotted lines). (B) Density distribution of microplastic, with a fitted normal-inverse Gaussian distribution (solid line).

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. (A) Environmental microplastic as a probability distribution in three dimensions, defining the features of microplastic in the 3D parameter space. Colors indicate the CSF from 0 (blue) to 1 (red). The dots are the randomly generated points (n = 104) in the 3D space, and the lines illustrate the location on the x–y plane. (B) Kernel density plot of the same parameter space, with the black contours representing the kernel density for the whole microplastic space and the white contours for those of only the microplastics found in the body of Gammarus pulex. (57)

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      Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2018), 37 (11), 2776-2796CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)
      There is increasing scientific and public concern over the presence of microplastics in the natural environment. We present the results of a systematic review of the literature to assess the wt. of evidence for microplastics causing environmental harm. We conclude that microplastics do occur in surface water and sediments. Fragments and fibers predominate, with beads making up only a small proportion of the detected microplastic types. Concns. detected are orders of magnitude lower than those reported to affect endpoints such as biochem., feeding, reprodn., growth, tissue inflammation and mortality in organisms. The evidence for microplastics acting as a vector for hydrophobic org. compds. to accumulate in organisms is also weak. The available data therefore suggest that these materials are not causing harm to the environment. There is, however, a mismatch between the particle types, size ranges, and concns. of microplastics used in lab. tests and those measured in the environment. Select environmental compartments have also received limited attention. There is an urgent need for studies that address this mismatch by performing high quality and more holistic monitoring studies alongside more environmentally realistic effects studies. Only then will we be able to fully characterize risks of microplastics to the environment to support the introduction of regulatory controls that can make a real pos. difference to environmental quality. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;9999:1-21. © 2018 SETAC.
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    4. 4
      Hartmann, N.; Hüffer, T.; Thompson, R. C.; Hassellöv, M.; Verschoor, A.; Daugaard, A. E.; Rist, S.; Karlsson, T. M.; Brennholt, N.; Cole, M. Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (3), 1039– 1047,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05297
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      4
      Are We Speaking the Same Language? Recommendations for a Definition and Categorization Framework for Plastic Debris
      Hartmann, Nanna B.; Huffer, Thorsten; Thompson, Richard C.; Hassellov, Martin; Verschoor, Anja; Daugaard, Anders E.; Rist, Sinja; Karlsson, Therese; Brennholt, Nicole; Cole, Matthew; Herrling, Maria P.; Hess, Maren C.; Ivleva, Natalia P.; Lusher, Amy L.; Wagner, Martin
      Environmental Science & Technology (2019), 53 (3), 1039-1047CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      A review is given. The accumulation of plastic litter in natural environments is a global issue. Concerns over potential neg. impacts on the economy, wildlife, and human health provide strong incentives for improving the sustainable use of plastics. Despite the many voices raised on the issue, we lack a consensus on how to define and categorize plastic debris. This is evident for microplastics, where inconsistent size classes are used and where the materials to be included are under debate. While this is inherent in an emerging research field, an ambiguous terminol. results in confusion and miscommunication that may compromise progress in research and mitigation measures. Therefore, we need to be explicit on what exactly we consider plastic debris. Thus, we critically discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a unified terminol., propose a definition and categorization framework, and highlight areas of uncertainty. Going beyond size classes, our framework includes physicochem. properties (polymer compn., solid state, soly.) as defining criteria and size, shape, color, and origin as classifiers for categorization. Acknowledging the rapid evolution of our knowledge on plastic pollution, our framework will promote consensus building within the scientific and regulatory community based on a solid scientific foundation.
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    5. 5
      ECHA. Proposal for restriction - intentionally added microplastics. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/82cc5875-93ae-d7a9-5747-44c698dc19b6.
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      Morét-Ferguson, S.; Law, K. L.; Proskurowski, G.; Murphy, E. K.; Peacock, E. E.; Reddy, C. M. The Size, Mass, and Composition of Plastic Debris in the Western North Atlantic Ocean. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2010, 60 (10), 1873– 1878,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.07.020
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      The size, mass, and composition of plastic debris in the western North Atlantic Ocean
      Moret-Ferguson, Skye; Law, Kara Lavender; Proskurowski, Giora; Murphy, Ellen K.; Peacock, Emily E.; Reddy, Christopher M.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2010), 60 (10), 1873-1878CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      This study reports the first inventory of phys. properties of individual plastic debris in the North Atlantic. We analyzed 748 samples for size, mass, and material compn. collected from surface net tows on 11 expeditions from Cape Cod, Massachusetts to the Caribbean Sea between 1991 and 2007. Particles were mostly fragments less than 10 mm in size with nearly all lighter than 0.05 g. Material densities ranged from 0.808 to 1.24 g ml-1, with about half between 0.97 and 1.04 g ml-1, a range not typically found in virgin plastics. Elemental anal. suggests that samples in this d. range are consistent with polypropylene and polyethylene whose densities have increased, likely due to biofouling. Pelagic densities varied considerably from that of beach plastic debris, suggesting that plastic particles are modified during their residence at sea. These analyses provide clues in understanding particle fate and potential debris sources, and address ecol. implications of pelagic plastic debris.
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      Li, J.; Liu, H.; Chen, J. P. Microplastics in Freshwater Systems: A Review on Occurrence, Environmental Effects, and Methods for Microplastics Detection. Water Res. 2018, 137, 362– 374,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.056
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      Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review on occurrence, environmental effects, and methods for microplastics detection
      Li, Jingyi; Liu, Huihui; Chen, J. Paul
      Water Research (2018), 137 (), 362-374CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The continuous increase in synthetic plastic prodn. and poor management in plastic waste have led to a tremendous increase in the dumping into our aq. environment. Consequently, microplastics commonly defined as sizes less than 5 mm are produced and stay in both seawater and freshwater environment. The presence of microplastics as a new type of emerging contaminant has become a great issue of concerns from public and government authorities. The sources of microplastics to freshwater systems are many with the largest portion from wastewater treatment plants. The abundance of microplastics varies with the location, from above 1 million pieces per cubic meter to less than 1 piece in 100 cubic meters. Microplastics can cause several harmful phys. effects on humans and living organisms through such mechanisms as entanglement and ingestion. The microplastics can act as carriers of various toxins such as additives from industrial prodn. processes and persistent contaminants by the sorption in waters. Those toxins may cause great health problems to humans. A few studies on the fishes demonstrated that the microplastics and the assocd. toxins are bio-accumulated and cause such problems as intestinal damage and change in metabolic profiles. In studies of microplastics, fresh water is first sampled by the nets with typical mesh size of 330 μm for collection of microplastics. After the vol. reducing process, the samples will then go through the purifn. process including d. sepn. by such inorg. salts as sodium chloride and digestion process by oxidizing agents or enzymes. The sequence of these two processes (namely purifn. and digestion) is dependent on the sample type. The purified samples can be studied by several anal. methods. The commonly used methods for the qualification studies are FTIR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, pyrolysis-GC/MS, and liq. chromatog. A tagging method can be used in the quantification study. Our literature study finds that there is still no universal accepted quantification and qualification tools of microplastics in fresh waters. More work is anticipated so as to obtain accurate information on microplastics in freshwater, which can then be used for the better assessment of the environmental risk.
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      Koelmans, A. A.; Mohamed Nor, N. H.; Hermsen, E.; Kooi, M.; Mintenig, S. M.; De France, J. Microplastics in Freshwaters and Drinking Water: Critical Review and Assessment of Data Quality. Water Res. 2019, 155, 410– 422,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.02.054
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      Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking water: Critical review and assessment of data quality
      Koelmans, Albert A.; Mohamed Nor, Nur Hazimah; Hermsen, Enya; Kooi, Merel; Mintenig, Svenja M.; De France, Jennifer
      Water Research (2019), 155 (), 410-422CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Microplastics have recently been detected in drinking water as well as in drinking water sources. This presence has triggered discussions on possible implications for human health. However, there have been questions regarding the quality of these occurrence studies since there are no std. sampling, extn. and identification methods for microplastics. Accordingly, we assessed the quality of fifty studies researching microplastics in drinking water and in its major freshwater sources. This includes an assessment of microplastic occurrence data from river and lake water, groundwater, tap water and bottled drinking water. Studies of occurrence in wastewater were also reviewed. We review and propose best practices to sample, ext. and detect microplastics and provide a quant. quality assessment of studies reporting microplastic concns. Further, we summarize the findings related to microplastic concns., polymer types and particle shapes. Microplastics are frequently present in freshwaters and drinking water, and no. concns. spanned ten orders of magnitude (1 × 10-2 to 108 #/m3) across individual samples and water types. However, only four out of 50 studies received pos. scores for all proposed quality criteria, implying there is a significant need to improve quality assurance of microplastic sampling and anal. in water samples. The order in globally detected polymers in these studies is PE ≈ PP > PS > PVC > PET, which probably reflects the global plastic demand and a higher tendency for PVC and PET to settle as a result of their higher densities. Fragments, fibers, film, foam and pellets were the most frequently reported shapes. We conclude that more high quality data is needed on the occurrence of microplastics in drinking water, to better understand potential exposure and to inform human health risk assessments.
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      Feng, H.; Zhang, W.; Zhu, Y.; Lei, Z.; Ji, X. Sampling Surface Particle Size Distributions and Stability Analysis of Deep Channel in the Pearl River Estuary. China Ocean Eng. 2017, 31 (3), 299– 307,  DOI: 10.1007/s13344-017-0035-0
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      Buonassissi, C. J.; Dierssen, H. M. A Regional Comparison of Particle Size Distributions and the Power Law Approximation in Oceanic and Estuarine Surface Waters. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115 (C10), n/a,  DOI: 10.1029/2010JC006256
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      Cózar, A.; Echevarría, F.; González-Gordillo, J. I.; Irigoien, X.; Ubeda, B.; Hernández-León, S.; Palma, A. T.; Navarro, S.; García-de-Lomas, J.; Ruiz, A. Plastic Debris in the Open Ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2014, 111, 10239– 10244,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1314705111
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      Plastic debris in the open ocean
      Cozar, Andres; Echevarria, Fidel; Gonzalez-Gordillo, J. Ignacio; Irigoien, Xabier; Ubeda, Barbara; Hernandez-Leon, Santiago; Palma, Alvaro T.; Navarro, Sandra; Garcia-de-Lomas, Juan; Ruiz, Andrea; Fernandez-de-Puelles, Maria L.; Duarte, Carlos M.
      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2014), 111 (28), 10239-10244CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
      There is a rising concern regarding the accumulation of floating plastic debris in the open ocean. However, the magnitude and the fate of this pollution are still open questions. Using data from the Malaspina 2010 circumnavigation, regional surveys, and previously published reports, we show a worldwide distribution of plastic on the surface of the open ocean, mostly accumulating in the convergence zones of each of the five subtropical gyres with comparable d. However, the global load of plastic on the open ocean surface was estd. to be on the order of tens of thousands of tons, far less than expected. Our observations of the size distribution of floating plastic debris point at important size-selective sinks removing millimeter-sized fragments of floating plastic on a large scale. This sink may involve a combination of fast nano-fragmentation of the microplastic into particles of microns or smaller, their transference to the ocean interior by food webs and ballasting processes, and processes yet to be discovered. Resolving the fate of the missing plastic debris is of fundamental importance to det. the nature and significance of the impacts of plastic pollution in the ocean.
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      Shim, W. J.; Hong, S. H.; Eo, S. Marine Microplastics: Abundance, Distribution, and Composition. In Microplastic Contamination in Aquatic Environments; Elsevier, 2018; pp 1– 26.
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      Simon, M.; van Alst, N.; Vollertsen, J. Quantification of Microplastic Mass and Removal Rates at Wastewater Treatment Plants Applying Focal Plane Array (FPA)-Based Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) Imaging. Water Res. 2018, 142, 1,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.019
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      Quantification of microplastic mass and removal rates at wastewater treatment plants applying Focal Plane Array (FPA)-based Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) imaging
      Simon, Marta; van Alst, Nikki; Vollertsen, Jes
      Water Research (2018), 142 (), 1-9CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      This paper presents a method for microplastic (MP) mass quantification using a Focal Plane Array-based Fourier Transform IR imaging technique. It discusses the issue that particle no. is not a conserved base quantity and hence less suited than mass to compare independent studies on MP in the environment. It concludes that MP mass should be included when quantifying MP pollution in the environment, supplementing the conventional approach of reporting particle nos. Applying mass as the unit of MP measurement, the paper presents data showing that Danish wastewater treatment plants discharge around 3 t/yr of MP in the size range 10-500μm. This value corresponds to an annual per capita emission from these plants of 0.56 g MP/(capita year). The distribution of polymer types by mass and particle no. differed because the size of MP particles of the different material types varied.
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      Dris, R.; Gasperi, J.; Saad, M.; Mirande, C.; Tassin, B. Synthetic Fibers in Atmospheric Fallout: A Source of Microplastics in the Environment?. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 104 (1–2), 290– 293,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.006
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      17
      Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: A source of microplastics in the environment?
      Dris, Rachid; Gasperi, Johnny; Saad, Mohamed; Mirande, Cecile; Tassin, Bruno
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 104 (1-2), 290-293CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Sources, pathways and reservoirs of microplastics, plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, remain poorly documented in an urban context. While some studies pointed out wastewater treatment plants as a potential pathway of microplastics, none have focused on the atm. compartment. In this work, the atm. fallout of microplastics was investigated in two different urban and sub-urban sites. Microplastics were collected continuously with a stainless steel funnel. Samples were then filtered and obsd. with a stereomicroscope. Fibers accounted for almost all the microplastics collected. An atm. fallout between 2 and 355 particles/m2/day was highlighted. Registered fluxes were systematically higher at the urban than at the sub-urban site. Chem. characterization allowed to est. at 29% the proportion of these fibers being all synthetic (made with petrochems.), or a mixt. of natural and synthetic material. Extrapolation using wt. and vol. ests. of the collected fibers, allowed a rough estn. showing that between 3 and 10 tons of fibers are deposited by atm. fallout at the scale of the Parisian agglomeration every year (2500 km2). These results could serve the scientific community working on the different sources of microplastic in both continental and marine environments.
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      Cole, M. A Novel Method for Preparing Microplastic Fibers. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34519,  DOI: 10.1038/srep34519
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      A novel method for preparing microplastic fibers
      Cole, Matthew
      Scientific Reports (2016), 6 (), 34519CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Microscopic plastic (microplastic, 0.1 μm-5 mm) is a widespread pollutant impacting upon aquatic ecosystems across the globe. Environmental sampling has revealed synthetic fibers are prevalent in seawater, sediments and biota. However, microplastic fibers are rarely used in lab. studies as they are unavailable for purchase and existing prepn. techniques have limited application. To facilitate the incorporation of environmentally relevant microplastic fibers into future studies, new methods are required. Here, a novel cryotome protocol has been developed. Nylon, polyethylene terephthalate and polypropylene fibers (10-28 μm diam.) were aligned, embedded in water-sol. freezing agent, and sectioned (40-100 μm length) using a cryogenic microtome. Microplastic fibers were prepd. to specified lengths (P < 0.05, ANOVA) and proved consistent in size. Fluorescent labeling of Nylon microfibers with Nile Red facilitated imaging. A 24 h feeding expt. confirmed bioavailability of 10 × 40 μm Nylon fibers to brine shrimp (Artemia sp). This protocol provides a consistent method for prepg. standardized fibrous microplastics, with widths similar to those obsd. in the natural environment, which could ultimately lead to a better understanding of the biol. and ecol. effects of microplastic debris in the environment.
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      Hernandez, E.; Nowack, B.; Mitrano, D. M. Polyester Textiles as a Source of Microplastics from Households: A Mechanistic Study to Understand Microfiber Release during Washing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (12), 7036– 7046,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b01750
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      19
      Polyester Textiles as a Source of Microplastics from Households: A Mechanistic Study to Understand Microfiber Release During Washing
      Hernandez, Edgar; Nowack, Bernd; Mitrano, Denise M.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (12), 7036-7046CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Microplastic fibers make up a large proportion of microplastics found in the environment, esp. in urban areas. There is good reason to consider synthetic textiles a major source of microplastic fibers and it will not diminish since the use of synthetic fabrics, esp. polyester, continues to increase. In this study we provide quant. data regarding the size and mass of microplastic fibers released from synthetic (polyester) textiles during simulated home washing under controlled lab. conditions. Consideration of fabric structure, washing conditions (use of detergents, temp., wash duration, sequential washings) allowed us to study the propensity of fiber shedding in a mechanistic way. Thousands of individual fibers were measured (no., length) from each wash soln. to provide a robust data set on which to draw conclusions. Among all the variables tested, the use of detergent appeared to affect the total mass of fibers released the most, yet the detergent compn. (liq. or powder) or overdosing of detergent did not significantly influence microplastic release. Despite different release quantities due to the addn. of a surfactant (approx. 0.025 and 0.1 mg fibers/g textile washed, without and with detergent, resp.), the overall microplastic fiber length profile remained similar regardless of wash condition or fabric structure, with the vast majority of fibers ranging between 100 μm and 800 μm in length irresp. of wash cycle no. This indicates that the fiber staple length and/or debris encapsulated inside the fabric from the yarn spinning could be directly responsible for releasing stray fibers. This study serves as a first look towards understanding the phys. properties of the textile itself to better understand the mechanisms of fiber shedding in the context of microplastic fiber release into laundry wash water.
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      Tanaka, K.; Takada, H. Microplastic Fragments and Microbeads in Digestive Tracts of Planktivorous Fish from Urban Coastal Waters. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 34351,  DOI: 10.1038/srep34351
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      20
      Microplastic fragments and microbeads in digestive tracts of planktivorous fish from urban coastal waters
      Tanaka, Kosuke; Takada, Hideshige
      Scientific Reports (2016), 6 (), 34351CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
      We investigated microplastics in the digestive tracts of 64 Japanese anchovy (Engraulis japonicus) sampled in Tokyo Bay. Plastic was detected in 49 out of 64 fish (77%), with 2.3 pieces on av. and up to 15 pieces per individual. All of the plastics were identified by Fourier transform IR spectroscopy. Most were polyethylene (52.0%) or polypropylene (43.3%). Most of the plastics were fragments (86.0%), but 7.3% were beads, some of which were microbeads, similar to those found in facial cleansers. Eighty percent of the plastics ranged in size from 150 μm to 1000 μm, smaller than the reported size range of floating microplastics on the sea surface, possibly because the subsurface foraging behavior of the anchovy reflected the different size distribution of plastics between surface waters and subsurface waters. Engraulis spp. are important food for many humans and other organisms around the world. Our observations further confirm that microplastics have infiltrated the marine ecosystem, and that humans may be exposed to them. Because microplastics retain hazardous chems., increase in fish chem. exposure by the ingested plastics is of concern. Such exposure should be studied and compared with that in the natural diet.
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      Johnson, D. The Triangular Distribution as a Proxy for the Beta Distribution in Risk Analysis. J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. D (The Stat. 1997, 46 (3), 387– 398,  DOI: 10.1111/1467-9884.00091
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      Stein, W. E.; Keblis, M. F. A New Method to Simulate the Triangular Distribution. Math. Comput. Model. 2009, 49 (5–6), 1143– 1147,  DOI: 10.1016/j.mcm.2008.06.013
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      Khatmullina, L.; Isachenko, I. Settling Velocity of Microplastic Particles of Regular Shapes. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 114 (2), 871– 880,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.024
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      Settling velocity of microplastic particles of regular shapes
      Khatmullina, Liliya; Isachenko, Igor
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), 114 (2), 871-880CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Terminal settling velocity of around 600 microplastic particles, ranging from 0.5 to 5 mm, of three regular shapes was measured in a series of sink expts.: Polycaprolactone (material d. 1131 kg m- 3) spheres and short cylinders with equal dimensions, and long cylinders cut from fishing lines (1130-1168 kg m- 3) of different diams. (0.15-0.71 mm). Settling velocities ranging from 5 to 127 mm s- 1 were compared with several semi-empirical predictions developed for natural sediments showing reasonable consistency with observations except for the case of long cylinders, for which the new approxn. is proposed. The effect of particle's shape on its settling velocity is highlighted, indicating the need of further expts. with real marine microplastics of different shapes and the necessity of the development of reasonable parameterization of microplastics settling for proper modeling of their transport in the water column.
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      Waldschläger, K.; Schüttrumpf, H. Effects of Particle Properties on the Settling and Rise Velocities of Microplastics in Freshwater under Laboratory Conditions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 1958,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06794
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      24
      Effects of Particle Properties on the Settling and Rise Velocities of Microplastics in Freshwater under Laboratory Conditions
      Waldschlager Kryss; Schuttrumpf Holger
      Environmental science & technology (2019), 53 (4), 1958-1966 ISSN:.
      Microplastic (MP) contaminates terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric environments. Although the number of river sampling studies with regard to MP concentrations is increasing, comprehension of the predominant transport processes of MP in the watercourse is still very limited. In order to gain a better process understanding, around 500 physical experiments were conducted to shed more light on the effects of particle shape, size and density on the rise and settling velocities of MP. The determined velocities ranged between 0.39 cm/s for polyamide fibers (settling) and 31.4 cm/s for expanded polystyrene pellets (rise). Subsequently, the determined velocities were compared with formulas from sediment transport and, as there were large differences between theoretically and experimentally determined velocities, own formulas were developed to describe settling and rise velocities of MP particles with a large variety of shapes, sizes and densities. This study shows that MP differs significantly from sediment in its behavior and that a transfer of common sediment transport formulas should be treated with caution. Furthermore, the established formulas can now be used in numerical simulations to describe the settling and rising of MP more precisely.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BB3cjlvFehsQ%253D%253D&md5=6de3963ecf42357d4a81b8486ac3589e
    25. 25
      Kreider, M. L.; Panko, J. M.; McAtee, B. L.; Sweet, L. I.; Finley, B. L. Physical and Chemical Characterization of Tire-Related Particles: Comparison of Particles Generated Using Different Methodologies. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408 (3), 652– 659,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.10.016
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      25
      Physical and chemical characterization of tire-related particles: Comparison of particles generated using different methodologies
      Kreider, Marisa L.; Panko, Julie M.; McAtee, Britt L.; Sweet, Leonard I.; Finley, Brent L.
      Science of the Total Environment (2010), 408 (3), 652-659CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
      This work characterized the physicochem. properties of particles generated from the interaction of tires and road surfaces. Morphol., size distribution, and chem. compn. were compared between particles generated by different methods: on-road collection, lab.-generation under simulated driving conditions, and cryogenic breaking of tread rubber. On-road collected and lab.-generated particles exhibited an elongated shape typical of tire wear particles; tread particles were more angular. Despite similar morphol. for on-road collected and lab. generated particles, the former were smaller on av. It is not clear if the difference is significant to particle physicochem. behavior. Particle chem. compn. differed: on-road generated particles contained chem. contributions from sources other than tires (pavement, particulates generated from other traffic-related sources). Understanding differences among these particles is essential to apportion environmental pollutant contributions to tires, roads, and other sources, and to evaluate the representativeness of toxicity studies using different types of generated particles.
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    26. 26
      Kowalski, N.; Reichardt, A. M.; Waniek, J. J. Sinking Rates of Microplastics and Potential Implications of Their Alteration by Physical, Biological, and Chemical Factors. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 109 (1), 310– 319,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.064
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      26
      Sinking rates of microplastics and potential implications of their alteration by physical, biological, and chemical factors
      Kowalski, Nicole; Reichardt, Aurelia M.; Waniek, Joanna J.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 109 (1), 310-319CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      To follow the pathways of microplastics in aquatic environments, profound knowledge about the behavior of microplastics is necessary. Therefore, sinking expts. were conducted with diverse polymer particles using fluids with different salinity. Particles ranged from 0.3 and 3.6 mm with sinking rates between 6 and 91 × 10- 3 ms- 1. The sinking velocity was not solely related to particle d., size and fluid d. but also to the particles shape leading to considerable deviation from calcd. theor. values. Thus, exptl. studies are indispensable to get basic knowledge about the sinking behavior and to gain representative datasets for model approaches estg. the distribution of microplastics in aquatic systems. The sinking behavior may be altered considerably by weathering and biofouling demanding further studies with aged and fouled plastic particles. Furthermore, assumptions are made about the influence of sinking fouled microplastics on the marine carbon pump by transferring org. carbon to deeper water depths.
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    27. 27
      Zhao, S.; Ward, J. E.; Danley, M.; Mincer, T. J. Field-Based Evidence for Microplastic in Marine Aggregates and Mussels: Implications for Trophic Transfer. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (19), 11038– 11048,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b03467
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      27
      Field-Based Evidence for Microplastic in Marine Aggregates and Mussels: Implications for Trophic Transfer
      Zhao, Shiye; Ward, J. Evan; Danley, Meghan; Mincer, Tracy J.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (19), 11038-11048CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Marine aggregates incorporate particles from the environment, including microplastic (MP). The characteristics of MP in aggregates and the role of aggregates in linking MP with marine organisms, however, are poorly understood. To address these issues, we collected aggregates and blue mussels, Mytulis edulis, at Avery Point, CT, and analyzed samples with microspectrometers. Results indicate that over 70% of aggregates sampled harbored MP (1290 ± 1510 particles/m3). Fifteen polymer types were identified, with polypropylene, polyester and synthetic-cellulose accounting for 44.7%, 21.2% and 10.6%, resp., of the total MP count. Over 90% of MP in aggregates were ≤1000 μm, suggesting that aggregations are a sink for this size fraction. Although size, shape, and chem. type of MP captured by mussels were representative of those found in aggregates, differences in the sizes of MP in pseudofeces, feces and digestive gland/gut were found, suggesting size-dependent particle ingestion. Over 40% of the MP particles were either rejected in pseudofeces or egested in feces. Our results are the first to identify a connection between field-collected marine aggregates and bivalves, and indicate that aggregates may play an important role in removing MP from the ocean surface and facilitating their transfer to marine food webs.
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    28. 28
      Ter Halle, A.; Ladirat, L.; Martignac, M.; Mingotaud, A. F.; Boyron, O.; Perez, E. To What Extent Are Microplastics from the Open Ocean Weathered?. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 227, 167– 174,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.051
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      28
      To what extent are microplastics from the open ocean weathered?
      ter Halle, Alexandra; Ladirat, Lucie; Martignac, Marion; Mingotaud, Anne Francoise; Boyron, Olivier; Perez, Emile
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 227 (), 167-174CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      It is necessary to better characterize plastic marine debris in order to understand its fate in the environment and interaction with organisms, the most common type of debris being made of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). In this work, plastic debris was collected in the North Atlantic sub-tropical gyre during the Expedition 7th Continent sea campaign and consisted mainly in PE. While the mechanisms of PE photodegrdn. and biodegrdn. in controlled lab. conditions are well known, plastic weathering in the environment is not well understood. This is a difficult task to examine because debris comes from a variety of manufd. objects, the original compns. and properties of which vary considerably. A statistical approach was therefore used to compare four sample sets: ref. PE, manufd. objects, mesoplastics (5-20 mm) and microplastics (0.3-5 mm). IR spectroscopy showed that the surface of all debris presented a higher oxidn. state than the ref. samples. Differential scanning calorimetry anal. revealed that the microplastics were more cryst. contrarily to the mesoplastics which were similar to refs. samples. Size exclusion chromatog. showed that the molar mass decreased from the refs. to meso- and microplastics, revealing a clear degrdn. of the polymer chains. It was thus concluded that the morphol. of marine microplastic was much altered and that an unambiguous shortening of the polymer chains took place even for this supposedly robust and inert polymer.
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      Brandon, J.; Goldstein, M.; Ohman, M. D. Long-Term Aging and Degradation of Microplastic Particles: Comparing in Situ Oceanic and Experimental Weathering Patterns. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2016, 110 (1), 299– 308,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.048
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      Long-term aging and degradation of microplastic particles: Comparing in situ oceanic and experimental weathering patterns
      Brandon, Jennifer; Goldstein, Miriam; Ohman, Mark D.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2016), 110 (1), 299-308CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Polypropylene, low-d. polyethylene, and high-d. polyethylene pre-prodn. plastic pellets were weathered for three years in three exptl. treatments: dry/sunlight, seawater/sunlight, and seawater/darkness. Changes in chem. bond structures (hydroxyl, carbonyl groups and carbon-oxygen) with weathering were measured via Fourier Transform IR (FTIR) spectroscopy. These indexes from exptl. weathered particles were compared to microplastic particles collected from oceanic surface waters in the California Current, the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre, and the transition region between the two, in order to est. the exposure time of the oceanic plastics. Although chem. bonds exhibited some nonlinear changes with environmental exposure, they can potentially approx. the weathering time of some plastics, esp. high-d. polyethylene. The majority of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre polyethylene particles we measured have inferred exposure times > 18 mo, with some > 30 mo. Inferred particle weathering times are consistent with ocean circulation models suggesting a long residence time in the open ocean.
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      Benaglia, T.; Chauveau, D.; Hunter, D. R.; Young, D. {mixtools}: An {R} Package for Analyzing Finite Mixture Models. Journal of Statistical Software 2009, 32 (6), 1– 29,  DOI: 10.18637/jss.v032.i06
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      R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; The R Foundation: Vienna, 2017.
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      Kaiser, D.; Kowalski, N.; Waniek, J. J. Effects of Biofouling on the Sinking Behavior of Microplastics. Environ. Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 124003,  DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa8e8b
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      Effects of biofouling on the sinking behavior of microplastics
      Kaiser, David; Kowalski, Nicole; Waniek, Joanna J.
      Environmental Research Letters (2017), 12 (12), 124003/1-124003/10CODEN: ERLNAL; ISSN:1748-9326. (IOP Publishing Ltd.)
      A review. Although plastic is ubiquitous in marine systems, our current knowledge of transport mechanisms is limited. Much of the plastic entering the ocean sinks; this is intuitively obvious for polymers such as polystyrene (PS), which have a greater d. than seawater, but lower d. polymers like polyethylene (PE) also occur in sediments. Biofouling can cause large plastic objects to sink, but this phenomenon has not been described for microplastics <5 mm. We incubated PS and PE microplastic particles in estuarine and coastal waters to det. how biofouling changes their sinking behavior. Sinking velocities of PS increased by 16% in estuarine water (salinity 9.8) and 81% in marine water (salinity 36) after 6 wk of incubation. Thereafter sinking velocities decreased due to lower water temps. and reduced light availability. Biofouling did not cause PE to sink during the 14 wk of incubation in estuarine water, but PE started to sink after six weeks in coastal water when sufficiently colonized by blue mussels Mytilus edulis, and its velocity continued to increase until the end of the incubation period. Sinking velocities of these PE pellets were similar irresp. of salinity (10 vs. 36). Biofilm compn. differed between estuarine and coastal stations, presumably accounting for differences in sinking behavior. We demonstrate that biofouling enhances microplastic deposition to marine sediments, and our findings should improve microplastic transport models.
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      Bond, T.; Ferrandiz-Mas, V.; Felipe-Sotelo, M.; van Sebille, E. The Occurrence and Degradation of Aquatic Plastic Litter Based on Polymer Physicochemical Properties: A Review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 48, 685,  DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2018.1483155
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      Paolella, M. S. Intermediate Probability: A Computational Approach; John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
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      Bergmann, M.; Wirzberger, V.; Krumpen, T.; Lorenz, C.; Primpke, S.; Tekman, M. B.; Gerdts, G. High Quantities of Microplastic in Arctic Deep-Sea Sediments from the HAUSGARTEN Observatory. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (19), 11000– 11010,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03331
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      High Quantities of Microplastic in Arctic Deep-Sea Sediments from the HAUSGARTEN Observatory
      Bergmann, Melanie; Wirzberger, Vanessa; Krumpen, Thomas; Lorenz, Claudia; Primpke, Sebastian; Tekman, Mine B.; Gerdts, Gunnar
      Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (19), 11000-11010CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Although mounting evidence suggests the ubiquity of microplastic in aquatic ecosystems worldwide, our knowledge of its distribution in remote environments such as Polar Regions and the deep sea is scarce. Here, we analyzed nine sediment samples taken at the HAUSGARTEN observatory in the Arctic at 2340-5570 m depth. D. sepn. by MicroPlastic Sediment Separator and treatment with Fenton's reagent enabled anal. via Attenuated Total Reflection FTIR and μFTIR spectroscopy. Our analyses indicate the wide spread of high nos. of microplastics (42-6595 microplastics kg-1). The northernmost stations harbored the highest quantities, indicating sea ice as a possible transport vehicle. A pos. correlation between microplastic abundance and chlorophyll a content suggests vertical export via incorporation in sinking (ice-) algal aggregates. Overall, 18 different polymers were detected. Chlorinated polyethylene accounted for the largest proportion (38%), followed by polyamide (22%) and polypropylene (16%). Almost 80% of the microplastics were ≤25 μm. The microplastic quantities are among the highest recorded from benthic sediments. This corroborates the deep sea as a major sink for microplastics and the presence of accumulation areas in this remote part of the world, fed by plastics transported to the North via the Thermohaline Circulation.
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    36. 36
      Cai, M.; He, H.; Liu, M.; Li, S.; Tang, G.; Wang, W.; Huang, P.; Wei, G.; Lin, Y.; Chen, B. Lost but Can’t Be Neglected: Huge Quantities of Small Microplastics Hide in the South China Sea. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 633, 1206– 1216,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.197
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      Lost but can't be neglected: Huge quantities of small microplastics hide in the South China Sea
      Cai, Minggang; He, Haixia; Liu, Mengyang; Li, Siwei; Tang, Guowen; Wang, Weimin; Huang, Peng; Wei, Ge; Lin, Yan; Chen, Bin; Hu, Jiahui; Cen, Zhengnan
      Science of the Total Environment (2018), 633 (), 1206-1216CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Large quantities of microplastics with small particle sizes were found in the South China Sea (SCS). The abundances of microplastics in seawater were 0.045 ± 0.093 and 2569 ± 1770 particles/m3 according to the bongo net and pumping sampling methods, resp. Smaller-size fractions (size < 0.3 mm) contributed 92% of the no. of microplastics to the total load. Continental slope is the largest reservoir of microplastics with an inventory of 295 tons. 21 polymer types were found in the samples using the micro Fourier Transform IR Spectroscopy (FTIR), among which alkyds (22.5%) and polycaprolactone (PCL) (20.9%) accounted for almost half of the total polymer content. Lighter plastics would not only conc. upon the coastal area, being more likely to drift further into open seas with ocean currents. The distribution characteristics showed that it was mainly controlled by terrestrial input of the Pearl River. This study, as the first report from SCS on microplastics in water for its distribution and influence factors, provided impetus for further research on the transportation fate and the behavior of this emerging pollutant from coastal zone to the open oceans.
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    37. 37
      Zhang, B.; Wu, D.; Yang, X.; Teng, J.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, C.; Zhao, J.; Yin, X.; You, L.; Liu, Y. Microplastic Pollution in the Surface Sediments Collected from Sishili Bay, North Yellow Sea, China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 141, 9– 15,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.02.021
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      37
      Microplastic pollution in the surface sediments collected from Sishili Bay, North Yellow Sea, China
      Zhang, Bin; Wu, Di; Yang, Xin; Teng, Jia; Liu, Yongliang; Zhang, Chen; Zhao, Jianmin; Yin, Xiaonan; You, Liping; Liu, Yanfang; Wang, Qing
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2019), 141 (), 9-15CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      As a new emergence pollutant, microplastic has aroused wide concern from both scholars and the public. In this study, microplastic pollution in surface sediments from 28 stations in Sishili Bay was investigated. The av. abundance of microplastics was 499.76 ± 370.07 items/kg (d.w.). Fiber was the majority shape of microplastics (86.37%), followed by film, fragment and pellet. Microplastics <500 μm accounted for more than half of the total microplastics. Eight polymer types including rayon, PE, PP, PA, PET, PS, PMMA and PU were identified. The main component was rayon (58.41%), followed by PP and PET. The microplastic pollution in surface sediments of Sishili Bay is moderate compared with other studies. Microplastic pollution level in port, sewage outfall, estuary and aquaculture area of Sishili Bay was relatively high, which indicated that microplastic pollution was mainly sourced from river and sewage discharge and maritime activities.
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    38. 38
      Enders, K.; Lenz, R.; Stedmon, C. A.; Nielsen, T. G. Abundance, Size and Polymer Composition of Marine Microplastics≥ 10μm in the Atlantic Ocean and Their Modelled Vertical Distribution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 100 (1), 70– 81,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.027
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      38
      Abundance, size and polymer composition of marine microplastics ≥ 10 μm in the Atlantic Ocean and their modelled vertical distribution
      Enders, Kristina; Lenz, Robin; Stedmon, Colin A.; Nielsen, Torkel G.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 100 (1), 70-81CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      We studied abundance, size and polymer type of microplastic down to 10 μm along a transect from the European Coast to the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre (NASG) using an underway intake filtration technique and Raman micro-spectrometry. Concns. ranged from 13 to 501 items m- 3. Highest concns. were obsd. at the European coast, decreasing towards mid-Atlantic waters but elevated in the western NASG. We obsd. highest nos. among particles in the 10-20 μm size fraction, whereas the total vol. was highest in the 50-80 μm range. Based on a numerical model size-dependent depth profiles of polyethylene microspheres in a range from 10-1000 μm were calcd. and show a strong dispersal throughout the surface mixed layer for sizes smaller than 200 μm. From model and field study results we conclude that small microplastic is ubiquitously distributed over the ocean surface layer and has a lower residence time than larger plastic debris in this compartment.
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      Eo, S.; Hong, S. H.; Song, Y. K.; Han, G. M.; Shim, W. J. Spatiotemporal Distribution and Annual Load of Microplastics in the Nakdong River, South Korea. Water Res. 2019, 160, 228– 237,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.053
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      Spatiotemporal distribution and annual load of microplastics in the Nakdong River, South Korea
      Eo, Soeun; Hong, Sang Hee; Song, Young Kyoung; Han, Gi Myung; Shim, Won Joon
      Water Research (2019), 160 (), 228-237CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Although rivers represent an important pathway for the transport of microplastics to the oceans, research on riverine microplastics is limited compared to the marine environment. Hence, we investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics in the Nakdong River down to 20μm in size and characterized them using Fourier transform IR spectroscopy in surface and mid waters and sediment. The mean (±std. deviation) abundance of microplastic in the Nakdong River was in the range of 293 ± 83 (upstream, Feb. 2017) to 4760 ± 5242 (downstream, August 2017) particles/m3 in water, and 1970 ± 62 particles/kg in sediment. The abundance of microplastics was about three times higher in surface than mid waters in the downstream area. Polypropylene and polyester accounted for 41.8% and 23.1% of microplastics in the water, resp., whereas about 50% in the sediment was composed of polypropylene and polyethylene. Microplastics smaller than 300μm in size accounted for 74% in the water and 81% in sediment, and the distribution peaked in the 50-150μm size range. Based on these results, we estd. the annual load of microplastics carried by the Nakdong River in 2017 to be 5.4-11 trillion by no. and 53.3-118 tons by wt. The proportions of the total load transported through surface water and the water column were 8% and 92%, resp. In addn., the microplastic load was concd. in the wet season, which makes up 71% in no. and 81% in wt.
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    40. 40
      Erni-Cassola, G.; Gibson, M. I.; Thompson, R. C.; Christie-Oleza, J. A. Lost, but Found with Nile Red: A Novel Method for Detecting and Quantifying Small Microplastics (1 mm to 20 μm) in Environmental Samples. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (23), 13641– 13648,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b04512
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      40
      Lost, but Found with Nile Red: A Novel Method for Detecting and Quantifying Small Microplastics (1 mm to 20 μm) in Environmental Samples
      Erni-Cassola, Gabriel; Gibson, Matthew I.; Thompson, Richard C.; Christie-Oleza, Joseph A.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (23), 13641-13648CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Marine plastic debris is a global environmental problem. Surveys have shown that <5 mm plastic particles, known as microplastics, are significantly more abundant in surface seawater and on shorelines than larger plastic particles are. Nevertheless, quantification of microplastics in the environment is hampered by a lack of adequate high-throughput methods for distinguishing and quantifying smaller size fractions (<1 mm), and this has probably resulted in an underestimation of actual microplastic concns. Here we present a protocol that allows high-throughput detection and automated quantification of small microplastic particles (20-1000 μm) using the dye Nile red, fluorescence microscopy, and image anal. software. This protocol has proven to be highly effective in the quantification of small polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and nylon-6 particles, which frequently occur in the water column. Our preliminary results from sea surface tows show a power-law increase in small microplastics (i.e., <1 mm) with a decreasing particle size. Hence, our data help to resolve speculation about the "apparent" loss of this fraction from surface waters. We consider that this method presents a step change in the ability to detect small microplastics by substituting the subjectivity of human visual sorting with a sensitive and semiautomated procedure.
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      Imhof, H. K.; Laforsch, C.; Wiesheu, A. C.; Schmid, J.; Anger, P. M.; Niessner, R.; Ivleva, N. P. Pigments and Plastic in Limnetic Ecosystems: A Qualitative and Quantitative Study on Microparticles of Different Size Classes. Water Res. 2016, 98, 64– 74,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.015
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      41
      Pigments and plastic in limnetic ecosystems: A qualitative and quantitative study on microparticles of different size classes
      Imhof, Hannes K.; Laforsch, Christian; Wiesheu, Alexandra C.; Schmid, Johannes; Anger, Philipp M.; Niessner, Reinhard; Ivleva, Natalia P.
      Water Research (2016), 98 (), 64-74CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Recently, macroplastic (>5 mm) and esp. microplastic (<5 mm) particles have been reported as emerging contaminants in marine and limnetic ecosystems. Their coloration is gained by the addn. of pigments to the polymer blend which is the major component of the resp. product. However, color is also a feature of paint and coatings whereby the pigment is the major component. Once abraded from a surface, paint particles may enter the environment via similar pathways as microplastic particles. So far no detailed studies of microplastic particles (pigmented and non-pigmented) as well as paint particles have been performed focusing on very small microparticles (1-50 μm), in either marine or limnetic ecosystems. Using Raman microspectroscopy with a spatial resoln. down to 1 μm, we report a remarkable increase in the occurrence of (pigmented) microplastic particles below 500 μm. Among those, most particles were found at a size of ∼130 μm in a freshwater ecosystem (subalpine Lake Garda, Italy). Moreover, our qual. and quant. analyses revealed that the no. of paint microparticles significantly increased below the size range of 50 μm due to their brittleness (the smallest detected paint particle had a size of 4 μm). Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry measurements showed that both colored particles found in nature as well as virgin particles contain a high variety of metals such as cadmium, lead and copper. These additives may elicit adverse effects in biota ingesting these microparticles, thus paints and assocd. compds. may act as formerly overlooked contaminants in freshwater ecosystems.
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    42. 42
      Isobe, A.; Kubo, K.; Tamura, Y.; Kako, S.; Nakashima, E.; Fujii, N. Selective Transport of Microplastics and Mesoplastics by Drifting in Coastal Waters. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 89 (1), 324– 330,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.09.041
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      Selective transport of microplastics and mesoplastics by drifting in coastal waters
      Isobe, Atsuhiko; Kubo, Kenta; Tamura, Yuka; Kako, Shin'ichio; Nakashima, Etsuko; Fujii, Naoki
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2014), 89 (1-2), 324-330CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The quantity and size distributions of small plastic fragments in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan were investigated using field surveys and a numerical particle-tracking model. The model was used to interpret the distributions of small plastic fragments and the possible transport processes in coastal waters. Of note, the size and quantity of mesoplastics (approx. >5 mm) gradually increased close to the coast irresp. of the existence of river mouths, which probably act as a major source of anthropogenic marine debris. Addnl., microplastics were more dominant as we moved further offshore. The numerical model reproduced the near-shore trapping of mesoplastics, suggesting that mesoplastics are selectively conveyed onshore by a combination of Stokes drift and terminal velocity, dependent on fragment sizes. It is suggested that mesoplastics washed ashore on beaches degrade into microplastics, and that the microplastics, which are free from near-shore trapping, are thereafter spread offshore in coastal waters.
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    43. 43
      Isobe, A.; Uchida, K.; Tokai, T.; Iwasaki, S. East Asian Seas: A Hot Spot of Pelagic Microplastics. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 101 (2), 618– 623,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.10.042
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      East Asian seas: A hot spot of pelagic microplastics
      Isobe, Atsuhiko; Uchida, Keiichi; Tokai, Tadashi; Iwasaki, Shinsuke
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2015), 101 (2), 618-623CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      To investigate concns. of pelagic micro- (< 5 mm in size) and mesoplastics (> 5 mm) in the East Asian seas around Japan, field surveys using two vessels were conducted concurrently in summer 2014. The total particle count (pieces km- 2) was computed based on obsd. concns. (pieces m- 3) of small plastic fragments (both micro- and mesoplastics) collected using neuston nets. The total particle count of microplastics within the study area was 1,720,000 pieces km- 2, 16 times greater than in the North Pacific and 27 times greater than in the world oceans. The proportion of mesoplastics increased upstream of the northeastward ocean currents, such that the small plastic fragments collected in the present surveys were considered to have originated in the Yellow Sea and East China Sea southwest of the study area.
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    44. 44
      Scheurer, M.; Bigalke, M. Microplastics in Swiss Floodplain Soils. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (6), 3591– 3598,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06003
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      44
      Microplastics in Swiss Floodplain Soils
      Scheurer, Michael; Bigalke, Moritz
      Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (6), 3591-3598CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Microplastics (MPs) are small (<5 mm diam.) but have clear implications for the environment. These artificial particles are found in and pose threats to aquatic systems worldwide. MPs have terrestrial sources, but their concns. and fates in the terrestrial environment are poorly understood. While global plastic prodn. continues to increase, so do the environmental concns. and impacts of MPs. In this first study of MPs in floodplain soils, we developed a method for identifying, quantifying, and measuring the sizes of most commonly produced MPs in soil by FT-IR microscopy. For small MP (<1 mm) anal., MP were sepd. by d. sepn. and oxidn. of org. matter. In this study we analyzed 29 floodplains in Swiss nature reserves assocd. with catchments covering 53% of Switzerland. We found evidence that 90% of Swiss floodplain soils contain MPs. The highest MP concns. were assocd. with the concn. of mesoplastics (5 mm - 2.5 cm diam.), indicating plastic waste as source. Furthermore, MP concn. was correlated with the population of the catchment. The wide distribution of MPs, their presence in remote unsettled high mountain areas, decoupling of MEP and MP compns., and the dominance of MPs by small (<500 μm diam.) particles, indicate that MPs enter soils via diffuse aeolian transport.
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    45. 45
      Song, Y. K.; Hong, S. H.; Eo, S.; Jang, M.; Han, G. M.; Isobe, A.; Shim, W. J. Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Microplastics in Korean Coastal Waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (21), 12188– 12197,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04032
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      45
      Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Microplastics in Korean Coastal Waters
      Song, Young Kyoung; Hong, Sang Hee; Eo, Soeun; Jang, Mi; Han, Gi Myung; Isobe, Atsuhiko; Shim, Won Joon
      Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (21), 12188-12197CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      This is the first survey to investigate the vertical distribution and compn. of microplastics >20 μm at the surface (0-0.2 m; bulk sample) and in the water column (3-58 m depth; pump) of six semi-enclosed bays and two nearshore areas of South Korea. The av. microplastic abundance of 41 stations at all sampling depths was 871 particles/m3, and the microplastic abundance near urban areas (1051 particles/m3) was significantly higher than that near rural areas (560 particles/m3). Although the av. microplastic abundances in the midcolumn (423 particles/m3) and bottom water (394 particles/m3) were approx. 4 times lower than that of surface water (1736 particles/m3), microplastics prevailed throughout the water column in concns. of 10-2000 particles/m3. The av. sizes of fragment and fiber type microplastics were 197 and 752 μm, resp. Although the polymer compn. differed by depth depending on the particle size and d., polypropylene and polyethylene predominated throughout the water column regardless of their low d. and particle size. Finally, the middle and bottom water samples contained higher abundances of microplastics than predicted by a model based on phys. mixing, indicating that biol. interactions also influence the downward movement of low-d. microplastics.
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    46. 46
      Kooi, M.; Reisser, J.; Slat, B.; Ferrari, F. F.; Schmid, M. S.; Cunsolo, S.; Brambini, R.; Noble, K.; Sirks, L.-A.; Linders, T. E. W.; Schoeneich-Argent, R. I.; Koelmans, A. A. The Effect of Particle Properties on the Depth Profile of Buoyant Plastics in the Ocean. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 33882,  DOI: 10.1038/srep33882
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      The effect of particle properties on the depth profile of buoyant plastics in the ocean
      Kooi, Merel; Reisser, Julia; Slat, Boyan; Ferrari, Francesco F.; Schmid, Moritz S.; Cunsolo, Serena; Brambini, Roberto; Noble, Kimberly; Sirks, Lys-Anne; Linders, Theo E. W.; Schoeneich-Argent, Rosanna I.; Koelmans, Albert A.
      Scientific Reports (2016), 6 (), 33882CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Most studies on buoyant microplastics in the marine environment rely on sea surface sampling. Consequently, microplastic amts. can be underestimated, as turbulence leads to vertical mixing. Models that correct for vertical mixing are based on limited data. In this study we report measurements of the depth profile of buoyant microplastics in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre, from 0 to 5 m depth. Microplastics were sepd. into size classes (0.5-1.5 and 1.5-5.0 mm) and types ('fragments' and 'lines'), and assocd. with a sea state. Microplastic concns. decreased exponentially with depth, with both sea state and particle properties affecting the steepness of the decrease. Concns. approached zero within 5 m depth, indicating that most buoyant microplastics are present on or near the surface. Plastic rise velocities were also measured, and were found to differ significantly for different sizes and shapes. Our results suggest that (1) surface samplers such as manta trawls underestimate total buoyant microplastic amts. by a factor of 1.04-30.0 and (2) estns. of depth-integrated buoyant plastic concns. should be done across different particle sizes and types. Our findings can assist with improving buoyant ocean plastic vertical mixing models, mass balance exercises, impact assessments and mitigation strategies.
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    47. 47
      Kooi, M.; van Nes, E. H.; Scheffer, M.; Koelmans, A. A. Ups and Downs in the Ocean: Effects of Biofouling on the Vertical Transport of Microplastics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51 (14), 7963– 7971,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04702
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      Ups and Downs in the Ocean: Effects of Biofouling on Vertical Transport of Microplastics
      Kooi, Merel; Nes, Egbert H. van; Scheffer, Marten; Koelmans, Albert A.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2017), 51 (14), 7963-7971CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Recent studies suggest size-selective removal of small plastic particles from the ocean surface, an observation that remains unexplained. We studied one of the hypotheses regarding this size-selective removal: the formation of a biofilm on the microplastics (biofouling). We developed the first theor. model that is capable of simulating the effect of biofouling on the fate of microplastic. The model is based on settling, biofilm growth, and ocean depth profiles for light, water d., temp., salinity, and viscosity. Using realistic parameters, the model simulates the vertical transport of small microplastic particles over time, and predicts that the particles either float, sink to the ocean floor, or oscillate vertically, depending on the size and d. of the particle. The predicted size-dependent vertical movement of microplastic particles results in a max. concn. at intermediate depths. Consequently, relatively low abundances of small particles are predicted at the ocean surface, while at the same time these small particles may never reach the ocean floor. Our results hint at the fate of "lost" plastic in the ocean, and provide a start for predicting risks of exposure to microplastics for potentially vulnerable species living at these depths.
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      Besseling, E.; Quik, J. T. K.; Sun, M.; Koelmans, A. A. Fate of Nano- and Microplastic in Freshwater Systems: A Modeling Study. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 220, 540– 548,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.001
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      Fate of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems: A modeling study
      Besseling, Ellen; Quik, Joris T. K.; Sun, Muzhi; Koelmans, Albert A.
      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 220 (Part_A), 540-548CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Riverine transport to the marine environment is an important pathway for microplastic. However, information on fate and transport of nano- and microplastic in freshwater systems is lacking. Here we present scenario studies on the fate and transport of nano-to millimetre sized spherical particles like microbeads (100 nm-10 mm) with a state of the art spatiotemporally resolved hydrol. model. The model accounts for advective transport, homo- and heteroaggregation, sedimentation-resuspension, polymer degrdn., presence of biofilm and burial. Literature data were used to parameterize the model and addnl. the attachment efficiency for heteroaggregation was detd. exptl. The attachment efficiency ranged from 0.004 to 0.2 for 70 nm and 1050 nm polystyrene particles aggregating with kaolin or bentonite clays in natural freshwater. Modeled effects of polymer d. (1-1.5 kg/L) and biofilm formation were not large, due to the fact that variations in polymer d. are largely overwhelmed by excess mass of suspended solids that form heteroaggregates with microplastic. Particle size had a dramatic effect on the modeled fate and retention of microplastic and on the positioning of the accumulation hot spots in the sediment along the river. Remarkably, retention was lowest (18-25%) for intermediate sized particles of about 5 μm, which implies that the smaller submicron particles as well as larger micro- and millimetre sized plastic are preferentially retained. Our results suggest that river hydrodynamics affect microplastic size distributions with profound implications for emissions to marine systems.
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    49. 49
      Löder, M. G. J.; Gerdts, G. Methodology Used for the Detection and Identification of Microplastics—A Critical Appraisal. In Marine anthropogenic litter; Springer, 2015; pp 201– 227.
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      Löder, M. G. J.; Kuczera, M.; Mintenig, S.; Lorenz, C.; Gerdts, G. Focal Plane Array Detector-Based Micro-Fourier-Transform Infrared Imaging for the Analysis of Microplastics in Environmental Samples. Environ. Chem. 2015, 12 (5), 563– 581,  DOI: 10.1071/EN14205
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      Mintenig, S. M.; Int-Veen, I.; Löder, M. G. J.; Primpke, S.; Gerdts, G. Identification of Microplastic in Effluents of Waste Water Treatment Plants Using Focal Plane Array-Based Micro-Fourier-Transform Infrared Imaging. Water Res. 2017, 108, 365– 372,  DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.11.015
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      Identification of microplastic in effluents of waste water treatment plants using focal plane array-based micro-Fourier-transform infrared imaging
      Mintenig, S. M.; Int-Veen, I.; Loeder, M. G. J.; Primpke, S.; Gerdts, G.
      Water Research (2017), 108 (), 365-372CODEN: WATRAG; ISSN:0043-1354. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The global presence of microplastic (MP) in aquatic ecosystems has been shown by various studies. However, neither MP concns. nor their sources or sinks are completely known. Waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) are considered as significant point sources discharging MP to the environment. This study investigated MP in the effluents of 12 WWTPs in Lower Saxony, Germany. Samples were purified by a plastic-preserving enzymic-oxidative procedure and subsequent d. sepn. using a zinc chloride soln. For anal., attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform IR spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR) and focal plane array (FPA)-based transmission micro-FT-IR imaging were applied. This allowed the identification of polymers of all MP down to a size of 20 μm. In all effluents MP was found with quantities ranging from 0 to 5 × 101 m-3 MP > 500 μm and 1 × 101 to 9 × 103 m-3 MP < 500 μm. By far, polyethylene was the most frequent polymer type in both size classes. Quantities of synthetic fibers ranged from 9 × 101 to 1 × 103 m-3 and were predominantly made of polyester. Considering the annual effluxes of tested WWTPs, total discharges of 9 × 107 to 4 × 109 MP particles and fibers per WWTP could be expected. Interestingly, one tertiary WWTP had an addnl. installed post-filtration that reduced the total MP discharge by 97%. Furthermore, the sewage sludge of six WWTPs was examd. and the existence of MP, predominantly polyethylene, revealed. Our findings suggest that WWTPs could be a sink but also a source of MP and thus can be considered to play an important role for environmental MP pollution.
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      Lenz, R.; Enders, K.; Nielsen, T. G. Microplastic Exposure Studies Should Be Environmentally Realistic. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113 (29), E4121– E4122,  DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1606615113
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      Microplastic exposure studies should be environmentally realistic
      Lenz, Robin; Enders, Kristina; Nielsen, Torkel Gissel
      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2016), 113 (29), E4121-E4122CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
      There is no expanded citation for this reference.
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      Andrady, A. L. The Plastic in Microplastics: A Review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2017, 119 (1), 12– 22,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082
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      The plastic in microplastics: A review
      Andrady, Anthony L.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2017), 119 (1), 12-22CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Microplastics [MPs], now a ubiquitous pollutant in the oceans, pose a serious potential threat to marine ecol. and has justifiably encouraged focused biol. and ecol. research attention. But, their generation, fate, fragmentation and their propensity to sorb/release persistent org. pollutants (POPs) are detd. by the characteristics of the polymers that constitutes them. Yet, physico-chem. characteristics of the polymers making up the MPs have not received detailed attention in published work. This review assesses the relevance of selected characteristics of plastics that composes the microplastics, to their role as a pollutant with potentially serious ecol. impacts. Fragmentation leading to secondary microplastics is also discussed underlining the likelihood of a surface-ablation mechanism that can lead to preferential formation of smaller sized MPs.
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      Hidalgo-ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R. C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the Marine Environment: A Review of the Methods Used for Identification and Quantification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (6), 3060– 3075,  DOI: 10.1021/es2031505
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      Microplastics in marine environment review of methods for identification and quantification
      Hidalgo-Ruz, Valeria; Gutow, Lars; Thompson, Richard C.; Thiel, Martin
      Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (6), 3060-3075CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      This review of 68 studies compares the methodologies used for the identification and quantification of microplastics from the marine environment. Three main sampling strategies were identified: selective, vol.-reduced, and bulk sampling. Most sediment samples came from sandy beaches at the high tide line, and most seawater samples were taken at the sea surface using neuston nets. Four steps were distinguished during sample processing: d. sepn., filtration, sieving, and visual sorting of microplastics. Visual sorting was one of the most commonly used methods for the identification of microplastics (using type, shape, degrdn. stage, and color as criteria). Chem. and phys. characteristics (e.g., specific d.) were also used. The most reliable method to identify the chem. compn. of microplastics is by IR spectroscopy. Most studies reported that plastic fragments were polyethylene and polypropylene polymers. Units commonly used for abundance ests. are "items per m2" for sediment and sea surface studies and "items per m3" for water column studies. Mesh size of sieves and filters used during sampling or sample processing influence abundance ests. Most studies reported two main size ranges of microplastics: (i) 500 μm-5 mm, which are retained by a 500 μm sieve/net, and (ii) 1-500 μm, or fractions thereof that are retained on filters. We recommend that future programs of monitoring continue to distinguish these size fractions, but we suggest standardized sampling procedures which allow the spatiotemporal comparison of microplastic abundance across marine environments.
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      Hanvey, J. S.; Lewis, P. J.; Lavers, J. L.; Crosbie, N. D.; Pozo, K.; Clarke, B. O. A Review of Analytical Techniques for Quantifying Microplastics in Sediments. Anal. Methods 2017, 9 (9), 1369– 1383,  DOI: 10.1039/C6AY02707E
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      Duis, K.; Coors, A. Microplastics in the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment: Sources (with a Specific Focus on Personal Care Products), Fate and Effects. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2016, 28 (1), 1– 25,  DOI: 10.1186/s12302-015-0069-y
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      Microplastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus on personal care products), fate and effects
      Duis, Karen; Coors, Anja
      Environmental Sciences Europe (2016), 28 (1), 1-25CODEN: ESENCT; ISSN:2190-4715. (Springer)
      Due to the widespread use and durability of synthetic polymers, plastic debris occurs in the environment worldwide. In the present work, information on sources and fate of microplastic particles in the aquatic and terrestrial environment, and on their uptake and effects, mainly in aquatic organisms, is reviewed. Microplastics in the environment originate from a variety of sources. Quant. information on the relevance of these sources is generally lacking, but first ests. indicate that abrasion and fragmentation of larger plastic items and materials contg. synthetic polymers are likely to be most relevant. Microplastics are ingested and, mostly, excreted rapidly by numerous aquatic organisms. So far, there is no clear evidence of bioaccumulation or biomagnification. In lab. studies, the ingestion of large amts. of microplastics mainly led to a lower food uptake and, consequently, reduced energy reserves and effects on other physiol. functions. Based on the evaluated data, the lowest microplastic concns. affecting marine organisms exposed via water are much higher than levels measured in marine water. In lugworms exposed via sediment, effects were obsd. at microplastic levels that were higher than those in subtidal sediments but in the same range as max. levels in beach sediments. Hydrophobic contaminants are enriched on microplastics, but the available exptl. results and modeling approaches indicate that the transfer of sorbed pollutants by microplastics is not likely to contribute significantly to bioaccumulation of these pollutants. Prior to being able to comprehensively assess possible environmental risks caused by microplastics a no. of knowledge gaps need to be filled. However, in view of the persistence of microplastics in the environment, the high concns. measured at some environmental sites and the prospective of strongly increasing concns., the release of plastics into the environment should be reduced in a broad and global effort regardless of a proof of an environmental risk.
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      Redondo Hasselerharm, P. E.; Falahudin, D.; Peeters, E.; Koelmans, A. A. Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52 (4), 2278– 2286,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b05367
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      Microplastic Effect Thresholds for Freshwater Benthic Macroinvertebrates
      Redondo-Hasselerharm, Paula E.; Falahudin, Dede; Peeters, Edwin T. H. M.; Koelmans, Albert A.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2018), 52 (4), 2278-2286CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Now that microplastics have been detected in lakes, rivers, and estuaries all over the globe, evaluating their effects on biota has become an urgent research priority. This is the first study that aims at detg. the effect thresholds for a battery of six freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates with different species traits, using a wide range of microplastic concns. Standardized 28 days single species bioassays were performed under environmentally relevant exposure conditions using polystyrene microplastics (20-500 μm) mixed with sediment at concns. ranging from 0 to 40% sediment dry wt. (dw). Microplastics caused no effects on the survival of Gammarus pulex, Hyalella azteca, Asellus aquaticus, Sphaerium corneum, and Tubifex spp. and no effects were found on the reprodn. of Lumbriculus variegatus. No significant differences in growth were found for H. azteca, A. aquaticus, S. corneum, L. variegatus, and Tubifex spp. However, G. pulex showed a significant redn. in growth (EC10 = 1.07% sediment dw) and microplastic uptake was proportional with microplastic concns. in sediment. These results indicate that although the risks of environmentally realistic concns. of microplastics may be low, they still may affect the biodiversity and the functioning of aquatic communities which after all also depend on the sensitive species.
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      Kaiser, D.; Estelmann, A.; Kowalski, N.; Glockzin, M.; Waniek, J. J. Sinking Velocity of Sub-Millimeter Microplastic. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 139, 214– 220,  DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.12.035
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      Sinking velocity of sub-millimeter microplastic
      Kaiser, David; Estelmann, Arne; Kowalski, Nicole; Glockzin, Michael; Waniek, Joanna J.
      Marine Pollution Bulletin (2019), 139 (), 214-220CODEN: MPNBAZ; ISSN:0025-326X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Sinking expts. were conducted using irregularly shaped polyamide (PA), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) particles sized 6 to 251μm. Certified PS spheres were used to validate expts. and showed that the effect of particle size on terminal sinking velocity is well reproduced by the method. As expected sinking velocities of irregularly shaped particles were considerably lower than theor. values for spheres of the same size range calcd. via several approxns. available in the literature. Despite the influence of particle shape, the dependence of terminal sinking velocity on particle size can reasonably well be described by a quadratic linear regression, with an av. detn. of 63%. To generalize results we present a model that predicts terminal sinking velocity as a function of particle size and particle excess d. over the fluid. Improving the predictive power of this model requires further expts. with a range of particle characteristics.
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    59. 59
      Frydkjær, C. K.; Iversen, N.; Roslev, P. Ingestion and Egestion of Microplastics by the Cladoceran Daphnia Magna: Effects of Regular and Irregular Shaped Plastic and Sorbed Phenanthrene. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2017, 99 (6), 655– 661,  DOI: 10.1007/s00128-017-2186-3
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      59
      Ingestion and Egestion of Microplastics by the Cladoceran Daphnia magna: Effects of Regular and Irregular Shaped Plastic and Sorbed Phenanthrene
      Frydkjaer, Camilla Krogh; Iversen, Niels; Roslev, Peter
      Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2017), 99 (6), 655-661CODEN: BECTA6; ISSN:0007-4861. (Springer)
      The presence of microplastics in aquatic ecosystems is of increasing global concern. This study investigated ingestion, egestion and acute effects of polyethylene microplastics in Daphnia magna. Fate of regular shaped microplastic beads (10-106 μm) were compared with irregular shaped microplastic fragments (10-75 μm). Daphnia magna ingested regular and irregular microplastic with uptake between 0.7 and 50 plastic particles/animal/day when exposed to microplastic concns. of 0.0001-10 g/L. Egestion of irregular fragments was slower than that of microplastic beads. The EC50 for irregular microplastic was 0.065 g/L whereas microplastic beads were less inhibitory. The potential of microplastic to act as vector for hydrophobic pollutants was examd. using [14C]phenanthrene as tracer. Polyethylene microplastic sorbed less [14C]phenanthrene compared to natural plankton organisms (bacteria, algae, yeast). As microplastics are much less abundant in most aquatic ecosystems compared to plankton organisms this suggests a limited role as vector for hydrophobic pollutants under current environmental conditions.
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      Au, S. Y.; Bruce, T. F.; Bridges, W. C.; Klaine, S. J. Responses of Hyalella Azteca to Acute and Chronic Microplastic Exposures. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2015, 34 (11), 2564– 2572,  DOI: 10.1002/etc.3093
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      Responses of Hyalella azteca to acute and chronic microplastic exposures
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      Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2015), 34 (11), 2564-2572CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)
      Limited information is available on the presence of microplastics in freshwater systems, and even less is known about the toxicol. implications of the exposure of aquatic organisms to plastic particles. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of microplastic ingestion on the freshwater amphipod, Hyalella azteca. Hyalella azteca was exposed to fluorescent polyethylene microplastic particles and polypropylene microplastic fibers in individual 250-mL chambers to det. 10-d mortality. In acute bioassays, polypropylene microplastic fibers were significantly more toxic than polyethylene microplastic particles; 10-d lethal concn. 50% values for polyethylene microplastic particles and polypropylene microplastic fibers were 4.64 × 104 microplastics/mL and 71.43 microplastics/mL, resp. A 42-d chronic bioassay using polyethylene microplastic particles was conducted to quantify effects on reprodn., growth, and egestion. Chronic exposure to polyethylene microplastic particles significantly decreased growth and reprodn. at the low and intermediate exposure concns. During acute exposures to polyethylene microplastic particles, the egestion times did not significantly differ from the egestion of normal food materials in the control; egestion times for polypropylene microplastic fibers were significantly slower than the egestion of food materials in the control. Amphipods exposed to polypropylene microplastic fibers also had significantly less growth. The greater toxicity of microplastic fibers than microplastic particles corresponded with longer residence times for the fibers in the gut. The difference in residence time might have affected the ability to process food, resulting in an energetic effect reflected in sublethal endpoints. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;9999:1-9. © 2015 SETAC.
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      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhsFCisb%252FJ&md5=8b80687ffa587fe51f7da5eb01423808
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      Unice, K. M.; Weeber, M. P.; Abramson, M. M.; Reid, R. C. D.; van Gils, J. A. G.; Markus, A. A.; Vethaak, A. D.; Panko, J. M. Characterizing Export of Land-Based Microplastics to the Estuary-Part I: Application of Integrated Geospatial Microplastic Transport Models to Assess Tire and Road Wear Particles in the Seine Watershed. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 646, 1639– 1649,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.368
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      Characterizing export of land-based microplastics to the estuary - Part I: Application of integrated geospatial microplastic transport models to assess tire and road wear particles in the Seine watershed
      Unice, K. M.; Weeber, M. P.; Abramson, M. M.; Reid, R. C. D.; van Gils, J. A. G.; Markus, A. A.; Vethaak, A. D.; Panko, J. M.
      Science of the Total Environment (2019), 646 (), 1639-1649CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Human and ecol. exposure to micro- and nanoplastic materials (abbreviated as MP, < 5 mm) occurs in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. Recent reviews prioritize the need for assessments linking spatially distributed MP releases with terrestrial and freshwater transport processes, thereby providing a better understanding of the factors affecting MP distribution to the sea. Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) have an estd. generation rate of 1 kg tread inhabitant-1 year-1 in Europe, but the fate of this MP source in watersheds has not been systematically assessed. An integrated temporally and geospatially resolved watershed-scale MP modeling methodol. was applied to TRWP fate and transport in the Seine (France) watershed. The mass balance considers TRWP generation and terrestrial transport to soil, air, and roadways, as well as freshwater transport processes including particle heteroaggregation, degrdn. and sedimentation within subcatchments. The per capita TRWP mass release est. in the Seine watershed was 1.8 kg inhabitant-1 yr-1. The model ests. indicated that 18% of this release was transported to freshwater and 2% was exported to the estuary, which demonstrated the potential for appreciable capture, degrdn., and retention of TRWP prior to export. The modeled pseudo-steady state sediment concns. were consistent with measurements from the Seine watershed supporting the plausibility of the predicted trapping efficiency of approx. 90%. The approach supported the efficient completion of local and global sensitivity analyses presented in Part II of this study, and can be adapted to the assessment of other MPs.
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      Unice, K. M.; Weeber, M. P.; Abramson, M. M.; Reid, R. C. D.; van Gils, J. A. G.; Markus, A. A.; Vethaak, A. D.; Panko, J. M. Characterizing Export of Land-Based Microplastics to the Estuary-Part II: Sensitivity Analysis of an Integrated Geospatial Microplastic Transport Modeling Assessment of Tire and Road Wear Particles. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 646, 1650– 1659,  DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.301
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      62
      Characterizing export of land-based microplastics to the estuary - Part II: Sensitivity analysis of an integrated geospatial microplastic transport modeling assessment of tire and road wear particles
      Unice, K. M.; Weeber, M. P.; Abramson, M. M.; Reid, R. C. D.; van Gils, J. A. G.; Markus, A. A.; Vethaak, A. D.; Panko, J. M.
      Science of the Total Environment (2019), 646 (), 1650-1659CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.)
      Integrated models addressing microplastic (MP) generation, terrestrial distribution, and freshwater transport are useful tools characterizing the export of MP to marine waters. In Part I of this study, a baseline watershed-scale MP mass balance model was developed for tire and road wear particles (TRWP) in the Seine watershed. In Part II, uncertainty and sensitivity anal. (SA) methods were used to identify the parameters that det. the transport of these particles to the estuary. Local differential, local range and global first-order variance-based SA identified similar key parameters. The global SA (1000 Monte Carlo simulations) indicated that most of the variance in TRWP exported to the estuary can be apportioned to TRWP diam. (76%), TRWP d. (5.6%), the fraction of TRWP directed to combined sewers with treatment (3.9%), and the fraction of TRWP distributed to runoff (vs. roadside soil; 2.2%). The export fraction was relatively insensitive to heteroaggregation processes and the rainfall intensity threshold for road surface washoff. The fraction of TRWP exported to estuary in the probabilistic assessment was centered on the baseline est. of 2%. This fraction ranged from 1.4 to 4.9% (central tendency defined as 25th to 75th percentile) and 0.97% to 13% (plausible upper bound defined as 10th to 90th percentiles). This study emphasizes the importance of in situ characterization of TRWP diam. and d., and confirms the baseline mass balance presented in Part I, which indicated an appreciable potential for capture of TRWP in freshwater sediment.
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      Coll, C.; Notter, D.; Gottschalk, F.; Sun, T.; Som, C.; Nowack, B. Probabilistic Environmental Risk Assessment of Five Nanomaterials (Nano-TiO2, Nano-Ag, Nano-ZnO, CNT, and Fullerenes). Nanotoxicology 2016, 10 (4), 436– 444,  DOI: 10.3109/17435390.2015.1073812
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      Probabilistic environmental risk assessment of five nanomaterials (nano-TiO2, nano-Ag, nano-ZnO, CNT, and fullerenes)
      Coll, Claudia; Notter, Dominic; Gottschalk, Fadri; Sun, Tianyin; Som, Claudia; Nowack, Bernd
      Nanotoxicology (2016), 10 (4), 436-444CODEN: NANOGK; ISSN:1743-5404. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)
      The environmental risks of five engineered nanomaterials (nano-TiO2, nano-Ag, nano-ZnO, CNT, and fullerenes) were quantified in water, soils, and sediments using probabilistic Species Sensitivity Distributions (pSSDs) and probabilistic predicted environmental concns. (PECs). For water and soil, enough ecotoxicol. endpoints were found for a full risk characterization (between 17 and 73 data points per nanomaterial for water and between 4 and 20 for soil) whereas for sediments, the data availability was not sufficient. Predicted No Effect Concns. (PNECs) were obtained from the pSSD and used to calc. risk characterization ratios (PEC/PNEC). For most materials and environmental compartments, exposure and effect concns. were sepd. by several orders of magnitude. Nano-ZnO in freshwaters and nano-TiO2 in soils were the combinations where the risk characterization ratio was closest to one, meaning that these are compartment/ENM combinations to be studied in more depth with the highest priority. The probabilistic risk quantification allows us to consider the large variability of obsd. effects in different ecotoxicol. studies and the uncertainty in modeled exposure concns. The risk characterization results presented in this work allows for a more focused investigation of environmental risks of nanomaterials by consideration of material/compartment combinations where the highest probability for effects with predicted environmental concns. is likely.
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      Jacobs, R.; Meesters, J. A. J.; ter Braak, C. J. F.; van de Meent, D.; van der Voet, H. Combining Exposure and Effect Modelling into an Integrated Probabilistic Environmental Risk Assessment for Nanoparticles. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016, 35 (12), 2958– 2967,  DOI: 10.1002/etc.3476
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      Combining exposure and effect modeling into an integrated probabilistic environmental risk assessment for nanoparticles
      Jacobs, Rianne; Meesters, Johannes A. J.; ter Braak, Cajo J. F.; van de Meent, Dik; van der Voet, Hilko
      Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (2016), 35 (12), 2958-2967CODEN: ETOCDK; ISSN:0730-7268. (Wiley-Blackwell)
      There is a growing need for good environmental risk assessment of engineered nanoparticles (ENP). Environmental risk assessment of ENP has been hampered by lack of data and knowledge about ENP and their environmental fate and toxicity. This leads to uncertainty in risk assessments. To effectively deal with risk assessment uncertainty, probabilistic methods are advantageous. The authors developed a method to model variability and uncertainty in ENP environmental risk assessments. This method is based on the concn. ratio and the exposure concn.:crit. effect concn. ratio, both considered to be random. In the method, variability and uncertainty are modeled sep. to allow users to see which part of the total variation in concn. ratio is attributable to uncertainty and which part is attributable to variability. The authors illustrate method use with a simplified aquatic risk assessment of nano-TiO2. The method allowed a more transparent risk assessment and directed further environmental and toxicol. research to the most needed areas. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;9999:1-10. © 2016 The Authors.
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      Meesters, J. A. J.; Quik, J. T. K.; Koelmans, A. A.; Hendriks, A. J.; van de Meent, D. Multimedia Environmental Fate and Speciation of Engineered Nanoparticles: A Probabilistic Modeling Approach. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2016, 3, 715– 727,  DOI: 10.1039/C6EN00081A
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      Environmental Science: Nano (2016), 3 (4), 715-727CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      The robustness of novel multimedia fate models in environmental exposure estn. of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) remains unclear, because of uncertainties in the emission, physicochem. properties and natural variability in environmental systems. Here, we evaluate the uncertainty in predicted environmental concns. (PECs) by using the SimpleBox4nano (SB4N) model. Monte Carlo (MC) simulations were performed on the environmental fate, concns. and speciation of nano-CeO2, -TiO2 and -ZnO. Realistic distributions of uncertainty and variability were applied for all of SB4N's input and model parameter values. Environmental distribution over air, water, soil and sediment as well as nanomaterial speciation across natural colloid and coarse particles appeared to be similar for nano-CeO2, -TiO2 and -ZnO. ENPs in the atm. were effectively removed by deposition. ENPs in the water column were removed through hetero-aggregation-sedimentation with natural particles. ENPs accumulated in soil by attachment to grains. The sources of uncertainty and variability driving variation in PECs, which was identified in Spearman rank anal., were related to prodn., emission, compartment vols., and removal by dissoln. or advection and appeared to be similar for the three ENPs. The variation in speciation within environmental compartments was influenced most by the physicochem. properties of the ENP and by model parameters that relate to the compartment of interest.
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      Schuler, L. J.; Rand, G. M. Aquatic Risk Assessment of Herbicides in Freshwater Ecosystems of South Florida. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2008, 54 (4), 571– 583,  DOI: 10.1007/s00244-007-9085-2
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      aquatic risk assessment of herbicides in freshwater ecosystems of South Florida
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      Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology (2008), 54 (4), 571-583CODEN: AECTCV; ISSN:0090-4341. (Springer)
      Widespread, high-vol. use and subsequent off-site transport of herbicides, specifically photosystem II inhibitors (PSII), on agricultural and noncultivated lands in south Florida has resulted in frequent detections in freshwater systems. In light of the current restoration efforts as part of the Comprehensive Environmental Restoration Plan (CERP), increased water flows contg. detectable herbicide levels into the Everglades ecosystem and adjacent areas may have adverse consequences to the unique plant communities present in the region. The potential impact of individual herbicides to aquatic plant and algae species was examd. using a probabilistic risk assessment approach. Risk was characterized for nine PSII herbicides (4 triazines: ametryn, atrazine, simazine, and prometryn; 2 triazinones: hexazinone and metribuzin; 2 substituted ureas: diuron and linuron; and a uracil: bromacil) and a pyridazinone herbicide (norflurazon) by comparing the overlap of the 90th percentile surface water concn. (exposure benchmark) from the exposure distributions to the 10th percentile of effects (effects benchmark) detd. from species sensitivity distributions of acute lab. toxicity data. Overall, the risk of the individual herbicides was generally low. A Multiple Substance Potentially Affected Fraction (msPAF) risk approach also was utilized to examine the joint toxicity of the herbicide mixts. based on a concn. addn. model. The risk assocd. with the herbicide mixt. (mainly bromacil, diuron, and norflurazon) was detd. to be high for Lee (site S79 on the Caloosahatchee River), Martin (site S80 on St. Lucie Canal), and St. Lucie (site S99 on C25 emptying into Indian River Lagoon) counties in south Florida. This study highlights the need to consider joint action of chem. mixts. as part of an ecol. risk assessment.
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      Liu, N.; Wang, Y.; Yang, Q.; Lv, Y.; Jin, X.; Giesy, J. P.; Johnson, A. C. Probabilistic Assessment of Risks of Diethylhexyl Phthalate (DEHP) in Surface Waters of China on Reproduction of Fish. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 213, 482– 488,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.005
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      Probabilistic assessment of risks of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) in surface waters of China on reproduction of fish
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      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2016), 213 (), 482-488CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is considered to be an endocrine disruptor, which unlike other chems. that have either non-specific (e.g., narcotics) or more generalized reactive modes of action, affect the Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and tend to have specific interactions with particular mol. targets within biochem. pathways. Responding to this challenge, a novel method for deriving predicted no-effect concn. (PNEC) and probabilistic ecol. risk assessment (PERAs) for DEHP based on long-term exposure to potentially sensitive species with appropriate apical endpoints was development for protection of Chinese surface waters. PNECs based on potencies to cause lesions in reproductive tissues of fishes, which ranged from 0.04 to 0.20 μg DEHP L-1, were significantly less than those derived based on other endpoints or other taxa, such as invertebrates. An assessment of risks posed by DEHP to aquatic organisms in surface waters of China showed that 88.17% and 78.85% of surface waters in China were predicted to pose risks to reproductive fitness of fishes with thresholds of protection for aquatic organisms based on 5% (HC5) and 10% (HC10), resp. Assessment of risks of effects based on effects mediated by the HPG-axis should consider effects on chronic, non-lethal endpoints for specific taxa, esp. for reproductive fitness of fishes.
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      Everaert, G.; Van Cauwenberghe, L.; De Rijcke, M.; Koelmans, A. A.; Mees, J.; Vandegehuchte, M.; Janssen, C. R. Risk Assessment of Microplastics in the Ocean: Modelling Approach and First Conclusions. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 242, 1930– 1938,  DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.069
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      Environmental Pollution (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 242 (Part_B), 1930-1938CODEN: ENPOEK; ISSN:0269-7491. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      We performed an environmental risk assessment for microplastics (<5 mm) in the marine environment by estg. the order of magnitude of the past, present and future concns. based on global plastic prodn. data. In 2100, from 9.6 to 48.8 particles m-3 are predicted to float around in the ocean, which is a 50-fold increase compared to the present-day concns. From a meta-anal. with effect data available in literature, we derived a safe concn. of 6650 buoyant particles m-3 below which adverse effects are not likely to occur. Our risk assessment (excluding the potential role of microplastics as chem. vectors) suggests that on av., no direct effects of free-floating microplastics in the marine environment are to be expected up to the year 2100. Yet, even today, the safe concn. can be exceeded in sites that are heavily polluted with buoyant microplastics. In the marine benthic compartment between 32 and 144 particles kg-1 dry sediment are predicted to be present in the beach deposition zone. Despite the scarcity of effect data, we expect adverse ecol. effects along the coast as of the second half of the 21st century. From then ambient concns. will start to outrange the safe concn. of sedimented microplastics (i.e. 540 particles kg-1 sediment). Addnl. ecotoxicol. research in which marine species are chronically exposed to realistic environmental microplastic concn. series are urgently needed to verify our findings.
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    • Description of the data selection for the size distribution; details of the studies used for the size distributions (Table S1); size distributions including zero values and concentrations below and beyond the detection limits (Figure S1); L:W:H ratios for different shape classes (Figure S2 and Table S2); abundance and density distributions for pristine and weathered plastics (Figure S3 and Table S3); kernel density plots for microplastic size, shape, and density (Figure S4); regression statistics for the size distributions (Table S4); statistics for the bimodal distribution fitting (Table S5); and statistics for the inverse Gaussian distribution fitting (Table S6) (PDF)

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