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Pills, Potions, and Poisons: Interdisciplinary Public Engagement Opportunities Inspired by a 17th Century Apothecary
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Journal of Chemical Education

Cite this: J. Chem. Educ. 2025, XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXX
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.4c00925
Published January 24, 2025

© 2025 American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc. This publication is licensed under

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Abstract

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The transcript of the inventory of the contents of a 17th century apothecary’s shop was discovered during research for a museum exhibition on health and disease through the ages. This led to research into the remedies dispensed by the apothecary, which provided the impetus for development of public-engagement deliverables, including interdisciplinary talks, chemistry demonstrations, a searchable record of the contents of the inventory, and production of an accessible local-history booklet. The approach taken used history as a gateway to introduce chemistry and inspire people of all ages to engage with science. Detailed instructions are provided for four striking chemical demonstrations centered around apothecaries and exploiting some of the substances present in the inventory.

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Introduction

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In 2020 a broad research project was launched at Nantwich Museum to investigate the history of healthcare in the town, located in Cheshire, England, from the 17th century until the foundation of the UK’s National Health Service in 1948. This culminated in the development of an exhibition entitled “Ouch! A slightly horrible history of health and disease in Nantwich”, displayed at the museum in 2021.
During the research, a transcript of the probate inventory of the contents of a 17th century apothecary’s shop and home in Nantwich was discovered. This became the starting point for research into the apothecary’s family history, his likely training and the remedies dispensed in his shop. A summary of this research, which has since been expanded upon, was featured in the exhibition.
It was soon realized that the inventory provided opportunities for public engagement in chemistry and pharmacy. Previous experience (1) had shown that a successful approach can be to introduce science via subjects which are more familiar to members of the public. The educational value of chemistry demonstrations is well recognized (2,3) and their inclusion during previous events at Nantwich Museum has proved to be popular and engaging for audiences of all ages.
There is a mystique around apothecary shops which conjures up images of curiously colored bottles, Delftware jars, magical substances and potions. The visibility of the pharmacist as ‘the scientist on the high street’ makes apothecary and pharmacy shops a valuable asset when engaging audiences with pharmacy and chemistry. The associated historical narrative makes apothecaries an ideal topic to feature in science outreach events and activities at museums. (4,5) In this case the immediate potential audience was museum visitors, many of whom have an interest in local history and family history, the study of which, along with history of medicine and chemistry, are key components of research into apothecaries’ inventories.
Much has been written about the history of apothecaries and their relationship with other medical practitioners. (6−11) Apothecaries prepared and sold remedies made from herbs, minerals and animal products, which were either supplied to other medical practitioners or dispensed directly to patients. They also offered medical advice and a range of other services, often including minor surgery. Although very different to today’s pharmacists, apothecaries’ investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern disciplines of chemistry and pharmacology.

Probate Inventories As a Source of Information

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In England a probate inventory is a list of belongings, with the exception of land and buildings, owned by the deceased person, and includes a valuation of their possessions. (9) An inventory may accompany a will, but inventories only survive for a minority of people. In England they were widely used from the 1500s until around 1750. They provide insight into the life of the deceased, often going into great detail, listing the items in each room in the person’s house, workshop, shop or farmyard.
Inventories are considered to be reliable sources of information. (12) The appraisers had to be knowledgeable, especially when occupational equipment was included, usually at least one of them of them being a practitioner of the same or a closely related craft or trade. Often a relative was among the appraisers as it was common for certain trades to run in a family.
In England, probate inventories only exist for a small proportion of apothecary shops and most of those are only available in the original handwritten script, through record offices located in the same county or area as the deceased’s home or business premises.
Burnby (13) states that inventories provide insight into the deceased’s standard of living, social status, and occupation or profession, going on to say that ‘Many misinformed statements have been made as to whether a man were an apothecary, or a surgeon, or a physician, but inventories have proved that in the 18th century and probably most of the 17th apothecaries also practiced as surgeons, and vice versa.’

Case Study: A 17th Century Apothecary

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Nantwich is a historic market town with many Tudor buildings, best known for production of Cheshire cheese and salt from local brine springs. English market towns commonly had apothecaries and Nantwich had a number over the centuries, one of whom was Raphe Walley (1625–1661). Raphe’s house and shop (in the same building, probably constructed in 1584) was located in Nantwich Town Square, and according to a local trade directory was an apothecary and then a chemist (pharmacy) from its foundation until its closure in 1978.
Family history research uncovered a number of Walley family records. Raphe’s older brother William was a “doctor of physic” in Nantwich and is believed to have studied at Brasenose College, Oxford. As well as being a physician, William probably practiced as a surgeon and as an apothecary, and Raphe may have been his apprentice. Raphe’s tenure started in the 1640s during the English Civil War, probably continuing until his death. The population of the town was around 2000–3000 at the time. He married and the couple had one daughter. He died at the relatively young age of 36, predeceasing his wife and his older brother.
A careful analysis of Raphe’s probate inventory was conducted, and comparisons were made with other contemporary apothecaries’ inventories. The outcomes are reported in more detail elsewhere. (14) A copy of the original inventory was obtained from the local county archive, Cheshire Archives and Local Studies, (15) and it was compared with the transcript discovered in Nantwich Museum (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Sample pages of the original inventory of Raphe Walley’s apothecary shop and its transcription discovered in Nantwich Museum. Source of original inventory: Cheshire Archives and Local Studies, reproduced with permission.

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Transcripts of 17th century apothecaries’ inventories are comparatively rare and the transcription process is arduous: the original handwriting can be difficult to interpret, some terms are in Latin, abbreviations are used frequently, and spelling is inconsistent (common in many 17th century documents), making analysis time-consuming. The discovery of the transcript of the inventory of Nantwich apothecary Raphe Walley was therefore fortuitous. Although not dated, the typewritten transcript is believed to have been produced in the 1960s.
At this stage, to gain a better understanding of the nature and uses of the materials listed, the items in the inventory were cross checked against appropriate sources, both primary (16−19) and secondary. (20−22) Some errors were discovered in the original transcription, and these were corrected in a revised version. As it would feature in the museum’s exhibition, a further objective was to make the inventory meaningful and accessible to members of the public and to enable it to be used during outreach activities. It was also intended to be used for further research.
The contents of Walley’s apothecary shop were typical of the period and comprised of over 200 items, including many remedies listed in the translation (from Latin to English) of the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis (17) by Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654). Culpeper was an English botanist, herbalist, physician, astrologer, and author of The English Physitian: or an Astrologo-physical Discourse of the Vulgar Herbs of This Nation, published in 1652 (later renamed The Complete Herbal, from 1653). (18) Some items were probably mainly for culinary use–a legacy from the past when apothecaries fulfilled some of the roles of grocers. Many raw ingredients are included, suggesting that Raphe Walley, like all apothecaries, would have made his own medicines, perhaps on demand. To do this, he would have needed apothecaries’ equipment, which is in the inventory listings for both the house (e.g., pestles, mortars, two stills) and shop (e.g., lancets and incision knives, suggesting that he performed minor surgery such as lancing abscesses, possibly blood letting, and dressing wounds). An impression of what Raphe’s shop may have looked like has been painted by the museum’s artist (Figure 2), taking into account the items listed in the inventory as well as historical descriptions.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Artist’s impression of Raphe Walley’s 17th century apothecary shop (by Les Pickford, Nantwich Museum’s artist, reproduced with permission).

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The inventory includes waters (health drinks), electuaries (thick pastes smeared onto the tongue), species (raw ingredients, including animal matter, used for making medicines), pills, troches (lozenges), unguenta (ointments), plant oils, chemical oils, and emplasters (plasters, applied on linen). Both herbal and chemical ingredients are listed, reflecting the period of transition between old and new treatments.

Chemicals in the Inventory

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Gradually over time the ingredients used by apothecaries evolved from predominantly plant-based to more modern chemical materials. A study by Moran (23) of chemical medicine in the 17th century indicates that making medicines from metals and minerals was common by the 16th and 17th centuries. The Swiss physician, alchemist, lay theologian, and philosopher Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541), built a medical philosophy around this. (24) In the early 17th century one of the most popular Paracelsian formularies was Croll’s Basilica chymica, published in 1609. (25) In the 17th century demand for chemical remedies was increasing and there is evidence of these in the inventory. The chemical ingredients listed became the focus of more in-depth research.
In the olea chymica (chemical oils) section of the inventory, the first item listed is “oyl of vitriol” (sulfuric acid), a chemical product rather than a plant oil. Of “oyl of vitriol”, Culpeper says in his translation of the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis: ‘It must be mixed with other Medicines, for it kills being taken alone; it assuageth thirst, allays violent heat in feavers and pestilences; and a few drops of it gives a pleasant grateful taste to any Medicine.’ Other examples of chemical ingredients are arsenic, Roman vitriol (copper sulfate), antimony, mercury, borax (sodium tetraborate) and saltpeter (potassium nitrate). 17th century remedies would have had variable efficacy, and some potentially harmful ingredients are listed in the inventory.
The fact that some of the items listed are poisonous would not have been known in the 17th century. Indeed, the acute toxicity (i.e., short-term harmful effects due to a single dose or a small number of dosages) of many medicinally active substances was well established, but especially their chronic toxicity (i.e., consequences of long-term exposure, often to small quantities) was much more difficult to pinpoint.

The Apothecary and Pharmacy in Science Outreach

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Some historians of science have reproduced or reworked the production of medicines which would have been dispensed by apothecaries, mainly for research purposes. (26) This method of historical inquiry has also been discussed within the history of science and technology community. (27)
Harper-Leatherman and Miecznikowski (28) developed an interdisciplinary talk on the chemistry and potions referenced in Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare’s classic play, as a starting point to teach chemistry, forensic science and pharmacology.
Potions and poisons in the story lines of operas were analyzed by André, (29) with operas being classified in four groups, one of which was “apothecary operas”. This led to the development of a lecture reporting the results, originally delivered to a mixed academic audience, later at public theaters and to chemistry teachers.
A collaborative public-engagement activity by Keele University and Blists Hill visitor center, a reconstructed Victorian town in Ironbridge, Shropshire, England, involved analysis of samples of >300 original jars with original contents in the town’s Victorian pharmacy. The work was undertaken by volunteer members of the public under the supervision of chemists, to determine their composition and associated risks. (30)
Although not concerned with apothecaries, a recent activity (31) to promote modern-day health literacy featured hands-on practical sessions for school and community groups to introduce concepts such as pharmaceutical manufacturing, quality control of medicines, and pharmacovigilance.

Outreach Activities at Nantwich Museum

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Nantwich Museum is a small local history museum embedded in the community, featuring permanent and temporary exhibits, guided walking tours, talks, school visits and family workshops. Many activities are developed and delivered by volunteers, a number of whom have a science background, which has enabled development and delivery of outreach events with a science focus. These have included:

  • A citizen science activity in partnership with Keele University chemists, involving workshops for school groups and families to test the quality of the water in the town’s river.

  • An exhibition featuring Joseph Priestley (who lived in Nantwich from 1758 to 1761) and the history of the periodic table, talks for adults, live chemistry demonstrations, and children’s workshops during the International Year of the Periodic Table in 2019, supported by the Royal Society of Chemistry. (1)

The above experience provided the foundations for the development and delivery of a range of events and activities relevant to the theme of healthcare over the ages, including apothecaries, details of which are given below.

Talks

A series of three talks based on the research undertaken was developed, featuring:

  • The origins and evolution of apothecaries

  • An introduction to the inventory

  • Raphe Walley’s family history

  • Local history, for example the location of his shop and role in the community

  • The chemistry demonstrations described below

The talks, which were suitable for a wide range of age groups, were delivered online to members of the public, most of whom had little knowledge of chemistry, apothecaries or their history. A recording of the talks is available on YouTube. (32) A shorter version is given regularly at Nantwich Museum and to local community groups. Representative examples of the feedback obtained from the audience are reported in the Supporting Information.

Booklet

A local-history booklet was developed to engage members of the public and as a long-term legacy from the research. (33)

Searchable Version of the Inventory

An annotated resource, featuring the contents of the inventory, was developed in Microsoft Excel. This includes the original handwritten items in the inventory, the transcriptions of the items listed, relevant information about the uses of the ingredients and remedies, as well as the references used to validate the transcriptions and uses reported. Still under development, we believe this will be a useful source of information for others wishing to explore medications and ingredients available in the 17th century, their likely compositions, and the diseases they would have been used to treat. To make this accessible to a wide audience, this is available via Nantwich Museum’s Web site. (34)

2023 “Summer of Science” Festival at Nantwich Museum

The research from this project was also used during a science festival held at Nantwich Museum in 2023, including delivery of talks, children’s workshops (featuring Raphe Walley) developed by staff at a local hospital pharmacy, production of a portable roller banner for display at the museum and at external outreach locations such as care homes and community groups.

Chemistry Demonstrations

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A selection of four demonstrations was planned to accompany the healthcare exhibition. The experiments described here are not a rigorous replication of procedures or processes known to have been undertaken by Raphe Walley or other apothecaries of the period, but demonstrate uses to which some of the items, especially the chemicals, listed in his inventory could have been applied and the chemistry involved. Some of the reactions featured are known to have been carried out in the 19th century but based on the contents of Walley’s inventory they could potentially have also been done in the 17th century.
Items in the inventory which would make engaging demonstrations were identified to include as ingredients, and individual entries of the inventory were displayed on the accompanying slides (a few examples are shown in Figure 3). Full details and instructions to perform the demonstrations are provided in the Supporting Information, along with the videos used during the talk (also available online (32)).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Examples of items from Raphe Walley’s inventory used in the demonstrations: turmeric, ammonia, Roman vitriol (cupric sulfate), arsenicum album (arsenious anhydride), white lead (lead basic carbonate), mercury, saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur. Source of original inventory: Cheshire Archives and Local Studies, reproduced with permission.

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a. Show Globes and the Four Humors

From the 17th century until well into the 20th century, apothecaries, followed by chemists and druggists, and later pharmacists, would have displayed several tall and elaborate jars and vases, filled with colorful liquids, in their shop windows. (35) Besides the decorative effect, these would be a clear indication of the shop’s wares to the (many) customers unable to read. Particularly large and elaborate glass flasks became known as “advertising carboys” or “show globes”, in all shapes and forms, often hand blown, and designed to attract the attention of passers-by. Sometimes mirrors or lanterns were pointed at the displays to enhance their visibility.
There are many theories and stories about the choice of colors displayed in the carboys, which lend a touch of magic, myth and mystery to their history. Some claim the colors represented the waters of sacred rivers, and the red/blue combination was linked to arterial and venous blood. Others propose more creative theories, such as their use as navigation lights on English coastal towns to guide sailors approaching the docks, or as a way to indicate the current level of the epidemic during the plague. One of the most common combinations of colors represents the theory of the four humors, born more than a thousand years ago, through the work of Hippocrates and Galen. The Greek physician Hippocrates noted that when people were ill, they had an excess of one of four fluids or secretions from the body, which he called humors (the Greek word for fluid). (36) A healthy body would have a perfect balance of the four humors, and illnesses were caused by an imbalance. When the body had too much of one, it would spill out. This became known as the theory of the four humors, further developed about 500 years later by the Roman physician Galen, who postulated the theory of opposites, which balanced the humors (with diet and medicines).
These humors were blood (the well-known red fluid which spills from wounds, considered the most vital of the four), yellow bile (a yellowish viscous liquid with a bitter taste regurgitated from the stomach), black bile (a black/dark secretion, mainly from the intestine, nowadays known to be composed mostly by clotted blood), and phlegm (all whitish secretions, with the exception of milk and semen, that could be either watery or mucilaginous). A healthy body needed enough of each humor, but not an excess of any. Humors were associated with characters and features, which could be linked to the possible cause of the disease and to its treatment: a philosophical system, linking illness and health to human behavior (the so-called temperaments), to the four seasons, to the four alchemical elements, and even to planets and constellations.
As a tribute to this fundamental concept, often the colored waters displayed in the show globes were selected to match the four humors. Thus, to recreate the atmosphere of the apothecary, the first demonstration was designed to reproduce the display globes representing the four humors using four large transparent jars or vases filled with water dyed with mixtures of ingredients in Raphe’s inventory and herbs, spices and chemicals that were widely available at the time:

  • Yellow (yellow bile): infusion of turmeric in alcohol (Figure 4a1). In Culpeper’s Pharmacopoeia turmeric was recommended as it “opens obstructions, is profitable against the yellow jaundice, and cold distemper of the liver and spleen”. (17)

  • Black (black bile): green vitriol, i.e. ferrous sulfate, reacted with tea to produce a black suspension of iron(II) tannate (Figure 4a2). Green vitriol was one of the most common starting materials to make iron-based medicaments. Regarding tea, Culpeper writes it “is more used as a pleasure than as a medicine” but “is very salutary for violent head-achs and sicknesses by inebriation”. (18)

  • Red (blood): powdered madder root steeped in hot water and potash (Figure 4a3). According to Culpeper, madder “hath an opening quality, and afterwards to bind and strengthen [...] opening the obstructions of the liver and gall, and cleansing those parts” and “it is available for the palsy and sciatica, and effectual for bruises inward and outward”. (18)

  • Bluish-green (phlegm, although it would be colorless): blue vitriol, i.e., copper(II) sulfate, ammonia and an ethanolic extract of leaves, e.g., lettuce or rocket, to give a combination of the deep blue color of tetraamminecopper(II) ions and green chlorophyll complexes (Figure 4a4). Any green leafy plant would suit this application, but just as examples, lettuce “helps digestion, increases milk in nurses, eases griping pains in the stomach or bowels, that come of choler”, while wild rocket was considered “effectual to increase sperm and venerous qualities” and “to help digestion, and provokes urine exceedingly”. (18) Blue vitriol was also occasionally used in medicine, e.g. as an emetic, antiparasitic, or against dysentery.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Pictures of the effects achieved in the four demonstrations (a, b, c, d) described in the text.

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Those four dyes were prepared in a concentrated form in small volumes and added to the large quantity of water in the jars to reach the desired intensity. Lighting the jars from behind enhanced the effect (Figure 4a5). Additional details regarding the structures and the chemistry of the coloring components used in this demonstration are available in the Supporting Information, Figure S1.

b. A Pharmacy “Cocktail”

Pharmacists recognized the importance of preparing eye-catching displays (37) and took great care in developing precise recipes to produce specific colors or effects. Even in the 1800s new formulas were tried and tested, some of which were published. While exploring the literature, a very curious recipe was discovered, specifically designed as “a cocktail that was often used to good effect in the 18th and 19th centuries as a display in apothecaries’ shop windows”. (38)
The rather complex procedure described provides an opportunity to show many of the operations that would be undertaken by an apothecary (or his apprentices) on a daily basis, such as macerations, infusions, filtrations and separations, in some cases so slow that they would have put even the most patient apprentice to the test. The procedure involves the preparation of six solutions of different colors (Figure 4b1), which are then combined in the specified order in a tall transparent glass container. For the purpose of a live demonstration, it is recommended to prepare the six solutions in advance and combine them as part of the show, due to the considerable amount of time required.
Some of the ingredients and compositions were adjusted to suit the specific needs of the demonstration and the color choice (full details are provided in the Supporting Information), but the effect is the same as in the original recipe. The six solutions are

  • Extract of spinach or salad leaves in chloroform (dark green);

  • Pure glycerol (colorless);

  • Castor oil dyed with alkanet (red);

  • Mixture of water and alcohol in equal proportions dyed with indigocarmine (blue);

  • Sunflower oil dyed with curry paste or other yellow/orange spices (yellow);

  • Hibiscus flowers infused in pure alcohol (pink).

Although some of the components used here were not available to Raphe Walley (for instance, indigocarmine was invented only in 1743 and chloroform was prepared almost a century later, in 1831), most of those ingredients have been part of medical formularies and pharmacopoeias over the centuries. For example, alkanet is a herb believed to treat ulcers; many vegetable oils have been used in cosmetics and as additives since ancient times; glycerol would later become useful as a laxative and as a moistening agent in topical preparations for the skin; chloroform became ubiquitous as an anesthetic. All these ingredients would have been available to apothecaries (either as stock items or via other local sources) by the mid-19th century and some are listed in Raphe Walley’s 17th century inventory.
For the demonstration, equal quantities of each liquid are poured (in the order specified) into a tall transparent jar, using a glass rod to slow down the flow of the liquid. This will form six separate layers, clearly stacked on top of each other because of their immiscibility and different density (Figure 4b2). The densities of the six liquid phases and the chemical structures of the principal coloring compounds in the mixtures are reported in Figure S2 in the Supporting Information. Notably, each two adjacent layers are mutually immiscible, which ensures the stability of the display, provided that the jar is not inverted or shaken (which would cause the mixing of the aqueous components and of the hydrophobic components, forming either two layers or an emulsion). Figure S3 in the Supporting Information shows one such display stored on the office desk of one of the authors for more than two years, showing colors slightly faded due to exposure to light, but a perfectly intact separation of layers. This is in stark contrast with the classical “density column” demonstrations, where the same effect is achieved using a concentration gradient of salt or sugar solutions, (39) which are not permanent due to diffusion effects.

c. Colorful and Poisonous Medicines

Many of the mineral ingredients used by apothecaries were deadly poisons, and Raphe Walley had quite a selection at his disposal. In his inventory, several forms or compounds of three severely toxic elements appear, many of which on the same page:

  • Lead, which is listed as “white lead” (i.e., lead basic carbonate), and as “red lead” (a mixed oxide also known as minium), both used in various plasters, pastes and unguents. Another typical form was “sugar of Saturn”, i.e., lead acetate, which Culpeper recommends, for instance, against gonorrhea and “to assuage bodily lust”. (17) Although all lead compounds are toxic, the latter was considerably more dangerous due to its high solubility in water.

  • Mercury, present in elemental form (“quicksilver”) as well as “white mercury” and “mercury precipitate” (probably calomel or other white compounds of the element). Due to the great significance of mercury in alchemy and natural philosophy, several forms were often employed in medical recipes. A particularly toxic form was “corrosive sublimate”, i.e., mercury(II) chloride, used as cauterizing agent to “draw blisters” and “eat away dead flesh”. (17)

  • Arsenic, listed in the inventory as “arsenicum album” or white arsenic, i.e., arsenious anhydride. This substance had well-known nonmedicinal uses as insecticide and rodenticide, as well as to dispose of undesired rivals, but was also employed in medicine in ancient Greece, China and India, for a variety of ailments. Paracelsus became one of the strongest promoters of the use of arsenic compounds in medicine, emphasizing that the dosage is what differentiates a drug and a poison. (40) Notably, the inventory also contains “orpiment”, an orange-yellow arsenic sulfide.

Many examples of original recipes from pharmacopoeias and medical manuals of various periods, which call for such poisonous components, are collected in the Supporting Information for further discussion.
In the demonstration, three examples of brightly colored insoluble pigments are prepared by mixing two aqueous solutions, one of which contains a compound of the above-mentioned elements. The starting solutions are all colorless except for the very pale blue Cu(II) solution, but the colors that develop (yellow, orange and green) are extremely bright and their low solubility in water enhances their visibility (Figure 4c1):

  • Lead iodide from lead acetate and potassium iodide;

  • Mercury(II) iodide from mercury(II) chloride and potassium iodide;

  • Copper arsenite (Scheele’s green) from copper(II) sulfate and sodium arsenite.

Given the acute and chronic toxicity of the compounds, great care should be taken in handling the solutions, and especially the solids during their preparation, avoiding inhalation and contact with skin.
Pigments containing highly toxic heavy metals have been used for centuries for decorating miniatures, frescoes and paintings, from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, and even by impressionists and modern painters. In spite of their toxicity, the beauty of these chemical colors will remain through history.

d. Explosive Remedies

Besides the toxic compounds mentioned above, the inorganic chemicals section of the inventory includes a number of mineral substances which may appear curious in a pharmacy. For example, sulfur (listed as “sulphur vivum” and as “flos sulphuri”), which was used in various vermifuge, expectorant and anticonvulsive recipes, or saltpeter (potassium nitrate), employed against fever, lethargy or cutaneous affections. Representative medical recipes including those two chemicals are reported in the Supporting Information.
Interestingly, those are also examples of components that could, if put to the wrong use, become extremely dangerous to the apothecary’s customers, but not for their toxicity. Saltpeter and sulfur were two of the three ingredients of the most powerful explosive known at the time: gunpowder. The third ingredient, charcoal, does not appear explicitly in the inventory but it would have been easy to obtain for anyone at the time. Therefore, as a concluding demonstration, a primitive version of gunpowder can be prepared by mixing and grinding the three ingredients in a fine powder (Figure 4d1), and used to demonstrate its explosive properties. For additional effect, iron filings can be added to the mix to produce gold sparks. It must be noted that mixtures composed of nitrates and fuels should always be regarded as explosive materials, so they should be prepared in small amounts and handled carefully, disposing of any excess immediately after the demonstration.
If the location offers access to an outdoor space and safe distancing of the audience, a deflagration effect can be achieved by loading a small quantity in a paper tube fitted with a fuse, lightly capped with cotton wool (Figure 4d2). If such deflagration (Figure 4d3) is deemed too dangerous or unsuitable for the venue, it is also possible to press the powder in an open paper tube to achieve a fountain-like effect without explosion, or simply ignite a trail of the powder on a fireproof mat to show its very rapid combustion. The point of the hidden dangers of mixtures prepared with random ingredients from a pharmacist’s or apothecary’s inventory will be clear with any of the above procedures.

Conclusion

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Apothecaries, through the nature of their business and uses of chemicals, provide a diversity of exciting opportunities to bring chemistry to life and inspire audiences who may find chemistry a difficult or intimidating subject. Away from the classroom, museums provide an informal environment, and reach children, parents and grandparents from all backgrounds, encouraging a positive attitude to chemistry across generations.
The work presented demonstrates the value of partnerships between museums, most of whose staff and volunteers do not have a science background, and scientists. The blend of history and science helps to make chemistry inclusive and accessible to a wide audience with diverse interests.
The value of the work was also recognized by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, London, through the presentation of a poster at “The largest and best” symposium held at the Society in May 2022 to mark the 350th anniversary of the Society of Apothecaries’ laboratories. (41) The poster is available in the Supporting Information.

Supporting Information

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The Supporting Information is available at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jchemed.4c00925.

  • Detailed instructions for the demonstrations described in the text, representative medical recipes using some of the chemicals mentioned, feedback from events, and a copy of the poster presented at the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries symposium (PDF)

  • Video of the demonstration of display globes representing the four humours (MP4)

  • Video of the demonstration of the six-layer pharmacy “cocktail” (MP4)

  • Video of the demonstration of colorful and poisonous pigments (MP4)

  • Video of the demonstration of gunpowder explosion (MP4)

Terms & Conditions

Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

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Acknowledgments

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Kate Dobson (Nantwich Museum Manager), Nantwich Museum Research Group, and Nicholas Wood (Curator Emeritus at the Society of Apothecaries), are acknowledged for support, information and helpful discussions.

References

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This article references 41 other publications.

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    Joseph Priestley, discoverer of oxygen, lived in Nantwich, Cheshire, UK, from 1758 to 1761. In 2019, an exhibition featuring his life and achievements, and also celebrating the International Year of the Periodic Table, was developed by the Nantwich Museum. The historical research of Priestley's life, development of the exhibition, and rationale behind the public-engagement events and activities are described. The integration of chem. for all age groups throughout the exhibition and during events is discussed. Instructions for expts. and demonstrations are available as Supporting Information for this paper. The benefits of teamwork involving members with diverse subject expertise and the value of contributions from external organizations are emphasized. The exhibition successfully engaged museum visitors with 18th century local history, the story of Joseph Priestley, and chem. concepts and expts. Qual. feedback from participants is presented along with the planned long-term legacy of the exhibition.
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    Chem. demonstration provides students with opportunities to develop crucial higher level thinking skills. such as anal., characterization, evaluation and synthesis. The reasons for doing demonstrations are discussed and the procedures for prepg. a demonstration are described. An example of a lecture demonstration is also included.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Sample pages of the original inventory of Raphe Walley’s apothecary shop and its transcription discovered in Nantwich Museum. Source of original inventory: Cheshire Archives and Local Studies, reproduced with permission.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Artist’s impression of Raphe Walley’s 17th century apothecary shop (by Les Pickford, Nantwich Museum’s artist, reproduced with permission).

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Examples of items from Raphe Walley’s inventory used in the demonstrations: turmeric, ammonia, Roman vitriol (cupric sulfate), arsenicum album (arsenious anhydride), white lead (lead basic carbonate), mercury, saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur. Source of original inventory: Cheshire Archives and Local Studies, reproduced with permission.

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    Figure 4

    Figure 4. Pictures of the effects achieved in the four demonstrations (a, b, c, d) described in the text.

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  • References

    This article references 41 other publications.

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      From Nantwich to Oxygen: Public Engagement in Chemistry at a Local History Museum
      Cooke, Helen; Dobbs, Heidi L.; Haxton, Katherine; Parmeggiani, Fabio; Skerratt, Glynn
      Journal of Chemical Education (2021), 98 (4), 1249-1255CODEN: JCEDA8; ISSN:0021-9584. (American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.)
      Joseph Priestley, discoverer of oxygen, lived in Nantwich, Cheshire, UK, from 1758 to 1761. In 2019, an exhibition featuring his life and achievements, and also celebrating the International Year of the Periodic Table, was developed by the Nantwich Museum. The historical research of Priestley's life, development of the exhibition, and rationale behind the public-engagement events and activities are described. The integration of chem. for all age groups throughout the exhibition and during events is discussed. Instructions for expts. and demonstrations are available as Supporting Information for this paper. The benefits of teamwork involving members with diverse subject expertise and the value of contributions from external organizations are emphasized. The exhibition successfully engaged museum visitors with 18th century local history, the story of Joseph Priestley, and chem. concepts and expts. Qual. feedback from participants is presented along with the planned long-term legacy of the exhibition.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXlt1emuw%253D%253D&md5=ce6d176e54e1c05044580ec714214d7c
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      Meyer, L. S.; Panee, D.; Schmidt, S.; Nozawa, F. Using demonstrations to promote student comprehension in chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 2003, 80 (4), 431,  DOI: 10.1021/ed080p431
      2
      Using demonstrations to promote student comprehension in chemistry
      Meyer, Letta Sue; Schmidt, Stan; Nozawa, Fred; Panee, Douglass; Kisler, Melissa
      Journal of Chemical Education (2003), 80 (4), 431-435CODEN: JCEDA8; ISSN:0021-9584. (Division of Chemical Education of the American Chemical Society)
      Chem. demonstration provides students with opportunities to develop crucial higher level thinking skills. such as anal., characterization, evaluation and synthesis. The reasons for doing demonstrations are discussed and the procedures for prepg. a demonstration are described. An example of a lecture demonstration is also included.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXit1Cjtbc%253D&md5=9e157cc0f1c4ad8718bb41e493527096
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      Burns, C. Original Victorian pharmacy recreated in full at the Science Museum. Pharmaceutical Journal 2019, 303, 7932,  DOI: 10.1211/PJ.2019.20207418
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      Fowler, C. J. Pharmacopoeia Londinensis 1618 and Its Descendants; Royal College of Physicians: London, 2018.
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      Burnby, J. English Apothecaries and Probate Inventories: Their use in Pharmaceutical History. Pharmaceutical Historian 1997, 27 (1), 49– 59
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      Cooke, H.; Parmeggiani, F.; Wood, N. Analysis of a seventeenth century English apothecary’s probate inventory. Pharmaceutical Historian 2023, 53 (2), 51– 57
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      Cheshire Archives and Local Studies. https://www.cheshirearchives.org.uk/home.aspx (accessed July 2024).
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      Culpeper, N. Pharmacopoeia Londinensis or the London Dispensatory , 1652. https://archive.org/details/b30335310/page/n10/mode/2up (accessed July 2024)
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      Culpeper, N. Pharmacopoeia Londinensis or the London Dispensatory (printed by Peter Cole) 1665. https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-2751057R-bk (accessed July 2024).
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      Culpeper, N. The English Physitian: or an Astrologo-physical Discourse of the Vulgar Herbs of This Nation ; 1652.
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      Culpeper, N. The Complete Herbal , 1665. A searchable version (1850 edition) is available at https://www.gutenberg.org/files/49513/49513-h/49513-h.htm (accessed October, 2024).
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      Boyle, R. Medicinal experiments: or a collection of choice and safe remedies , 1692. https://archive.org/details/b30334159/page/n1/mode/2up (accessed July 2024).
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      Goldstein, D. A. The Historical Apothecary Compendium: A Guide to Terms and Symbols; Schiffer Publishing: Atglen, PA, 2015..
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      Todd, R. G., Ed. Pharmaceutical Handbook; Pharmaceutical Press: London, 1970.
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      Trease, G. E.; Evans, W. C. A Textbook of Pharmacognosy, 9th ed.; Ballière, Tindall & Cassell: London, 1966.
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      Moran, B. T. A Survey of Chemical Medicine in the 17th Century: Spanning Court, Classroom, and Cultures. Pharmacy in History 1996, 38 (3), 121– 133
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      Hayes Altazan, M. A. Drugs used by Paracelsus: a brief survey. J. Chem. Educ. 1960, 37 (11), 594,  DOI: 10.1021/ed037p594
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      Croll, O. Osualdi Crollii Veterani Hassi Basilica Chymica . 1609. https://archive.org/details/osualdicrolliive00crol/mode/2up (accessed July 2024).
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      Ahnfelt, N. O.; Fors, H. Making early modern medicine: reproducing Swedish Bitters. Ambix 2016, 63 (2), 162– 183,  DOI: 10.1080/00026980.2016.1212886
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      Fors, H.; Principe, L. M.; Sibum, H. O. From the library to the laboratory and back again: experiment as a tool for historians of science. Ambix 2016, 63 (2), 85– 97,  DOI: 10.1080/00026980.2016.1213009
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      Harper-Leatherman, A. S.; Miecznikowski, J. R. O true apothecary: how forensic science helps solve a classic crime. J. Chem. Educ. 2012, 89, 629– 635,  DOI: 10.1021/ed200289t
      28
      O True Apothecary: How Forensic Science Helps Solve a Classic Crime
      Harper-Leatherman, Amanda S.; Miecznikowski, John R.
      Journal of Chemical Education (2012), 89 (5), 629-635CODEN: JCEDA8; ISSN:0021-9584. (American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.)
      As part of a university-wide project to explore Shakespeare's classic play, Romeo and Juliet, from a variety of perspectives, an interdisciplinary talk was presented to the university community on the chem. of the potions and poisons referenced in Romeo and Juliet. To draw the multidisciplinary audience in and to teach about forensics as well as pharmaceutical herbs and chems., the presentation was given from the perspective of how a modern crime scene investigator would approach the famous play's final death scene without any prior knowledge of the situation. An autopsy of Juliet's body might have revealed the presence of the chems., hyoscine and atropine, that come from the plant Atropa belladonna. The autopsy could reveal whether the Friar had set out to sedate Juliet or if he had attempted to kill her. An autopsy of Romeo's body might have revealed the presence of aconitine from the plant Aconitum napellus. Using a classic story to teach about chem., basic ideas were introduced about forensics and pharmacol., emphasizing the importance of dose when detg. the effect of a drug on the human body.
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    29. 29
      André, J. P. Opera and poison: a secret and enjoyable approach to teaching and learning chemistry. J. Chem. Educ. 2013, 90 (3), 352– 357,  DOI: 10.1021/ed300445b
      29
      Opera and Poison: A Secret and Enjoyable Approach To Teaching and Learning Chemistry
      Andre, Joao Paulo
      Journal of Chemical Education (2013), 90 (3), 352-357CODEN: JCEDA8; ISSN:0021-9584. (American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.)
      The storyline of operas, with historical or fictional characters, often include potions and poisons. This has prompted a study of the chem. behind some operatic plots. The results were originally presented as a lecture given at the University of Minho in Portugal, within the context of the International Year of Chem. The same lecture was subsequently repeated at other universities as an invited lecture for science students and in public theaters for wider audiences. The lecture included a multimedia and interactive content that allowed the audience to listen to arias and to watch video clips with selected scenes extd. from operas. The present article, based on the lecture, demonstrates how chem. and opera can be related and may also serve as a source of motivation and inspiration for chem. teachers looking for alternative pedagogical approaches. Moreover, the lecture constitutes a vehicle that transports chem. knowledge to wider audiences through examples of everyday mols., with particular emphasis on natural products.
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    30. 30
      Essex, J.; Haxton, K. Characterising patterns of engagement of different participants in a public STEM-based analysis project. Int. J. Sci. Educ. Part B 2018, 8 (2), 178– 191,  DOI: 10.1080/21548455.2017.1423128
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    31. 31
      McHugh, M.; Hayes, S.; Tajber, L.; Ryan, L. Medicine Maker: An outreach activity for pharmaceutical manufacturing and health literacy. J. Chem. Educ. 2022, 99 (3), 1231– 1237,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00915
      31
      Medicine Maker: An Outreach Activity for Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Health Literacy
      McHugh, Martin; Hayes, Sarah; Tajber, Lidia; Ryan, Laurie
      Journal of Chemical Education (2022), 99 (3), 1231-1237CODEN: JCEDA8; ISSN:0021-9584. (American Chemical Society and Division of Chemical Education, Inc.)
      Public engagement in medicine has become more important in promoting population health management and literacy. Medicine is a topic of great societal importance and many public engagement activities have been developed to promote this area. However, they often narrowly focus on patient groups, diseases, a singular pharmaceutical drug or anal. technique. Despite the importance of these activities, general audiences are still heavily reliant on doctors and pharmacists for information about their medicine and lack basic knowledge around medication use and personal safety. Given this, a broader engagement approach is warranted to target health literacy among the wider public. "Medicine Maker" is a hands-on public engagement workshop that provides audiences with the opportunity to "manuf." and inspect the quality of proxy or "dummy" medicine through guided inquiry. Here, we detail the development of the Medicine Maker workshop from its origins in the teaching of Irish third-level pharmacy students, to its initial application with a variety of lay audiences. Formal and informal feedback from participants indicates that the workshop can help foster a more crit. understanding of medicine manufg., quality control and personal health.
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    32. 32
      Wood, N.; Cooke, H.; Parmeggiani, F. Pills, potions and poisons: An apothecary’s tale. YouTube , 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BNvWwQBJIZw (accessed July 2024).
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      Cooke, H. Pills, potions and poisons: An apothecary’s tale. Nantwich Museum: Nantwich, 2021. https://nantwichmuseum.org.uk/ (accessed July 2024).
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      Cooke, H.; Parmeggiani, F.; Wood, N. Searchable Version of Raphe Walley’s Inventory , 2022. https://nantwichmuseum.org.uk/ (accessed July 2024).
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      Matthews, L. G. History of Pharmacy in Britain; E&S Livingstone, Ltd.: London, 1962; pp 265– 266.
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      Court, W. E. Pharmacy from the ancient world to 1100 AD. In Making Medicines: A Brief History of Pharmacy and Pharmaceuticals; Anderson, S., Ed.; Pharmaceutical Press: London, 2005; Chapter 2, pp 21– 36.
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      Wallis, P. Consumption, Retailing and Medicine in Early Modern London. Economic History Review 2008, 61 (1), 26– 53,  DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00391.x
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      Krätz, O. Historisch-Chemische Versuche; VCH: Weinheim, 1987; p 76.
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      Cited in Roesky, H. W.; Möckel, K. Chemical Curiosities; Aulis-Verlag: Koln, 1996; p 179.
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    39. 39
      (a) Worley, J. D. The chemical pousse-café. J. Chem. Educ. 1970, 47 (5), A389,  DOI: 10.1021/ed047pA389.2
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      (b) Guenther, W. B. Density gradient columns for chemical displays. J. Chem. Educ. 1986, 63 (2), 148,  DOI: 10.1021/ed063p148
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      (c) Quigley, M. N. A Simple-to-construct density gradient tube. J. Chem. Educ. 1994, 71 (6), 516,  DOI: 10.1021/ed071p516
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      (d) Eckelmann, J.; Lüning, U. Mixing liquids - mission impossible? A colorful demonstration on immiscible systems. J. Chem. Educ. 2013, 90 (2), 224– 227,  DOI: 10.1021/ed2008262
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      (e) Zongo, I.; Bougouma, M.; Moucheron, C. Proposal for a didactic tool on teaching practices related to the selective sorting of plastic waste according to relative density in high schools: case study in Burkina Faso. J. Chem. Educ. 2023, 100 (3), 1118– 1127,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.2c00629
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      Paul, N. P.; Galván, A. E.; Yoshinaga-Sakurai, K.; Rosen, B. P.; Yoshinaga, M. Arsenic in medicine: past, present and future. Biometals 2023, 36, 283– 301,  DOI: 10.1007/s10534-022-00371-y
      40
      Arsenic in medicine: past, present and future
      Paul, Ngozi P.; Galvan, Adriana E.; Yoshinaga-Sakurai, Kunie; Rosen, Barry P.; Yoshinaga, Masafumi
      BioMetals (2023), 36 (2), 283-301CODEN: BOMEEH; ISSN:0966-0844. (Springer International Publishing AG)
      A review. Arsenicals are one of the oldest treatments for a variety of human disorders. Although infamous for its toxicity, arsenic is paradoxically a therapeutic agent that has been used since ancient times for the treatment of multiple diseases. The use of most arsenic-based drugs was abandoned with the discovery of antibiotics in the 1940s, but a few remained in use such as those for the treatment of trypanosomiasis. In the 1970s, arsenic trioxide, the active ingredient in a traditional Chinese medicine, was shown to produce dramatic remission of acute promyelocytic leukemia similar to the effect of all-trans retinoic acid. Since then, there has been a renewed interest in the clin. use of arsenicals. Here the ancient and modern medicinal uses of inorg. and org. arsenicals are reviewed. Included are antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitic and anticancer applications. In the face of increasing antibiotic resistance and the emergence of deadly pathogens such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, we propose revisiting arsenicals with proven efficacy to combat emerging pathogens. Current advances in science and technol. can be employed to design newer arsenical drugs with high therapeutic index. These novel arsenicals can be used in combination with existing drugs or serve as valuable alternatives in the fight against cancer and emerging pathogens. The discovery of the pentavalent arsenic-contg. antibiotic arsinothricin, which is effective against multidrug-resistant pathogens, illustrates the future potential of this new class of organoarsenical antibiotics.
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    41. 41
      Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Largest and best: A symposium to mark the 350th anniversary of the Society of Apothecaries’ laboratories , 2022. https://www.apothecaries.org/the-largest-and-best-a-symposium-to-mark-the-350th-anniversary-of-the-society-of-apothecaries-laboratories/ (accessed July 2024).
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.

  • Supporting Information

    Supporting Information

    The Supporting Information is available at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jchemed.4c00925.

    • Detailed instructions for the demonstrations described in the text, representative medical recipes using some of the chemicals mentioned, feedback from events, and a copy of the poster presented at the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries symposium (PDF)

    • Video of the demonstration of display globes representing the four humours (MP4)

    • Video of the demonstration of the six-layer pharmacy “cocktail” (MP4)

    • Video of the demonstration of colorful and poisonous pigments (MP4)

    • Video of the demonstration of gunpowder explosion (MP4)


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