Activating Thermoplastic Polyurethane Surfaces with Poly(ethylene glycol)-Based Recombinant Human α-Defensin 5 Monolayers for Antibiofilm Activity

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1. 1

   Neoh, K. G.; Li, M.; Kang, E. T.; Chiong, E.; Tambyah, P. A. Surface modification strategies for combating catheter-related complications: recent advances and challenges. J. Mater. Chem. B 2017, 5 (11), 2045– 2067,  DOI: 10.1039/C6TB03280J

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   Surface modification strategies for combating catheter-related complications: recent advances and challenges

   Neoh, Koon Gee; Li, Min; Kang, En-Tang; Chiong, Edmund; Tambyah, Paul Anantharajah

   Journal of Materials Chemistry B: Materials for Biology and Medicine (2017), 5 (11), 2045-2067CODEN: JMCBDV; ISSN:2050-7518. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

   Indwelling medical devices such as catheters are a ubiquitous and indispensable component in modern medical practice for improving therapeutic outcomes for patients. Yet at the same time, they can be a cause of healthcare-assocd. infections contributing to patient morbidity and mortality, and healthcare costs. Other surface-related complications can also arise from interactions of the catheter with biol. components in the in vivo environment. This review summarizes the progress made in the development of antimicrobial surfaces, and the application of surface modification strategies to three important classes of catheters: urinary catheters, intravascular catheters and peritoneal dialysis catheters. The review also provides a perspective on the challenges in translating favorable developments from in vitro studies into similar clin. outcomes.
2. 2

   Lynch, A. S.; Robertson, G. T. Bacterial and fungal biofilm infections. Annu. Rev. Med. 2008, 59, 415– 428,  DOI: 10.1146/annurev.med.59.110106.132000

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   Bacterial and fungal biofilm infections

   Lynch, A. Simon; Robertson, Gregory T.

   Annual Review of Medicine (2008), 59 (), 415-428CODEN: ARMCAH; ISSN:0066-4219. (Annual Reviews Inc.)

   A review. Biofilms are communal structures of microorganisms encased in an exopolymeric coat that form on both natural and abiotic surfaces and have been assocd. with a variety of persistent infections that respond poorly to conventional antibiotic chemotherapy. Biofilm infections of certain indwelling medical devices by common pathogens such as staphylococci are not only assocd. with increased morbidity and mortality but are also significant contributors to the emergence and dissemination of antibiotic resistance traits in the nosocomial setting. Current treatment paradigms for biofilm-assocd. infections of semipermanent indwelling devices typically involve surgical replacement of the device combined with long-term antibiotic therapy and incur high health care costs. This review summarizes the existing data relating to the nature, prevalence, and treatment of biofilm-assocd. infections and highlights exptl. approaches and therapies that are being pursued toward more effective treatments.
3. 3

   Nandakumar, V.; Chittaranjan, S.; Kurian, V. M.; Doble, M. Characteristics of bacterial biofilm associated with implant material in clinical practice. Polym. J. 2013, 45 (2), 137– 152,  DOI: 10.1038/pj.2012.130

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   Characteristics of bacterial biofilm associated with implant material in clinical practice

   Nandakumar, Venkatesan; Chittaranjan, Samuel; Kurian, Valikapathalil Mathew; Doble, Mukesh

   Polymer Journal (Tokyo, Japan) (2013), 45 (2), 137-152CODEN: POLJB8; ISSN:0032-3896. (NPG Nature Asia-Pacific)

   A review. Colonization of bacteria around native host cells or polymeric implant surfaces results in a dense growth on the surface, which leads to infection. The change of a bacterium from a motile planktonic to a nonmotile long chain of growing cells is a complex, regulated process that depends on several factors. The probability of a biofilm-related infection occurrence is between 65 and 80%. This review critically evaluates the mode of biofilm formation on native tissues and orthopedics, dental, cardiac, and urol. implants and vascular grafts. The combination of biochem. advancements with conventional microbiol. techniques and the use of radio-labeled monoclonal antibodies in imaging techniques, with recent developments in the detection of these biofilm in vivo, would help in designing biomaterials that prevent bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation, and dislodge the formed biofilm, thereby accelerating the product development phase.
4. 4

   Alves, D.; Olívia Pereira, M. Mini-review: Antimicrobial peptides and enzymes as promising candidates to functionalize biomaterial surfaces. Biofouling. 2014, 30 (4), 483– 499,  DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2014.889120

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   Mini-review: Antimicrobial peptides and enzymes as promising candidates to functionalize biomaterial surfaces

   Alves, Diana; Pereira, Maria Olivia

   Biofouling (2014), 30 (4), 483-499CODEN: BFOUEC; ISSN:0892-7014. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)

   A review. Biomaterial-assocd. infections remain a serious concern in modern healthcare. The development of materials that can resist or prevent bacterial attachment constitutes a promising approach to dealing with this problem. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and enzymes have been recognized as promising candidates for the new generation of antimicrobial surfaces. AMPs have been the focus of great interest in recent years owing to a low propensity for developing bacterial resistance, broad-spectrum activity, high efficacy at very low concns., target specificity, and synergistic action with classical antibiotics. Biofilm-dispersing enzymes have been shown to inhibit biofilm formation, detach established biofilm, and increase biofilm susceptibility to other antimicrobials. This review critically examines the potential of these protein-like compds. for developing antibacterial coatings by reporting their immobilization into different substrata using different immobilization strategies.
5. 5

   Edmiston, C. E.; Krepel, C. J.; Marks, R. M. Microbiology of explanted suture segments from infected and noninfected surgical patients. J. Clin Microbiol. 2013, 51 (2), 417– 421,  DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02442-12

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   Chen, L.; Bai, H.; Xu, J. F.; Wang, S.; Zhang, X. Supramolecular Porphyrin Photosensitizers: Controllable Disguise and Photoinduced Activation of Antibacterial Behavior. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2017, 9 (16), 13950– 13957,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b02611

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   Supramolecular Porphyrin Photosensitizers: Controllable Disguise and Photoinduced Activation of Antibacterial Behavior

   Chen, Linghui; Bai, Haotian; Xu, Jiang-Fei; Wang, Shu; Zhang, Xi

   ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2017), 9 (16), 13950-13957CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)

   A series of supramol. photosensitizers were fabricated from porphyrin derivs. (Por) contg. quaternary ammonium groups with cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]) based on host-guest interactions. The antibacterial activity of Por in the dark could be turned off upon binding with CB[7], whereas the antibacterial activity under white-light illumination could be turned on. In addn., its antibacterial efficiency could be greatly enhanced by introducing metal ions. When Pd(II) was introduced into porphyrin, its antibacterial efficiency was enhanced from 40 to 100%. It should be noted that these small mols. showed little to no cytotoxicity toward mammalian cells even at concns. higher than those under the antibacterial condition studied. This line of research will provide a strategy for germicides consisting of quaternary ammonium groups to fight against bacterial accumulation in the long term and holds huge potential for application in the real world.
7. 7

   Renes Carreño, E.; EscribáBárcena, A.; Catalán González, M. Study of risk factors for healthcare-associated infections in acute cardiac patients using categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA). Sci. Rep. 2022, 12 (1), 28,  DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03970-w

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   Magill, S. S.; Edwards, J. R.; Bamberg, W. Multistate Point-Prevalence Survey of Health Care–Associated Infections. New England Journal of Medicine. 2014, 370 (13), 1198– 1208,  DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1306801

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   Multistate point-prevalence survey of health care-associated infections

   Magill, Shelley S.; Edwards, Jonathan R.; Bamberg, Wendy; Beldavs, Zintars G.; Dumyati, Ghinwa; Kainer, Marion A.; Lynfield, Ruth; Maloney, Meghan; McAllister-Hollod, Laura; Nadle, Joelle; Ray, Susan M.; Thompson, Deborah L.; Wilson, Lucy E.; Fridkin, Scott K.

   New England Journal of Medicine (2014), 370 (13), 1198-1208CODEN: NEJMAG; ISSN:0028-4793. (Massachusetts Medical Society)

   BACKGROUND Currently, no single U.S. surveillance system can provide ests. of the burden of all types of health care-assocd. infections across acute care patient populations. We conducted a prevalence survey in 10 geog. diverse states to det. the prevalence of health care-assocd. infections in acute care hospitals and generate updated ests. of the national burden of such infections. METHODS We defined health care-assocd. infections with the use of National Healthcare Safety Network criteria. One-day surveys of randomly selected inpatients were performed in participating hospitals. Hospital personnel collected demog. and limited clin. data. Trained data collectors reviewed medical records retrospectively to identify health care-assocd. infections active at the time of the survey. Survey data and 2010 Nationwide Inpatient Sample data, stratified according to patient age and length of hospital stay, were used to est. the total nos. of health care-assocd. infections and of inpatients with such infections in U.S. acute care hospitals in 2011. RESULTS Surveys were conducted in 183 hospitals. Of 11,282 patients, 452 had 1 or more health care-assocd. infections (4.0%; 95% confidence interval, 3.7 to 4.4). Of 504 such infections, the most common types were pneumonia (21.8%), surgical-site infections (21.8%), and gastrointestinal infections (17.1%). Clostridium difficile was the most commonly reported pathogen (causing 12.1% of health care-assocd. infections). Device-assocd. infections (i.e., central-catheter-assocd. bloodstream infection, catheter-assocd. urinary tract infection, and ventilator-assocd. pneumonia), which have traditionally been the focus of programs to prevent health care-assocd. infections, accounted for 25.6% of such infections. We estd. that there were 648,000 patients with 721,800 health care-assocd. infections in U.S. acute care hospitals in 2011. CONCLUSIONS Results of this multistate prevalence survey of health care-assocd. infections indicate that public health surveillance and prevention activities should continue to address C. difficile infections. As device- and procedure-assocd. infections decrease, consideration should be given to expanding surveillance and prevention activities to include other health care-assocd. infections.
9. 9

   Cassini, A.; Plachouras, D.; Eckmanns, T. Burden of Six Healthcare-Associated Infections on European Population Health: Estimating Incidence-Based Disability-Adjusted Life Years through a Population Prevalence-Based Modelling Study. PLoS Med. 2016, 13 (10), e1002150,  DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002150

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    Fürnkranz, U.; Walochnik, J. Nosocomial infections: Do not forget the parasites!. Pathogens 2021, 10 (2), 238,  DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020238

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    Brown, E. D.; Wright, G. D. Antibacterial drug discovery in the resistance era. Nature. 2016, 529 (7586), 336– 343,  DOI: 10.1038/nature17042

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    Antibacterial drug discovery in the resistance era

    Brown, Eric D.; Wright, Gerard D.

    Nature (London, United Kingdom) (2016), 529 (7586), 336-343CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)

    A review. The looming antibiotic resistance crisis has penetrated the consciousness of clinicians, researchers, policymakers, politicians and the public at large. The evolution and widespread distribution of antibiotic resistance elements in bacterial pathogens has made diseases that were once easily treatable deadly again. Unfortunately, accompanying the rise in global resistance is a failure in antibacterial drug discovery. Lessons from the history of antibiotic discovery and fresh understanding of antibiotic action and the cell biol. of microorganisms have the potential to deliver twenty-first century medicines that are able to control infection in the resistance era.
12. 12

    Santajit, S.; Indrawattana, N. Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance in ESKAPE Pathogens. Biomed Res. Int. 2016, 2016, 2475067,  DOI: 10.1155/2016/2475067

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    Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance in ESKAPE Pathogens

    Santajit Sirijan; Indrawattana Nitaya

    BioMed research international (2016), 2016 (), 2475067 ISSN:.

    The ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species) are the leading cause of nosocomial infections throughout the world. Most of them are multidrug resistant isolates, which is one of the greatest challenges in clinical practice. Multidrug resistance is amongst the top three threats to global public health and is usually caused by excessive drug usage or prescription, inappropriate use of antimicrobials, and substandard pharmaceuticals. Understanding the resistance mechanisms of these bacteria is crucial for the development of novel antimicrobial agents or other alternative tools to combat these public health challenges. Greater mechanistic understanding would also aid in the prediction of underlying or even unknown mechanisms of resistance, which could be applied to other emerging multidrug resistant pathogens. In this review, we summarize the known antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of ESKAPE pathogens.
13. 13

    Konai, M. M.; Haldar, J. Fatty Acid Comprising Lysine Conjugates: Anti-MRSA Agents That Display in Vivo Efficacy by Disrupting Biofilms with No Resistance Development. Bioconjug Chem. 2017, 28 (4), 1194– 1204,  DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00055

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    Gelman, M. A.; Weisblum, B.; Lynn, D. M.; Gellman, S. H. Biocidal Activity of Polystyrenes That Are Cationic by Virtue of Protonation. Org. Lett. 2004, 6, 557– 560,  DOI: 10.1021/ol036341+

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    Biocidal activity of polystyrenes that are cationic by virtue of protonation

    Gelman, Michael A.; Weisblum, Bernard; Lynn, David M.; Gellman, Samuel H.

    Organic Letters (2004), 6 (4), 557-560CODEN: ORLEF7; ISSN:1523-7060. (American Chemical Society)

    Poly(1) kills bacteria (Gram-pos. and -neg.) and lyses human erythrocytes; this biocidal profile is similar to that of the peptide toxin mellitin. Poly(1) has antibacterial activity comparable to that of a potent deriv. of the host defense peptide magainin II, but lacks magainin's selectivity for bacteria over erythrocytes. An analogous N-quaternized polymer, poly(3), is less biocidal than poly(1), suggesting that reversible N-protonation leads to greater biocidal activity than does irreversible N-quaternization.
15. 15

    Taubes, G. American Association for the advancement of Science. Bacteria Fight Back. Science 2008, 321, 356– 361,  DOI: 10.1126/science.321.5887.356

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    The Bacteria Fight Back

    Taubes, Gary

    Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2008), 321 (5887), 356-361CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)

    There is no expanded citation for this reference.
16. 16

    Wang, S.; Gao, Y.; Jin, Q.; Ji, J. Emerging antibacterial nanomedicine for enhanced antibiotic therapy. Biomater Sci. 2020, 8 (24), 6825– 6839,  DOI: 10.1039/D0BM00974A

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    Emerging antibacterial nanomedicine for enhanced antibiotic therapy

    Wang, Shuting; Gao, Yifan; Jin, Qiao; Ji, Jian

    Biomaterials Science (2020), 8 (24), 6825-6839CODEN: BSICCH; ISSN:2047-4849. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

    A review. Antibiotic therapy is the most powerful strategy for treating bacterial infections in clinic. However, antibiotic resistance has become one of the biggest threats to public health worldwide due to the misuse and abuse of antibiotics. What is worse, the speed of the discovery of new antibiotics is largely hysteretic compared to the growth of antibiotic resistance. The world is on the threshold of the "post-antibiotic era". Nanomaterials have shown great potential in restoring the antibacterial activity of conventional antibiotics by different mechanisms, including optimizing pharmacokinetics, improving antibiotic internalization, interfering with bacterial metab., enhancing biofilm penetration, changing biofilm microenvironments, and so on. The combination of nanotechnol. and antibiotics would be the most promising strategy to cope with antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In this , the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance are introduced and the recent strategies for improving the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics to combat drug resistance using nanomaterials are summarized. The advantages and mechanisms of nanoparticle-based antibiotics are overviewed as well. Moreover, the challenges of nano-antibiotics in clin. applications have also been discussed.
17. 17

    Priyamvada, P.; Debroy, R.; Anbarasu, A.; Ramaiah, S. A comprehensive review on genomics, systems biology and structural biology approaches for combating antimicrobial resistance in ESKAPE pathogens: computational tools and recent advancements. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2022, 38 (9), 153,  DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03343-z

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    Velazquez-Meza, M. E.; Galarde-López, M.; Carrillo-Quiróz, B.; Alpuche-Aranda, C. M. Antimicrobial resistance: One Health approach. Vet World. 2022, 15 (3), 743– 749,  DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.743-749

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    Antimicrobial resistance: one health approach

    Velazquez-Meza, Maria Elena; Galarde-Lopez, Miguel; Carrillo-Quiroz, Berta; Alpuche-Aranda, Celia Mercedes

    Veterinary World (2022), 15 (3), 743-749CODEN: VWEOA7; ISSN:2231-0916. (Veterinary World)

    In this research, a review of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is conducted as part of the One Health approach. A review of publications, which included "antimicrobial resistance" and "One Health," was conducted. Among the global health problems, AMR is the one that most clearly illustrates the One Health approach. AMR is a crit. global problem affecting humans, the environment, and animals. This is related to each of these three components due to the irresponsible and excessive use of antimicrobials in various sectors (agriculture, livestock, and human medicine). Improper management of antimicrobials, inadequate control of infections, agricultural debris, pollutants in the environment, and migration of people and animals infected with resistant bacteria facilitate the spread of resistance. The study aimed to analyze the problem of AMR from a health perspective to analyze the different actors involved in One Health.
19. 19

    Ghosh, S.; Mukherjee, R.; Basak, D.; Haldar, J. One-Step Curable, Covalently Immobilized Coating for Clinically Relevant Surfaces That Can Kill Bacteria, Fungi, and Influenza Virus. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2020, 12 (25), 27853– 27865,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b22610

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    19

    One-Step Curable, Covalently Immobilized Coating for Clinically Relevant Surfaces That Can Kill Bacteria, Fungi, and Influenza Virus

    Ghosh, Sreyan; Mukherjee, Riya; Basak, Debajyoti; Haldar, Jayanta

    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2020), 12 (25), 27853-27865CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)

    Microbial attachment and subsequent colonization onto surfaces lead to the spread of deadly community-acquired and hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections. Cationic polymeric coatings have gained enormous attention to tackle this scenario. However, nonbiodegradable cationic polymer coated surfaces suffer from accumulation of microbial debris leading to toxicity and consequent complexities. Synthetic reproducibility and sophisticated coating techniques further limit their application. In this present study, we have developed one-step curable, covalent coating based on two organo and water-sol. small mols. QBEst and QBAm which can crosslink on surfaces upon UV irradn. Upon contact, the coating completely killed bacteria and fungi in vitro including drug resistant pathogens methicillin resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and fluconazole resistant C. albicans spp. The coating also showed antiviral activity against notorious influenza virus with 100% killing. The coated surfaces also killed stationary phase cells of MRSA which cannot be eradicated by traditional antibiotics. Upon hydrolysis, the surfaces switched to an antifouling state displaying significant redn. in bacterial adherence. To the best of our knowledge, this is first report of an antimicrobial coating which could kill all of bacteria, fungi and influenza virus. Taken together, the antimicrobial coating reported herein holds great promise to be developed for further application in healthcare settings.
20. 20

    Zhang, Y.; Hu, K.; Xing, X. Smart Titanium Coating Composed of Antibiotic Conjugated Peptides as an Infection-Responsive Antibacterial Agent. Macromol. Biosci. 2021, 21 (1), 2000194,  DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202000194

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    Smart Titanium Coating Composed of Antibiotic Conjugated Peptides as an Infection-Responsive Antibacterial Agent

    Zhang, Yunfei; Hu, Kuan; Xing, Xuan; Zhang, Jingshuang; Zhang, Ming-Rong; Ma, Xiaohui; Shi, Rui; Zhang, Liqun

    Macromolecular Bioscience (2021), 21 (1), 2000194CODEN: MBAIBU; ISSN:1616-5187. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)

    Antibacterial coating is rapidly emerging as a pivotal strategy for mitigating spread of bacterial pathogens. However, many challenges still need to be overcome in order to develop a smart coating that can achieve on-demand antibacterial effects. In this study, a Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) sensitive peptide sequence is designed, and an antibiotic is then conjugated with this tailor-made peptide. The antibiotic-peptide conjugate is then linked to the surface of a titanium implant, where the peptide can be recognized and cleaved by an enzyme secreted by S. aureus. This allows for the release of antibiotics in the presence of S. aureus, thus achieving delivery of an antibacterial specifically when an infection occurs.
21. 21

    Wei, T.; Yu, Q.; Chen, H. Responsive and Synergistic Antibacterial Coatings: Fighting against Bacteria in a Smart and Effective Way. Adv. Healthc Mater. 2019, 8 (3), 1801381,  DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201801381

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    Responsive and Synergistic Antibacterial Coatings: Fighting against Bacteria in a Smart and Effective Way

    Wei, Ting; Yu, Qian; Chen, Hong

    Advanced Healthcare Materials (2019), 8 (3), 1801381CODEN: AHMDBJ; ISSN:2192-2640. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)

    Antibacterial coatings that eliminate initial bacterial attachment and prevent subsequent biofilm formation are essential in a no. of applications, esp. implanted medical devices. Although various approaches, including bacteria-repelling and bacteria-killing mechanisms, have been developed, none of them have been entirely successful due to their inherent drawbacks. In recent years, antibacterial coatings that are responsive to the bacterial microenvironment, that possess two or more killing mechanisms, or that have triggered-cleaning capability have emerged as promising solns. for bacterial infection and contamination problems. This review focuses on recent progress on three types of such responsive and synergistic antibacterial coatings, including i) self-defensive antibacterial coatings, which can "turn on" biocidal activity in response to a bacteria-contg. microenvironment; ii) synergistic antibacterial coatings, which possess two or more killing mechanisms that interact synergistically to reinforce each other; and iii) smart "kill-and-release" antibacterial coatings, which can switch functionality between bacteria killing and bacteria releasing under a proper stimulus. The design principles and potential applications of these coatings are discussed and a brief perspective on remaining challenges and future research directions is presented.
22. 22

    Zhao, Y. Q.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, Y. Well-Defined Gold Nanorod/Polymer Hybrid Coating with Inherent Antifouling and Photothermal Bactericidal Properties for Treating an Infected Hernia. ACS Nano 2020, 14 (2), 2265– 2275,  DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b09282

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    Well-Defined Gold Nanorod/Polymer Hybrid Coating with Inherent Antifouling and Photothermal Bactericidal Properties for Treating an Infected Hernia

    Zhao, Yu-Qing; Sun, Yujie; Zhang, Yidan; Ding, Xiaokang; Zhao, Nana; Yu, Bingran; Zhao, Hong; Duan, Shun; Xu, Fu-Jian

    ACS Nano (2020), 14 (2), 2265-2275CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)

    Biomedical device-assocd. infection (BAI) is a great challenge in modern clin. medicine. Therefore, developing efficient antibacterial materials is significantly important and meaningful for the improvement of medical treatment and people's health. In the present work, we developed a strategy of surface functionalization for multifunctional antibacterial applications. A functionalized polyurethane (PU, a widely used biomedical material for hernia repairing) surface (PU-Au-PEG) with inherent antifouling and photothermal bactericidal properties was readily prepd. based on a near-IR (NIR)-responsive org./inorg. hybrid coating which consists of gold nanorods (Au NRs) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). The PU-Au-PEG showed a high efficiency to resist adhesion of bacteria and exhibited effective photothermal bactericidal properties under 808 nm NIR irradn., esp. against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Furthermore, the PU-Au-PEG could inhibit biofilm formation long term. The biocompatibility of PU-Au-PEG was also proved by cytotoxicity and hemolysis tests. The in vivo photothermal antibacterial properties were first verified by a s.c. implantation animal model. Then, the anti-infection performance in a clin. scenario was studied with an infected hernia model. The results of animal expt. studies demonstrated excellent in vivo anti-infection performances of PU-Au-PEG. The present work provides a facile and promising approach to develop multifunctional biomedical devices.
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    Song, J.; Liu, H.; Lei, M. Redox-Channeling Polydopamine-Ferrocene (PDA-Fc) Coating to Confer Context-Dependent and Photothermal Antimicrobial Activities. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2020, 12 (7), 8915– 8928,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b22339

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    Redox-Channeling Polydopamine-Ferrocene (PDA-Fc) Coating To Confer Context-Dependent and Photothermal Antimicrobial Activities

    Song, Jialin; Liu, Huan; Lei, Miao; Tan, Haoqi; Chen, Zhanyi; Antoshin, Artem; Payne, Gregory F.; Qu, Xue; Liu, Changsheng

    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2020), 12 (7), 8915-8928CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)

    Microbial disinfection assocd. with medical device surfaces has been an increasing need, and surface modification strategies such as antibacterial coatings have gained great interest. Here, we report the development of polydopamine-ferrocene (PDA-Fc)-functionalized TiO2 nanorods (Ti-Nd-PDA-Fc) as a context-dependent antibacterial system on implant to combat bacterial infection and hinder biofilm formation. In this work, two synergistic antimicrobial mechanisms of the PDA-Fc coating are proposed. First, the PDA-Fc coating is redox-active and can be locally activated to release antibacterial reactive oxygen species (ROS), esp. ·OH in response to the acidic microenvironment induced by bacteria colonization and host immune responses. The results demonstrate that redox-based antimicrobial activity of Ti-Nd-PDA-Fc offers antibacterial efficacy of over 95 and 92% against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Escherichia coli (E. coli), resp. Second, the photothermal effect of PDA can enhance the antibacterial capability upon near-IR (NIR) irradn., with over 99% killing efficacy against MRSA and E. coli, and even suppress the formation of biofilm through both localized hyperthermia and enhanced ·OH generation. Addnl., Ti-Nd-PDA-Fc is biocompatible when tested with model pre-osteoblast MC-3T3 E1 cells and promotes cell adhesion and spreading presumably due to its nanotopog. features. The MRSA-infected wound model also indicates that Ti-Nd-PDA-Fc with NIR irradn. can effectively eliminate bacterial infection and suppress host inflammatory responses. We believe that this study demonstrates a simple means to create biocompatible redox-active coatings that confer context-dependent antibacterial activities to implant surfaces.
24. 24

    Ye, Z.; Zhu, X.; Mutreja, I. Biomimetic mineralized hybrid scaffolds with antimicrobial peptides. Bioact Mater. 2021, 6 (8), 2250– 2260,  DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2020.12.029

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    Biomimetic mineralized hybrid scaffolds with antimicrobial peptides

    Ye, Zhou; Zhu, Xiao; Mutreja, Isha; Boda, Sunil Kumar; Fischer, Nicholas G.; Zhang, Anqi; Lui, Christine; Qi, Yipin; Aparicio, Conrado

    Bioactive Materials (2021), 6 (8), 2250-2260CODEN: BMIAD4; ISSN:2452-199X. (Elsevier B.V.)

    Infection in hard tissue regeneration is a clin.-relevant challenge. Development of scaffolds with dual function for promoting bone/dental tissue growth and preventing bacterial infections is a crit. need in the field. Here we fabricated hybrid scaffolds by intrafibrillar-mineralization of collagen using a biomimetic process and subsequently coating the scaffold with an antimicrobial designer peptide with cationic and amphipathic properties. The highly hydrophilic mineralized collagen scaffolds provided an ideal substrate to form a dense and stable coating of the antimicrobial peptides. The amt. of hydroxyapatite in the mineralized fibers modulated the rheol. behavior of the scaffolds with no influence on the amt. of recruited peptides and the resulting increase in hydrophobicity. The developed scaffolds were potent by contact killing of Gram-neg. Escherichia coli and Gram-pos. Streptococcus gordonii as well as cytocompatible to human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells. The process of scaffold fabrication is versatile and can be used to control mineral load and/or intrafibrillar-mineralized scaffolds made of other biopolymers.
25. 25

    Sun, J.; Tan, H.; Liu, H. A reduced polydopamine nanoparticle-coupled sprayable PEG hydrogel adhesive with anti-infection activity for rapid wound sealing. Biomater Sci. 2020, 8 (24), 6946– 6956,  DOI: 10.1039/D0BM01213K

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    Wang, D.; Haapasalo, M.; Gao, Y.; Ma, J.; Shen, Y. Antibiofilm peptides against biofilms on titanium and hydroxyapatite surfaces. Bioact Mater. 2018, 3 (4), 418– 425,  DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2018.06.002

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27. 27

    Kazemzadeh-Narbat, M.; Cheng, H.; Chabok, R. Strategies for antimicrobial peptide coatings on medical devices: a review and regulatory science perspective. Crit Rev. Biotechnol. 2021, 41 (1), 94– 120,  DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2020.1828810

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    Strategies for antimicrobial peptide coatings on medical devices: a review and regulatory science perspective

    Kazemzadeh-Narbat, Mehdi; Cheng, Hao; Chabok, Rosa; Alvarez, Mario Moises; de la Fuente-Nunez, Cesar; Phillips, K. Scott; Khademhosseini, Ali

    Critical Reviews in Biotechnology (2021), 41 (1), 94-120CODEN: CRBTE5; ISSN:0738-8551. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)

    A review. Indwelling and implanted medical devices are subject to contamination by microbial pathogens during surgery, insertion or injection, and ongoing use, often resulting in severe nosocomial infections. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) offer a promising alternative to conventional antibiotics to reduce the incidence of such infections, as they exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against Gram-neg. and Gram-pos. bacteria, microbial biofilms, fungi, and viruses. In this review-perspective, we first provide an overview of the progress made in this field over the past decade with an emphasis on the local release of AMPs from implant surfaces and immobilization strategies for incorporating these agents into a wide range of medical device materials. We then provide a regulatory science perspective addressing the characterization and testing of AMP coatings based on the type of immobilization strategy used with a focus on the US market regulatory niche. Our goal is to help narrow the gulf between academic studies and preclin. testing, as well as to support a future literature base in order to develop the regulatory science of antimicrobial coatings.
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    Kranz, J.; Schmidt, S.; Wagenlehner, F.; Schneidewind, L. Catheter- Associated Urinary Tract Infections in Adult Patients. Dtsch Arztebl International. 2020, 117 (6), 83– 88,  DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2020.0083

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    Huang, L.; Liu, C. J. Progress for the development of antibacterial surface based on surface modification technology. Supramolecular Materials 2022, 1, 100008,  DOI: 10.1016/j.supmat.2022.100008

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    Steinstraesser, L.; Kraneburg, U. M.; Hirsch, T. Host defense peptides as effector molecules of the innate immune response: A sledgehammer for drug resistance?. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2009, 10 (9), 3951– 3970,  DOI: 10.3390/ijms10093951

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    Host defense peptides as effector molecules of the innate immune response: a sledgehammer for drug resistance?

    Steinstraesser, Lars; Kraneburg, Ursula M.; Hirsch, Tobias; Kesting, Marco; Steinau, Hans-Ulrich; Jacobsen, Frank; Al-Benna, Sammy

    International Journal of Molecular Sciences (2009), 10 (9), 3951-3970CODEN: IJMCFK; ISSN:1422-0067. (Molecular Diversity Preservation International)

    A review. Host defense peptides can modulate the innate immune response and boost infection-resolving immunity, while dampening potentially harmful pro-inflammatory (septic) responses. Both antimicrobial and/or immunomodulatory activities are an integral part of the process of innate immunity, which itself has many of the hallmarks of successful anti-infective therapies, namely rapid action and broad-spectrum antimicrobial activities. This gives these peptides the potential to become an entirely new therapeutic approach against bacterial infections. This review details the role and activities of these peptides, and examines their applicability as development candidates for use against bacterial infections.
31. 31

    López-Cano, A.; Ferrer-Miralles, N.; Sánchez, J. A Novel Generation of Tailored Antimicrobial Drugs Based on Recombinant Multidomain Proteins. Pharmaceutics. 2023, 15 (4), 1068,  DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15041068

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    Tatkiewicz, W. I.; Seras-Franzoso, J.; García-Fruitós, E. Two-dimensional microscale engineering of protein-based nanoparticles for cell guidance. ACS Nano 2013, 7 (6), 4774– 4784,  DOI: 10.1021/nn400907f

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    Two-Dimensional Microscale Engineering of Protein-Based Nanoparticles for Cell Guidance

    Tatkiewicz, Witold I.; Seras-Franzoso, Joaquin; Garcia-Fruitos, Elena; Vazquez, Esther; Ventosa, Nora; Peebo, Karl; Ratera, Imma; Villaverde, Antonio; Veciana, Jaume

    ACS Nano (2013), 7 (6), 4774-4784CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)

    Cell responses, such as positioning, morphol. changes, proliferation, and apoptosis, are the result of complex chem., topog., and biol. stimuli. Here the authors show the macroscopic responses of cells when nanoscale profiles made with inclusion bodies (IBs) were used for the 2D engineering of biol. interfaces at the microscale. A deep statistical data treatment of fibroblasts cultivated on supports patterned with green fluorescent protein and human basic fibroblast growth factor-derived IBs demonstrates that these cells preferentially adhere to the IB areas and align and elongate according to specific patterns. These findings prove the potential of surface patterning with functional IBs as protein-based nanomaterials for tissue engineering.
33. 33

    Tatkiewicz, W. I.; Seras-Franzoso, J.; Garcia-Fruitós, E. Surface-Bound Gradient Deposition of Protein Nanoparticles for Cell Motility Studies. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2018, 10 (30), 25779– 25786,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b06821

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    Surface-Bound Gradient Deposition of Protein Nanoparticles for Cell Motility Studies

    Tatkiewicz, Witold I.; Seras-Franzoso, Joaquin; Garcia-Fruitos, Elena; Vazquez, Esther; Kyvik, A. R.; Guasch, Judith; Villaverde, Antonio; Veciana, Jaume; Ratera, Imma

    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2018), 10 (30), 25779-25786CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)

    A versatile evapn.-assisted methodol. based on the coffee-drop effect is described to deposit nanoparticles on surfaces, obtaining for the first time patterned gradients of protein nanoparticles (pNPs) by using a simple custom-made device. Fully controllable patterns with specific periodicities consisting of stripes with different widths and distinct nanoparticle concn. as well as gradients can be produced over large areas (∼10 cm2) in a fast (up to 10 mm2/min), reproducible, and cost-effective manner using an operational protocol optimized by an evolutionary algorithm. The developed method opens the possibility to decorate surfaces "a-la-carte" with pNPs enabling different categories of high-throughput studies on cell motility.
34. 34

    Coronel-Meneses, D.; Sánchez-Trasviña, C.; Ratera, I.; Mayolo-Deloisa, K. Strategies for surface coatings of implantable cardiac medical devices. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2023, 11, 11,  DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1173260

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    Martínez-Miguel, M.; Kyvik, A. R. Stable anchoring of bacteria-based protein nanoparticles for surface enhanced cell guidance. J. Mater. Chem. B 2020, 8 (23), 5080– 5088,  DOI: 10.1039/D0TB00702A

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    Tatkiewicz, W. I.; Seras-Franzoso, J.; García-Fruitós, E. High-Throughput Cell Motility Studies on Surface-Bound Protein Nanoparticles with Diverse Structural and Compositional Characteristics. ACS Biomater Sci. Eng. 2019, 5 (10), 5470– 5480,  DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b01085

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    High-Throughput Cell Motility Studies on Surface-Bound Protein Nanoparticles with Diverse Structural and Compositional Characteristics

    Tatkiewicz, Witold I.; Seras-Franzoso, Joaquin; Garcia-Fruitos, Elena; Vazquez, Esther; Kyvik, Adriana R.; Ventosa, Nora; Guasch, Judith; Villaverde, Antonio; Veciana, Jaume; Ratera, Imma

    ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering (2019), 5 (10), 5470-5480CODEN: ABSEBA; ISSN:2373-9878. (American Chemical Society)

    Eighty areas with different structural and compositional characteristics made of bacterial inclusion bodies formed by the fibroblast growth factor (FGF-IBs) were simultaneously patterned on a glass surface with an evapn.-assisted method that relies on the coffee-drop effect. The resulting surface patterned with these protein nanoparticles enabled to perform a high-throughput study of the motility of NIH-3T3 fibroblasts under different conditions including gradient steepness, particle concns. and area widths of patterned FGF-IBs, using for the data anal. a methodol. that includes "heat maps". From this anal., the authors obsd. that gradients of concns. of surface-bound FGF-IBs stimulate the total cell movement, but do not affect the total net distances travelled by cells. Moreover, cells tend to move towards an optimal intermediate FGF-IB concn. (i.e., cells seeded on areas with high IB concns. moved towards areas with lower concns. and vice versa reaching the optimal concn.). Addnl., a higher motility was obtained when cells were deposited on narrow and highly concd. areas with IBs. FGF-IBs can be therefore used to enhance and guide cell migration, confirming that the decoration of surfaces with such inclusion body-like protein nanoparticles are promising biomaterials for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.
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    Díez-Gil, C.; Martínez, R.; Ratera, I.; Tárraga, A.; Molina, P.; Veciana, J. Nanocomposite membranes as highly selective and sensitive mercury(ii) detectors. J. Mater. Chem. 2008, 18 (17), 1997– 2002,  DOI: 10.1039/b800708j

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    Kyvik, A. R.; Roca-Pinilla, R.; Mayolo-Deloisa, K. Antibiofilm surfaces based on the immobilization of a novel recombinant antimicrobial multidomain protein using self-assembled monolayers. Mater. Adv. 2023, 4 (10), 2354– 2364,  DOI: 10.1039/D2MA00978A

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    Antibiofilm surfaces based on the immobilization of a novel recombinant antimicrobial multidomain protein using self-assembled monolayers

    Kyvik, Adriana R.; Roca-Pinilla, Ramon; Mayolo-Deloisa, Karla; Rodriguez Rodriguez, Xavier; Martinez-Miguel, Marc; Martos, Marta; Kober, Mariana; Ventosa, Nora; Veciana, Jaume; Guasch, Judith; Garcia-Fruitos, Elena; Aris, Anna; Ratera, Imma

    Materials Advances (2023), 4 (10), 2354-2364CODEN: MAADC9; ISSN:2633-5409. (Royal Society of Chemistry)

    The const. increase of microorganisms resistant to antibiotics has been classified as a global health emergency, which is esp. challenging when biofilms are formed. Herein, novel biofunctionalized gold surfaces with the antimicrobial multidomain recombinant protein JAMF1, both in the sol. form and nanostructured as nanoparticles, were developed. The interaction between His-tag termination of the protein and a nitriloacetic acid-Ni complex formed on mixed self-assembled monolayers (mixed SAMs) was exploited. The obtained antibiofilm surfaces based on the immobilization of the novel JAMF1 protein using self-assembled monolayers were characterized using a multi-technique approach including: cyclic voltammetry, XPS, at. force microscopy and fluorescence, proving that the modification and immobilization of JAMF1 were successfully done. The antibiofilm activity against Escherichia coli and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae showed that the immobilized antimicrobial proteins were able to reduce biofilm formation of both microorganisms. This strategy opens up new possibilities for controlled biomol. immobilization for fundamental biol. studies and biotechnol. applications, at the interface of materials science and mol. biol.
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    Al Nakib, R.; Toncheva, A.; Fontaine, V.; Vanheuverzwijn, J.; Raquez, J. M.; Meyer, F. Thermoplastic polyurethanes for biomedical application: A synthetic, mechanical, antibacterial, and cytotoxic study. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2022, 139 (4), 51666,  DOI: 10.1002/app.51666

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    Thermoplastic polyurethanes for biomedical application: A synthetic, mechanical, antibacterial, and cytotoxic study

    Al Nakib, Rana; Toncheva, Antoniya; Fontaine, Veronique; Vanheuverzwijn, Jerome; Raquez, Jean-Marie; Meyer, Franck

    Journal of Applied Polymer Science (2022), 139 (4), 51666CODEN: JAPNAB; ISSN:0021-8995. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

    Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPUs) bear tunable chem. offering the possibility to develop a rich palette of physio-mech. properties, making the materials suitable for various fields of application. The great variety in TPUs properties comes from the choices of the monomers and the reaction conditions. Herein, the mech. properties of the developed TPUs are tailored, while fine-tuning the hard and soft segment molar ratio, as well as the reaction conditions. TPUs are synthesized from 4,4'-methylenebis(Ph isocyanate), poly(tetrahydrofuran), and 1,4-butanediol, and their thermal and mech. properties are fully characterized. The sample with the most appropriate mech. properties that are suitable for catheter fabrication, is selected for the biomedical application. Quaternary ammonium salt is synthesized, and 0.5 mol% is incorporated in the TPU to confer antibacterial properties to the material while preserving its mech. strength. The microbiol. tests reveal the antibacterial effect of the developed materials against Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as 80% SiHa cell viability, after 72 h of exposure, as part of the performed cytotoxicity studies. Finally, TPUs catheter prototypes fabrication is also proposed, applying an extrusion or injection molding approach for the prodn. of biomedical devices with desirable mech. properties.
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    Alves, P.; Coelho, J. F. J.; Haack, J.; Rota, A.; Bruinink, A.; Gil, M. H. Surface modification and characterization of thermoplastic polyurethane. Eur. Polym. J. 2009, 45 (5), 1412– 1419,  DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2009.02.011

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    Surface modification and characterization of thermoplastic polyurethane

    Alves, P.; Coelho, J. F. J.; Haack, Janne; Rota, Astrid; Bruinink, Arie; Gil, M. H.

    European Polymer Journal (2009), 45 (5), 1412-1419CODEN: EUPJAG; ISSN:0014-3057. (Elsevier Ltd.)

    This work reports the modification of thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPUs) in order to enlarge their application range, for example, as biomaterials by increasing its hydrophilicity. A TPU was successfully modified by using three different strategies: ultra-violet irradn. (UV), gamma irradn. (GI) and interfacial modification (IM). The results suggested the possibility of modifying the polyurethane-based surface either with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) or hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) or hexamethylene diamine (HMD) or chitosan (CT) by using any of these methods. The properties of the grafted PU were evaluated by surface, structural and thermal anal. The results suggest that, among the methods studied in this work, the modification by gamma irradn. (GI) seems to be the most promising, since this method gives high values of grafting yield and has the advantage of providing a clean modification, meaning that no initiator is needed.
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    Qi, F.; Qian, Y.; Shao, N. Practical Preparation of Infection-Resistant Biomedical Surfaces from Antimicrobial β-Peptide Polymers. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2019, 11 (21), 18907– 18913,  DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b02915

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    Practical Preparation of Infection-Resistant Biomedical Surfaces from Antimicrobial β-Peptide Polymers

    Qi, Fan; Qian, Yuxin; Shao, Ning; Zhou, Ruiyi; Zhang, Si; Lu, Ziyi; Zhou, Min; Xie, Jiayang; Wei, Ting; Yu, Qian; Liu, Runhui

    ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2019), 11 (21), 18907-18913CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)

    Tackling microbial infection assocd. with biomaterial surfaces has been an urgent need. Synthetic β-peptide polymers can mimic host defense peptides and have potent antimicrobial activities without driving the bacteria to develop antimicrobial resistance. Herein, we demonstrate a plasma surface activation-based practical β-peptide polymer modification to prep. antimicrobial surfaces for biomedical materials such as thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyvinyl chloride, and polydimethylsiloxane. The β-peptide polymer-modified surfaces demonstrated effective killing on drug-resistant Gram-pos. and Gram-neg. bacteria. The antibacterial function retained completely even after the β-peptide polymer-modified surfaces were stored at ambient temp. for at least 2 mo. Moreover, the optimum β-peptide polymer (50:50 DM-Hex)-modified surfaces displayed no hemolysis and cytotoxicity. In vivo study using methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)-pre-incubated TPU-50:50 DM-Hex surfaces for s.c. implantation revealed a 3.4-log redn. of MRSA cells after the implantation for 11 days at the surrounding tissue of implanted TPU sheet and significant suppression of infection, compared to bare TPU control. These results imply promising and practical applications of β-peptide polymer tethering to prep. infection-resistant surfaces for biomedical materials and devices.
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    Lu, Z.; Wu, Y.; Cong, Z. Effective and biocompatible antibacterial surfaces via facile synthesis and surface modification of peptide polymers. Bioact Mater. 2021, 6 (12), 4531– 4541,  DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.05.008

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    42

    Effective and biocompatible antibacterial surfaces via facile synthesis and surface modification of peptide polymers

    Lu, Ziyi; Wu, Yueming; Cong, Zihao; Qian, Yuxin; Wu, Xue; Shao, Ning; Qiao, Zhongqian; Zhang, Haodong; She, Yunrui; Chen, Kang; Xiang, Hengxue; Sun, Bin; Yu, Qian; Yuan, Yuan; Lin, Haodong; Zhu, Meifang; Liu, Runhui

    Bioactive Materials (2021), 6 (12), 4531-4541CODEN: BMIAD4; ISSN:2452-199X. (Elsevier B.V.)

    It is an urgent need to tackle drug-resistance microbial infections that are assocd. with implantable biomedical devices. Host defense peptide-mimicking polymers have been actively explored in recent years to fight against drug-resistant microbes. Our recent report on lithium hexamethyldisilazide-initiated superfast polymn. on amino acid N-carboxyanhydrides enables the quick synthesis of host defense peptide-mimicking peptide polymers. Here we reported a facile and cost-effective thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) surface modification of peptide polymer (DLL: BLG = 90 : 10) using plasma surface activation and substitution reaction between thiol and bromide groups. The peptide polymer-modified TPU surfaces exhibited board-spectrum antibacterial property as well as effective contact-killing ability in vitro. Furthermore, the peptide polymer-modified TPU surfaces showed excellent biocompatibility, displaying no hemolysis and cytotoxicity. In vivo study using methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) for s.c. implantation infectious model showed that peptide polymer-modified TPU surfaces revealed obvious suppression of infection and great histocompatibility, compared to bare TPU surfaces. We further explored the antimicrobial mechanism of the peptide polymer-modified TPU surfaces, which revealed a surface contact-killing mechanism by disrupting the bacterial membrane. These results demonstrated great potential of the peptide-modified TPU surfaces for practical application to combat bacterial infections that are assocd. with implantable materials and devices.
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    López Cano, A.; Sicilia, P.; Gaja, C.; Aris, A.; Garcia-Fruitos, E. Quality comparison of recombinant soluble proteins and proteins solubilized from bacterial inclusion bodies. N Biotechnol. 2022, 72, 58,  DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2022.09.003

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