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Recycling Strategies for Spent Li-Ion Battery Mixed Cathodes
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ACS Energy Letters

Cite this: ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 9, 2101–2103
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b01233
Published August 15, 2018

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Since the commercialization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in 1991 by Sony Inc., the revolution of commercial electronic appliances has increased tremendously. Lithium-ion chemistry has dominated incalculable applications, ranging from portable electronics to electric vehicles (EVs). Its shape versatility resulted in its indispensable place in this era. (1) Current research efforts seek to improve the LIB performance in zero-emission transportation applications as well as their intensive use for grid-storage. Except for commercial appliances, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and EVs will be the next generation, bringing an additional burden to the researchers. (2) While there is a rapid increase in demand for LIBs in the market, unpredictable increases of the price of raw materials will become an inevitable issue for future mass production.

Global market experts forecast the global LIB market will grow at a compound and annual growth rate (CAGR) of 12% from 2017 to 2024. This growth is mainly attributable to the increasing demand for consumer electronic devices and EVs. (3) Accordingly, LIB production could suffer by 2050 because of a global supply shortage of key elements (Li, Co, and Ni) and geographical conditions. (4,5) Hence, recycling of spent LIBs is being considered as an optimistic approach to alleviate the unprecedented demand for raw materials for the synthesis of cathode materials, excluding the environmental benefits.

The disposal of spent LIBs, with their rich metal resources, is challenging researchers to implement recycling processes effectively and efficiently. A few regions across the globe, like Europe and China, have initiated LIB recycling via stringent regulations. LIBs contain toxic metals that need to be recycled in order to address environmental concerns and avoid depletion of material resources. (6) Because only ∼5% of LIBs are recycled today, there is a need to recycle the enormous amount of spent LIBs. (7) The LIB recycling market was recently predicted to grow with a CAGR of 30.5% through the time period of 2017–2025. More than 11 million tonnes of spent LIB packs are expected to be discarded between 2017 and 2030. (8,9) The worldwide emerging automobile industries and the ongoing technological advancements based on LIBs might increase the number of spent LIBs with new compositions and various configurations substantially in the near future.

We are in immediate need of methods to recycle mixed types of spent LIBs in order to recover the most precious materials that are needed to produce cathodes, such as LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 (NMC), LiCoO2 (LCO), LiMn2O4 (LMO), and LiFePO4 (LFP). The recycling process should possess a closed loop technology with core aspects being scalable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective. Most of the current recycling processes are not profitable and could not recover the critical components like Li economically from spent LIBs. (10) The existing industrial pyro-metallurgical recycling process (i.e., smelting) that involves a high-temperature sintering (>1000 °C) recovers only the lesser proportion of metal alloys, such as Co, Fe, Ni, and Cu. The remaining slag that contains unrecovered Li is being sold as a road base to the construction industries. However, a small increase in the recovery of Li from that slag is not a strong economic incentive to the recycling unit. Most of the constituent materials (60–70%) of spent LIBs are volatilized or added to the slag, indicating another critical drawback of this process. In contrast, a hydrometallurgy process has the great benefits of low energy consumption, low concentration of chemical reagents, minimum secondary pollution, and easy separation of metals, making it an excellent choice for efficient recycling. (1,6) The hindrances of low recovery efficiency; high intake of chemical reagents; and intricate recycling steps in the methods of chemical precipitation, ion-exchange, or solvent extraction are impeding the large-scale metal recovery process in the industry.

Additionally, the synthesis of cathode material using separated metals from the complex system (i.e., the mixture of cathode materials such as NMC, LCO, LMO, and LFP) is not a beneficial route in the real waste battery repository. Instead of employing a problematical separation process, cathode material has to be recovered efficiently in a facile approach with new methodologies that have shorter routes and are more economical and environmentally friendly than the prevailing industrial recycling process. A recent method, known as lixiviation-regeneration/leaching-resynthesis, seems to be a feasible tactic to regenerate the cathode materials directly by sol–gel or solid-state synthesis in an industrial scale process. (11) This technique will have a great impact on the complex system because of the upcoming different types of manufactured LIBs. Unlike other conventional methods, the distinct advantages of good purity and high yield of regenerated cathode materials increase the prospect of scaling-up this process in the industry within one step from the lixiviate.

Generally, this recycling and regeneration technology is composed of three major steps: (i) dismantling spent LIBs, (ii) organic/inorganic acid leaching to lixiviate the metals, and (iii) restoring cathode active materials (NMC, LCO, LMO, or LFP) via any one of the aforementioned methods (Figure 1). First and foremost, prior to dismantling, the spent LIBs are discharged by consuming saline-saturated solutions like Na2SO4 or NaCl to mitigate the potential risk of short circuiting or LIB blast. After dismantling, the common dissolution method uses organic solvents such as N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, N,N-dimethylformamide, and N,N-dimethylacetamide to detach the electrode material from current collector, succeeding in the removal of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVdF) binder. The carbon that is present needs to be removed at a higher-temperature calcination process (usually 600–700 °C), which leads to the emission of off-gases that can be purified with special equipment. In some cases, Al foil-bearing cathode material is treated in a lower concentration of alkaline solution like NaOH for separation, and then the PVdF impurities and carbon are eliminated through a calcination process. (11) Furthermore, the dried cathode active material is subjected to the organic/inorganic acid-lixiviation process with the aid of chemical agents, for example H2O2, under adjusted experimental conditions. To get an exact ratio, the unbalanced molar lixiviate containing metal ions is altered with the requisite commercial metal salts solution in the sol–gel process. (11) The solid-state synthesis (12) is simply blending the heat-treated hydroxide/carbonate precursor with the recovered/commercial Li salt in the desired molar ratio. The resultant powder is sintered at a higher temperature to revamp the crystal structure of the cathode material (NMC, LCO, LMO, or LFP) easily.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Recycling and regeneration procedure for large-scale mixed-type cathode materials.

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This lixiviation-regeneration approach mainly averts the loss of valuable materials, shortening the recycling trajectory and minimizing the labor cost from their respective steps. Recently, many researchers have focused on this approach, but only on the single cathode component as the item of concern. At present, two China-based industries, Green Eco-manufacture Hi-Tech Co. and Bangpu Ni/Co High-Tech Co., have adopted the lixiviation-regeneration process; even so, they recycle only the single cathode components. (6) Few such initiatives increase the hope of handling the impending bulk mixed composition of spent LIBs.

In another report, Wang and co-workers (12) recycled the mixed composition of spent cathode materials including NMC, LCO, LMO, and LFP to obtain the NCM via solid-state synthesis. The regenerated NCM examined by various electrochemical tests has shown admirable performance comparable to the commercial NCM. Furthermore, the estimated analysis indicates that the recycled materials could save $10 440/ton in chemicals without including the energy savings of the resynthesis of NCM. Also, the differential cost ($10 440/ton) between the use of recycled materials and commercial materials in the synthesis of NCM is prompting recyclers to commercialize this technology in the near future for the recycling of spent mixed-type cathode materials.

Moreover, there is no assurance in the waste battery stream which metals will be present in high or low content. Occasionally, the battery warehouse may contain only LCO, LMO, or NMC or some other proportion. Recently, Sun and co-workers (13) resynthesized 0.2Li2MnO3-0.8Li1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 from the mixed composition of LCO, LMO, and NCM materials after realizing that HEVs and EVs will generate a plethora of mixed-type cathode materials with high content of Mn (Figure 2). This Mn-rich cathode material retrieved from the lixiviation-regeneration process also has an outstanding electrochemical performance, eliminating the complex system concerns.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Regeneration process of mixed spent cathode materials. Reproduced with permission from ref (13). Copyright 2018 Elsevier.

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In the two aforementioned reports (recycling of mixed-type cathode materials), H2SO4 has been used as a lixiviant to achieve high Li+ concentration at relatively high solid–liquid ratio that cannot be easily achieved with green organic acids. Meanwhile, some effort has been made to repair the cathode material with the goal of avoiding the acid-lixiviation approach. In one such approach, a simple method comprising ball milling, sieving, and heat-treatment was used to fabricate the material needed for LFP cathodes on a small scale (100 kg/day). The LFP material was further subjected to the heat treatment at 650 °C under an Ar/H2 atmosphere to bring forth the high discharge capacity of the cathode material. (14)

Another recent study tried a green approach with facile separation and heat treatment processes for cathode material restoration. In this method, 50 g of NMC scraps were applied separately in three different processes such as direct calcination, NMP dissolution, and NaOH solution treatment to isolate the active material from Al foil. After drying, the obtained materials are calcined at various temperatures to renovate the NCM effectively. (2) These regenerating processes have very simple steps and an acid-free approach, exhibit less energy consumption, and are eco-friendly. These kinds of economic technologies should be industrialized soon to process the existing and upcoming colossal supply of mixed-type cathode materials.

Lastly, we would like to illustrate the severity of the problem with a few examples. Last year, the British and French governments decided to restrict the sale of petrol and diesel cars by 2040 because of the increasing rise of CO2 emissions. Accordingly, Volvo agreed to sell only HEVs or EVs from next year onward. (15) The International Energy Agency determined that the number of electric cars will increase to 140 million by 2030 if countries achieve the targets of the Paris climate agreement, whereas the number surpassed 1 million electric cars in 2015 globally. Consequently, there is a need to recycle 11 million tonnes of spent LIBs during the period of 2017–2030. (15) India is the second-biggest smartphone consumer with 220 million users, followed by the United States. In 2015–2016, 37 manufacturing companies established production plants for mobile phones in India. (16,17) This undeniably creates a great impact on the LIB market and brings the massive waste generation worldwide. The LIB material market currently predominantly depends on the mixed-cathode material, and the increasing application of mixed-type cathode materials in EVs as well as in other commercial appliances is prompting researchers to establish novel economical technology sooner by using shorter and greener routes.

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    Views expressed in this Viewpoint are those of the authors and not necessarily the views of the ACS.
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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V.A. acknowledges the financial support from the Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB), a statutory body of the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India through Ramanujan Fellowship (SB/S2/RJN-088/2016).

References

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This article references 17 other publications.

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Cite this: ACS Energy Lett. 2018, 3, 9, 2101–2103
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.8b01233
Published August 15, 2018

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  • Figure 1

    Figure 1. Recycling and regeneration procedure for large-scale mixed-type cathode materials.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Regeneration process of mixed spent cathode materials. Reproduced with permission from ref (13). Copyright 2018 Elsevier.

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  • References

    This article references 17 other publications.

    1. 1
      Zhang, X.; Bian, Y.; Xu, S.; Fan, E.; Xue, Q.; Guan, Y.; Wu, F.; Li, L.; Chen, R. Innovative application of acid leaching to regenerate Li(Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3)O2 cathodes from spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 5959– 5968,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b04373
      1
      Innovative Application of Acid Leaching to Regenerate Li(Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3)O2 Cathodes from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Zhang, Xiaoxiao; Bian, Yifan; Xu, Siwenyu; Fan, Ersha; Xue, Qing; Guan, Yibiao; Wu, Feng; Li, Li; Chen, Renjie
      ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2018), 6 (5), 5959-5968CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
      Rapid development of energy storage system causes a burst demand of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), and large no. of spent LIBs with high valuable metals are produced. Here we propose a novel application of oxalic acid leaching to regenerate Li(Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3)O2 (NCM) cathodes from spent LIBs. With lithium dissolving into the soln., the transition metals transform into oxalate ppts. and deposit on the surface of spent NCM cathodes, sepg. lithium and transition metals in one simple step. After mixing with certain amt. of Li2CO3, the oxalate ppts. together with unreacted NCM are directly calcined into new NCM cathodes. The regenerated NCM after 10 min leaching exhibits the best electrochem. performances, delivering the highest initial specific discharge capacity of 168 mA h g-1 at 0.2C and 153.7 mA h g-1 after 150 cycles with a high capacity retention of 91.5%. The excellent electrochem. performances are attributed to the submicrometer particles and voids after calcination, as well as the optimal proportion of elements. This process can make the most of valuable metals in the spent cathodes, with >98.5% Ni, Co, and Mn recycled. It is simple and effective, and provides a novel perspective of recycling cathodes from spent LIBs.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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    2. 2
      Zhang, X.; Xue, Q.; Li, L.; Fan, E.; Wu, F.; Chen, R. Sustainable recycling and regeneration of cathode scraps from industrial production of lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2016, 4, 7041– 7049,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b01948
      2
      Sustainable Recycling and Regeneration of Cathode Scraps from Industrial Production of Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Zhang, Xiaoxiao; Xue, Qing; Li, Li; Fan, Ersha; Wu, Feng; Chen, Renjie
      ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2016), 4 (12), 7041-7049CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
      The burst demand of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) for energy storage leads to an increasing prodn. of LIBs. The huge amt. of electrode scraps produced during the industrial prodn. cannot be overlooked. A sustainable and simple method was developed to regenerate Li(Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3)O2 electrode scraps as new cathodes for LIBs. Three different sepn. processes, including direct calcination, solvent dissoln., and basic soln. dissoln., were applied to obtain the active materials. A heat treatment was used to regenerate the scraps. The effects of sepn. methods and heat treatment temps. were systematically studied. The results show that the scraps regenerated with solvent dissoln. and heat treatment at 800° deliver the highest reversible discharge capacities of 150.2 mAh/g at 0.2C after 100 cycles with capacity retention of 95.1%, which is comparable with com. Li(Ni1/3Co1/3Mn1/3)O2 cathodes. When cycled at 1C, a highly reversible discharge capacity of 128.1 mAh/g can be obtained after 200 cycles. By contrast, scraps regenerated through a direct calcination method at 600° exhibit the best cycling performances, with the highest capacity retention of 96.7% after 100 cycles at 0.2C and 90.5% after 200 cycles at 1C. By characterizations of XRD, SEM, XPS, and particle size distribution anal., the improved electrochem. performances of regenerated cathodes can be attributed to the uniform particle morphol. and newly formed protective LiF composite. The simple and green regeneration process provides a novel perspective of recycling scraps from industrial prodn. of LIBs.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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      Global Demand for Lithium Batteries are Expected to Grow. https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-demand-for-lithium-batteries-are-expected-to-grow-678280603.html.
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      Bad News for Batteries: Cobalt and Lithium Supplies ‘Critical’ by 2050. https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2018/03/bad-news-for-batteries-cobalt-and-lithium-supplies-critical-by-2050/.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
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      Global Nickel Demand Could More than Double by 2050 Due to the Rise in Popularity of Electric Vehicles. http://minexforum.com/en/global-nickel-demand-could-more-than-double-by-2050-due-to-the-rise-in-popularity-of-electric-vehicles/.
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      Lv, W.; Wang, Z.; Cao, H.; Sun, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Sun, Z. A critical review and analysis on the recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2018, 6, 1504– 1521,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03811
      6
      A Critical Review and Analysis on the Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Lv, Weiguang; Wang, Zhonghang; Cao, Hongbin; Sun, Yong; Zhang, Yi; Sun, Zhi
      ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2018), 6 (2), 1504-1521CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
      A review. Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has attracted significant attention in recent years due to the increasing demand for corresponding crit. metals/materials and growing pressure on the environmental impact of solid waste disposal. A range of investigations have been carried out for recycling spent LIBs to obtain either battery materials or individual compds. For the effective recovery of materials to be enhanced, phys. pretreatment is usually applied to obtain different streams of waste materials ensuring efficient sepn. for further processing. Subsequently, a metallurgical process is used to ext. metals or sep. impurities from a specific waste stream so that the recycled materials or compds. can be further prepd. by incorporating principles of materials engineering. In this review, the current status of spent LIB recycling is summarized in light of the whole recycling process, esp. focusing on the hydrometallurgy. In addn. to understanding different hydrometallurgical technologies including acidic leaching, alk. leaching, chem. pptn., and solvent extn., the existing challenges for process optimization during the recycling are critically analyzed. Moreover, the energy consumption of different processes is evaluated and discussed. It is expected that this research could provide a guideline for improving spent LIB recycling, and this topic can be further stimulated for industrial realization.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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      Lithium. http://www.foeeurope.org/sites/default/files/publications/13_factsheet-lithium-gb.pdf.
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      Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Market By Type (NMC, LFP, LMO, Li-TO, NCA, Li-CO ), By Application (Automotive, Power, Marine, Industrial ), Industry Trends, Estimation & Forecast, 2017-2025. https://www.esticastresearch.com/market-reports/lithium-ion-battery-recycling-market.
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      The World of Lithium-Ion Batteries and Battery Recycling. https://www.li-cycle.com/blog.
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      Rothermel, S.; Evertz, M.; Kasnatscheew, J.; Qi, X.; Grutzke, M.; Winter, M.; Nowak, S. Graphite recycling from spent lithium-ion batteries. ChemSusChem 2016, 9, 3473– 3484,  DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201601062
      10
      Graphite Recycling from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries
      Rothermel, Sergej; Evertz, Marco; Kasnatscheew, Johannes; Qi, Xin; Gruetzke, Martin; Winter, Martin; Nowak, Sascha
      ChemSusChem (2016), 9 (24), 3473-3484CODEN: CHEMIZ; ISSN:1864-5631. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      The present work reports on challenges in utilization of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)-an increasingly important aspect assocd. with a significantly rising demand for elec. vehicles (EVs). In this context, the feasibility of anode recycling in combination with three different electrolyte extn. concepts is investigated. The first method is based on a thermal treatment of graphite without electrolyte recovery. The second method addnl. utilizes a subcrit. carbon-dioxide (subcrit. CO2)-assisted electrolyte extn. prior to thermal treatment. And the final investigated approach uses supercrit. carbon dioxide (scCO2) as extractant, subsequently followed by the thermal treatment. It is demonstrated that the best performance of recycled graphite anodes can be achieved when electrolyte extn. is performed using subcrit. CO2. Comparative studies reveal that, in the best case, the electrochem. performance of recycled graphite exceeds the benchmark consisting of a newly synthesized graphite anode. As essential efforts towards electrolyte extn. and cathode recycling have been made in the past, the electrochem. behavior of recycled graphite, demonstrating the best performance, is investigated in combination with a recycled LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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    11. 11
      Li, L.; Fan, E.; Guan, Y.; Zhang, X.; Xue, Q.; Wei, L.; Wu, F.; Chen, R. Sustainable recovery of cathode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries using lactic acid leaching system. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 2017, 5, 5224– 5233,  DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b00571
      11
      Sustainable Recovery of Cathode Materials from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Lactic Acid Leaching System
      Li, Li; Fan, Ersha; Guan, Yibiao; Zhang, Xiaoxiao; Xue, Qing; Wei, Lei; Wu, Feng; Chen, Renjie
      ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering (2017), 5 (6), 5224-5233CODEN: ASCECG; ISSN:2168-0485. (American Chemical Society)
      An environmentally friendly leaching process for recycling valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries is developed. A sol-gel method is utilized to resynthesize LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 from the leachate. Lactic acid is chosen as a leaching and chelating agent. The leaching efficiency is investigated by detg. the contents of metal elements such as Li, Ni, Co, and Mn in the leachate using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. The spent cathode materials for the pretreatment process and the regenerated and freshly synthesized materials are examd. using X-ray diffraction and scanning electronic microscopy. The results show that the leaching efficiencies of Li, Ni, Co, and Mn reached 97.7, 98.2, 98.9, and 98.4%, resp. The optimum conditions are lactic acid concn. of 1.5 mol L-1, solid/liq. ratio of 20 g L-1, leaching temp. of 70 °C, H2O2 content of 0.5 vol %, and reaction time of 20 min. The leaching kinetics of cathode scrap in lactic acid fit well to the Avrami equation. Electrochem. anal. indicate that the regenerated LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathode materials deliver a highly reversible discharge capacity, 138.2 mA h g-1, at 0.5 C after 100 cycles, with a capacity retention of 96%, comparable to those of freshly synthesized LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 cathodes.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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    12. 12
      Zou, H.; Gratz, E.; Apelian, D.; Wang, Y. A novel method to recycle mixed cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. Green Chem. 2013, 15, 1183– 1191,  DOI: 10.1039/c3gc40182k
      12
      A novel method to recycle mixed cathode materials for lithium ion batteries
      Zou, Haiyang; Gratz, Eric; Apelian, Diran; Wang, Yan
      Green Chemistry (2013), 15 (5), 1183-1191CODEN: GRCHFJ; ISSN:1463-9262. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      The rechargeable Li ion (Li-ion) battery market was $11.8 billion in 2011 and is expected to increase to $50 billion by 2020. With developments in consumer electronics as well as hybrid and elec. vehicles, Li-ion batteries demand will continue to increase. However, Li-ion batteries are not widely recycled because currently it is not economically justifiable (in contrast, at present >97% Pb-acid batteries are recycled). So far, no com. methods are available to recycle Li-ion batteries with different cathode chemistries economically and efficiently. Considering the limited resources, environmental impact, and national security, Li-ion batteries must be recycled. A new low temp. methodol. with high efficiency is proposed to recycle Li-ion batteries economically and thus com. feasible regardless of cathode chem. The sepn. and synthesis of cathode materials (the most valuable material in Li-ion batteries) from the recycled components are the main focus of this study. The developed recycling process is practical with high recovery efficiencies, and that it is viable for com. adoption.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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    13. 13
      Yang, Y.; Song, S.; Jiang, F.; Zhou, J.; Sun, W. Short process for regenerating Mn-rich cathode material with high voltage from mixed-type spent cathode materials via a facile approach. J. Cleaner Prod. 2018, 186, 123– 130,  DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.147
      13
      Short process for regenerating Mn-rich cathode material with high voltage from mixed-type spent cathode materials via a facile approach
      Yang, Yue; Song, Shaole; Jiang, Feng; Zhou, Jiahui; Sun, Wei
      Journal of Cleaner Production (2018), 186 (), 123-130CODEN: JCROE8; ISSN:0959-6526. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Recovering metal values from spent Lithium ion batteries (LIBs) enjoys a great significance in environmental protection and sustainable development of resources. But the application of mixed-type cathode materials in PHEV and EV with high content of manganese brings new challenges for spent LIBs recycling. In this study, a facile approach for directly regenerating Mn-rich cathode material from mixed-type spent cathode materials was developed. The spent cathode materials were firstly tested by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and then leached in H2SO4+H2O2 system. The spherical Mn-rich cathode material was directly regenerated from leaching liquor through a facile co-pptn. method followed by solid-phase sintering. The regenerative cathode material was measured by XRD, scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy system (EDXS), inductively coupled plasma at. emission spectrometry (ICP), laser particle size analyzer and electrochem. tests. According to the results, pure cathode material exhibits a uniform particle size distribution and a layered structure. Furthermore, the regenerative cathode material with high working voltage (>4.5 V) possesses excellent discharge capacity. Cleaner prodn. anal. indicates that whole process can effectively reduce waste residue and water, and helps turn the solid waste into resource. Meanwhile, compared to traditional methods, the proposed process can simplify the recovery process, obtain high value added Mn-rich cathode material and maximize the recovery of manganese in the mixed-type spent cathode materials.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
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      Chen, J.; Li, Q.; Song, J.; Song, D.; Zhang, L.; Shi, X. Environmentally friendly recycling and effective repairing of cathode powders from spent LiFePO4 batteries. Green Chem. 2016, 18, 2500– 2506,  DOI: 10.1039/C5GC02650D
      14
      Environmentally friendly recycling and effective repairing of cathode powders from spent LiFePO4 batteries
      Chen, Jiangping; Li, Qingwen; Song, Jishun; Song, Dawei; Zhang, Lianqi; Shi, Xianxing
      Green Chemistry (2016), 18 (8), 2500-2506CODEN: GRCHFJ; ISSN:1463-9262. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Extensive use of LiFePO4 batteries will afford a lot of spent LiFePO4 batteries, which cannot be recycled properly by using traditional processes at present. If these spent LiFePO4 batteries are thrown away without recycling properly, it is not only a severe waste of valuable resources, but also leads to serious environmental pollution. In this paper, a completely green recycling process and a small scale model line are developed to recycle cathode powders from spent LiFePO4 batteries for the first time. Parts of LiFePO4 host particles in spent LiFePO4 batteries decomp. to FePO4, Fe2O3, P2O5 and Li3PO4 after numerous charge-discharge cycles, resulting in poor electrochem. performance of freshly recycled cathode powders for Li-ion batteries. To repair decompd. LiFePO4 host particles, recycled cathode powders are heat-treated at different temps. After heat-treatment at high temps., esp. at 650°, cathode powders are effectively recycled and can be reused for Li-ion batteries.
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    15. 15
      The Rise of Electric Cars Could Leave Us with a Big Battery Waste Problem. https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/2017/aug/10/electric-cars-big-battery-waste-problem-lithium-recycling.
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      With 220mn Users, India is Now World’s Second-Biggest Smartphone Market.https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/business/with-220mn-users-india-is-now-worlds-secondbiggest-smartphone-market/article8186543.ece.
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      37 Mobile Manufacturing Plants Set Up in India in Last Year: Prasad. https://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/37-mobile-manufacturing-plants-set-up-in-india-in-last-year-prasad-1451588.
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