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ArticleAugust 8, 2023

Cooling of a PVT System Using an Underground Heat Exchanger: An Experimental Study
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Saif H. Majeed
Saif H. Majeed
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Amar S. Abdul-Zahra
Amar S. Abdul-Zahra
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Dheya G. Mutasher
Dheya G. Mutasher
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Hayder A. Dhahd
Hayder A. Dhahd
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Mohammed A. Fayad
Mohammed A. Fayad
Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Ali H. A. Al-Waeli
Ali H. A. Al-Waeli
Engineering Department, American University of Iraq, Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Sulaimani 46001, Iraq
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Hussein A. Kazem
Hussein A. Kazem
Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, P.O. Box 44, Sohar PCI 311, Oman
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Miqdam T. Chaichan
Miqdam T. Chaichan
Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
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Ahmed A. Al-Amiery*
Ahmed A. Al-Amiery
Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Bangi 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
*Email: [email protected], [email protected]
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https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1033-4904
Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak
Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Bangi 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
More by Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1051-3120

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ACS Omega

Cite this: ACS Omega 2023, 8, 33, 29926–29938

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https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c07900

Published August 8, 2023

CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 .

Abstract

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In the recent decades, the researchers have been focused on the use of photovoltaic thermal (PVT) systems that provide the best performance and cooling for the photovoltaic panels. In this study, a PVT system consisting of a monocrystalline PV panel and a spiral heat exchanger was connected to an underground heat exchanger that is buried at a depth of 4 m below the surface of the earth. The procedure of the current study can be considered the first of its kind in the Middle East and North Africa region (based on the researchers’ knowledge). The study was carried out on agricultural land in Baghdad-Iraq during months of July and August-2022, which are considered the harshest weather conditions for this city. The heat exchanger consists of a copper tube with a length of 21 m and formed in the shape of 3U, and it was buried in the earth and connected with a PVT system. The results of the study showed that the site chosen to bury the heat exchanger (4 m deep) has a stable soil temperature at 22.5 °C. From various volumetric flow rates, a flow rate of 0.18 l/s was selected which is considered the highest flow rate that can show vibration in the PVT system which may harm the system. The practical measurements showed that the largest difference in the surface temperatures of standalone PV and PVT was around 20 °C in favor of the latter. The electrical efficiency of the studied PVT system also increased to outperform the standalone PV system by 127.3%. By comparing the results of the current study with studies of water-cooled PVT systems from the literature, it is clear that the proposed system is feasible and has an acceptable efficiency in such harsh weather conditions tested during the experiment.

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Subjects

1. Introduction

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The excessive consumption of fossil fuels in power plants and transportation is linked to the increase of global warming, melting of large parts of the Arctic and Antarctic, which results in a change in the global climate. Recently, the cold northern countries began to feel the heat of the weather; the snow and rain are also decreased. In contrast, the opposite is in the hot southern countries, where the temperatures have started to decrease in many spots with severe rains causing massive floods, although previously they were suffering from drought. (1) Around 88% of human activities depending on the energy generated from burning fossil fuels, which emits dangerous pollutants to the ground and environment. Among these pollutants, the high concentration of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere is linked to the increase of global warming, which is expected to lead to a catastrophic climate change. (2)

Therefore, the global trend today is to move forward toward the development of alternative energy sources. Solar energy has emerged as one of the fastest growing energy sources in the production of both section electrical energy and thermal energy. It can be considered as a potential alternative that addresses the degradation of energy sources and the problem of climate change. The attention of decision makers has been focused on photovoltaic power plants, and global projects for these plants around the world are increasing. (3) These systems generate 14–20% efficiency and operate with clean energy (free fuel), so they work without pollution. Basically, a system is a group of single modules in parallel and in series. Some environmental factors such as air temperature, sunlight, and dust are contributing in decreasing the module’s electrical efficiency. (4) The best areas for installing and operating PV systems are desert areas that do not affect the vegetation cover. However, high temperatures and solar radiation intensity of desert areas are contributing to the decrease in the power generated by PV systems. It is reported that photovoltaic cells absorb the greater part of the solar radiation intensity as heat, which in turn increases their temperature and results in a reduced power yield. (5) During the past 2 decades, the attention of researchers concerned with the impact of cell temperature on its performance has been focused toward new systems consisting of PV modules connected to heat exchangers, commonly referred to as photovoltaic thermal (PVT) systems. These systems can generate electricity and heat together. (6)

A PVT system is an integration of a heat exchanger and a PV module together, where the heat accumulated in the PV panel body is absorbed by the associated collector and dissipated in other applications. In this case, the module cools down and its electrical efficiency improves as well as the heat extracted from it is used as thermal energy. (7) The overall efficiency of such systems is considered high and sometimes reaches more than 90% (not accounting for the difference of energy from─electrical or thermal). The collector used in PVT systems is a heat exchanger whose shape and design depends on the fluid used, (8) water, (9) nanofluids, (10) PCM, (11) or nanofluids and nano-PCM. (12) Hou et al. (2022) (14) also explained that the shape of the flow inside the collector has a key role in determining the enhancement in efficiencies, whether electrical or thermal.

Water is one of the main cooling fluids that has been used for many generations. It has a higher heat capacity than air, which is available and does not cause pollution if it enters the surroundings. Nanofluids differ in their specifications, as they require careful preparations and special care during operation. It must be ensured that they do not leak into the surroundings due to their high cost and the possibility of causing pollution to soil. (14) Nanofluids have higher thermal conductivity than water and have a much more expensive cost than water as well. Therefore, choosing water as a cooling fluid for PVT systems is the better option presently until other fluids are available that has heat storage capacity comparable to water with high conductivity and a lower price. (15)

The availability of water is a problem in the desert lands due to the absence of this source. If water is used in PVT systems, they must be preserved during the cooling process. In addition, the use of cooling towers will cause a waste in both energy and water. Therefore, water cooling by using the shallow near-ground layer can be considered a good way to cool the desert PVT systems and keep an efficient heat transfer process between the cooling water and the soil. (16) Shallow layers of soil maintain stable temperatures throughout the year. The temperature of this layer is usually lower than the summer air temperature and higher than the winter temperature. (17) The fluctuation of the earth’s temperature is limited with the change of the seasons, and this fluctuation decreases with the increase in the depth of the layer under the surface of the earth. (18) The deeper layers away from the surface of the earth have higher temperatures, as the soil’s temperature at depths from 2 to 3 km with temperature reaches to 25 °C, and reaches to 50 °C at depths greater than 3 km. (19)

The shallow soil temperature is at lower temperatures than the surrounding during summer. This phenomenon increased the chance of using this feature to cool PVT systems by taking advantage of the difference in the temperature. A system consisting of three main parts: PV module with a heat collector and a geothermal heat exchanger (GHE) can make up an excellent PVT system. The difference in temperature will be sufficient to cool the water by dissipating the generated and unwanted heat to the soil. (20) In these systems, the heat accumulated in the body of the PV module is transferred to the water in the heat exchanger that located in its back. Then, this heat is transmitted from the water that circulates inside the tube to the surrounding soil. When adopting such systems, soil properties (components, location, moisture content, and depth) have an important role in determining the PV system thermal performance. (21,22)

The layers of the earth can be divided according to the depth of the soil, the shallower layers are at depths of less than 200 meters, while the deeper layers with a depth of 200 meters which considered medium depth layers. In PVT systems using shallow soil layers, special attention should be paid to the thermophysical properties of the soil being used. The most important of these properties are the soil’s heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusion, water content, and soil permeability. (23) Furthermore, these properties are formed depending on the soil material origin, the climate of the region, and the soil moisture. (24) Finding these parameters greatly affects the design of geothermal energy pumps as well as soil-cooled PVT systems. The continuous circulation of hot water in the buried pipes inside the soil will cause a clear change in its temperature, especially those adjacent to the pipe, which negatively affects the efficiency of heat transfer and the thermal performance of the buried pipe. (25,26) When using shallow soils for cooling PVT systems, the working fluid must be non-toxic to the soil when it is drained. Therefore, pure water is usually used as a cooling fluid in these systems. (27,28) Parameters such as the heat exchanger inlet temperature and coolant flow rate play an influential role in the overall thermal performance of the system. (29,30)

It is reported that the arrangement of the buried pipes in the soil, the type of material of these pipes, and the geometry of their distribution are the common important factors that affect the performance of underground PVT systems. (31,32) The pipe material and their type selection depends on the type of soil in which the pipes are buried (components and structure). Javadi et al. (28) investigated the thermal GHE system performance focusing on heat flow, thermal resistance, pressure drop, outlet temperature, and heat transfer coefficient. Many researchers found that GHE performance is affected by many factors such as the depth of the backfill, the coolant used, material of the pipes used, and the geometry of the buried pipes. In previous studies (33) and, (34) they confirmed that the soil thermal conductivity is the most important influence in these systems.

The material of buried pipes should be of high specifications such as durability to withstand the pressure of the soil mass and with a long lifespan, as it cannot be filled and replaced every time. Besides, these tubes should also have good thermal conductivity. (35) It is mentioned that there are many types of pipe materials used in the literature. It has been experimented with the use of steel pipes, (36−38) copper, (25,39) and ground pipes in GHE made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). (40−44) As stated in prior works, (45−47) they used plastic tubes in their experiments, while (48,49) used polyethylene (PE). The last pipe (PE pipe) consists of (60%) polybutylene, then steel (14%) and PVC (8%), and it is one of the most widely used pipes in GHE systems. (41−45) HDPE pipes are currently being adopted in GHEs applications due to their high corrosion resistance despite their low thermal conductivity.

Buried tubes in GHE systems are arranged in two positions, horizontal and vertical. The choice of either of these two modes depends on the conditions of the site on which the station will be located (geography of the site, soil type, and area size). When working in a geothermal system for shallow soil, horizontal pipes are usually deployed at a depth of 1–2 meters below the surface of the earth, and this option is the least expensive to dig and easier to organize and distribute the pipes. (46−49) However, in such systems, there is a need to occupy large areas of land to create better conditions for heat transfer which improves the thermal performance of GHE. (50) When working in a vertical geothermal system, the pipes are buried vertically deep in the soil (sometimes up to 2000 meters) in depths ranging from 50 to 200 meters. (29,51) Selecting this type of system provides better thermal performance when compared with previous methods which require a small land area. However, it is important here to take into account the conditions of the local geological structure, arrangement, and burial of the pipe during work.

The measurements and geometry of the used tube (buried) has a vital role in the system thermal performance. These parameters include the diameter and total length of the pipe, its geometry (flat or helical), the diameter of the solenoid, and the distance between the centers of the coil. (52−55) Also, when groundwater leaks, it causes a form of acceleration in the disposal of accumulated heat around the pipe, and this depends on the homogeneity of the earth surface and the aquifer containing water. (56)

To assess the environmental performance of an earth water heat exchanger PVT system, Choudhary et al. (57) used the Umberto NXT program. From the life cycle assessment, the authors found out that the proposed system consumed more energy during the manufacturing and installation stages. Moreover, the environmental impacts of this system were enormous compared to the regular PV system. On the other hand, the studied system achieved better electrical efficiency than the usual PV system. The earth GHE use with large PVT plants is better in terms of energy production and environmental preservation in comparison with conventional PV plants.

Ruoping et al. (58) conducted a numerical simulation to study a geothermal heat pump (GSHP) attached to a PVT system. Simulation outcomes revealed that the studied system maintained the PV panel temperature at relatively low temperatures with higher electrical efficiency of the studied PVT system in comparison with conventional PV system. The study found a gradual increase in the average soil temperature, after running the system for a long time, ranging from 0.12 to 0.26 °C, annually. Sommerfeldt and Madani (59) studied the combination possibility of using two systems from PVT system connected to a GSHP. The main purpose of this study is to arrive at a system that can provide heating and cooling while generating electricity for sustainable buildings. The current study presented several designs for the proposed system to create an acceptable balance between performance and cost in Sweden.

From the previous review, it is clear that both the ground source heat pump and PVT systems face design and cost challenges, and therefore both have advantages and disadvantages. Combining these two systems in a hybrid cooling PVT system can improve its electrical efficiency, especially in areas with severe weather. In areas with high temperatures and solar radiation intensity, energy must be spent to cool the cooling fluid leaving the PVT system, especially if it cannot be disposed of, as in hot areas or when using high-cost nanofluids. Although there are many studies on PVT systems, very few of them link the cooling of these systems to underground heat exchangers (UHEs). In this study, the aim is to test the practical capabilities of hybrid PVT-UHE technology in very harsh weather conditions in the summer of Baghdad city, Iraq. According to the recent and previous studies, such a study has not been conducted practically or theoretically in the Middle East. There are many difficulties that impede the implementation of such an idea in the city of Baghdad. For example, land prices are very expensive in the capital, Baghdad. Soil properties and quality, which contribute to the sustainability of the system and the perpetuation of a currency for all seasons of the year, must be determined with extreme precision. Also, the drilling and burial operations of the underground system require accuracy in performance and great effort in installing measurement sensors. The preparations for the optimal selection and overcoming these difficulties continued for nearly a year. It should be noted that the authors were unable to find studies similar to such a system to take advantage of the methods used to overcome the difficulties. However, in the literature a large number of studies that used UGE in heating and cooling applications, which were of great help in planning, designing, and supervising the excavation and burial operations for the underground part of the system without losses or errors.

The results of the current study are expected to show promising options in improving the electrical output of PVT systems in regions with harsh weather and the potential to waste the coolant is non-existent with no need for heat absorbed from PV plates. This study will provide a new perspective in the field of research and development for access to PVT-GSHP plants in the desert regions of the Middle East and North Africa.

2. Experimental Setup

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2.1. Study Area

Practical experiments were carried out in Baghdad, which is the capital of Iraq. The administrative area of Baghdad Governorate is 5,159 km² (between latitudes 33°10′-33°29′ N and longitudes 44°09′-44°33′ E) with about 24% of the population of Iraq inhabiting the city of Baghdad, making it one of the most densely capitals of the Middle East after Cairo. (60) The climate of Iraq in general is dry and hot in the summer season (the average maximum temperature during this season is 45 °C in the shade) and mild in winter (the average temperature in this season is 14 °C). Approximately, the summer season lasts for about 6 months, while the other three seasons share the remaining 6. In the past 20 years, the country has been subjected to severe drought and a dearth of rainfall, which has significantly increased desertification. (61) This situation made the city prone to many frequent dust storms and the rise of dust continued throughout the years. (62)

Baghdad Governorate is in the middle of the alluvial flood plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This region also receives high solar radiation intensity, like all regions close to the sun belt. The average intensity of solar radiation ranges from its lowest value 286 W/m² (at noon) in winter to its highest value of 890 W/m² in summer. The average annual sunshine for the city of Baghdad is 8.7 h/day. The average annual relative humidity and wind speed are around 44.3% and 3.1 m/s, respectively.

The study area is characterized by the availability of groundwater close to the surface of the earth. The people in Baghdad city have used groundwater since ancient times to irrigate crops and drank people and livestock. This area is known as a sedimentary plain, its groundwater is a reservoir close to the surface of the earth at depths of less than 20 m only. Chaichan et al. (63) tested the employment of groundwater with a low salt content in cooling PVT systems. Currently, a growing governmental and popular movement is tending toward photovoltaic power plants as an alternative to fossil fuel power plants. Also, many citizens prefer to replace the local generators with standalone PV systems on the roofs of houses. However, many decision makers and citizens raise fears that PV modules will be affected by high solar radiation and high temperatures, which are continuous most days of the year. (60,64)

2.2. Underground Heat Exchanger Characterizations

In this practical research, the results of Majeed et al. (65) study were used in determining the time and cost of digging and installing an UHE and then burying it. An area of agricultural land was chosen in the city of Baghdad to install and establish the GHE. The area of practical digging was 30 m² (6 × 5) m², while the depth of drilling was 4 m. The drilling depth was chosen based on Majeed et al. (65) results. Figure 1 illustrates all the drilling process during the experiments. This study proved that at a depth of 4 m was possible to reach a relatively constant ground temperature, which is suitable for efficient heat flow from the PVT system to the soil throughout the year. The UHE was chosen in the form of 3U, with a total length of 22.25 m, inner diameter of 13.41 mm, outside dia. of 15.87 mm, and thermal conductivity of 386 W/m K. It was installed on the floor of the pit (4 m deep) after installing the heat exchangers on it, as Figure 1b showcases. Thermocouples (types K) were used to measure the temperatures. Figure 1c illustrates the thermocouples distribution along the heat exchanger pipes. The pipe material was high thermal conductivity copper tube in this study.

Figure 1. (a) Drilling to the required depth in the study area; (b) the heat exchanger used in test photo; and (c) thermocouple distribution on the UHE.

2.3. PVT System Description

In this study, two PLM-100/12 monocrystalline PV modules oriented at a tilt angle of 33° to the south direction were used in experimental tests. For the modules used, the maximum generated current, voltage, and power are 5.29 A, 19.8 V, and 100 W, respectively. Several thermocouples, (K-type), (with an uncertainty of ±0.87) were fixed to the surface and back of the PV panels. One of the modules was used as a standalone PV system, while the other module back was used to weld a spiral type heat exchanger after painting the welding area with silicone oil to prevent the presence of air gaps between the exchanger and the PV panel. This type of heat exchanger was selected according to the Kazem et al. (66) results.

The tube coming out of the spiral exchanger is connected to a water pump whose cooling water flow is controlled manually by controlling the volumetric flow rate of water entering and leaving the GHE. The flow rate was measured by a US Hunter type sensor with a range of 0.53–80 l/min and an uncertainty of 0.88%. Thermocouples were installed in the HE inlet and outlet to the coil exchanger. Both RHT2 and AT2 are used to measure relative humidity (0–100% RH) with an uncertainty of ±1.2% RH and air temperature (−20 to +80 °C) with an uncertainty of ±1.05 °C, respectively. A BF5 solar sensor was used to measure the intensity of solar radiation due to its capabilities in measuring global and diffuse solar radiation for the radiation intensity range from 0 to 1250 W/m² and with an uncertainty of ±0.47. Figure 2a shows a picture of the spiral flow heat exchanger at the back of the PVT system, and Figure 2b illustrates the measurements of the heat exchanger used. A Data Acquisition was used to record multiple measurements and record them on a laptop.

Figure 2. Spiral flow heat exchanger design and configurations; (a) exchanger manufacturing process and (b) exchanger dimensions.

2.4. Pump Selection and Hydraulic Measures

In this study, the capacity and type of the pump were determined before selecting based on hydraulic measurements. In these measurements, many variables (that must be dealt with during the tests) are determined and measured such as pump head, pump efficiency, suction pressure, working hours per day, volume of water required per day, and so forth. The required pumping power was evaluated using the following Al-Simiran (67) equation

P_{p u m p} = \frac{ρ g (h + Δ H) Q}{η_{p} \cdot η_{e}} (k W)

(1)

Desired hydraulic energy to operate the study system (cooling water circulation) was calculated adopting the following equation

E_{h} = η_{s} E_{P V} = ρ g h V η_{s}

(2)

When using a photovoltaic array to equip the pump with the necessary electrical power, the array productivity was calculated using the Kazem et al. equation (68)

E_{P V} = A_{P V} \cdot G_{T} \cdot η_{m o d u l e} \cdot η_{i n v} \cdot η_{w i r e} (k W)

(3)

To calculate the area of the required PV arrays, the equation was used

A_{P V} = \frac{ρ g h V}{G_{T} \cdot η_{P V} \cdot η_{S}} (m^{2})

(4)

The total power required to be supplied by the PV array to operate the pump was also calculated by the following equation

P_{P V} = \frac{E_{h}}{G_{T} \cdot F \cdot E} (k W)

(5)

The system efficiency

η_{s y s t e m} = \frac{P_{h}}{P_{P V}} = \frac{ρ g h V}{G_{T} A_{P V}} (%)

(6)

By substitution in eq 6, the required pumping power was 1.97 kW h/day. Therefore, the pump required for the experiments must be 140 W. According to eq 5, the required PV array power is 0.6 kW which can be supplied by two PV panels (0.3 kW) connected in series. This pump will work to draw water from the heat exchanger buried at 4 m depth, a constant water level of 3 m, and a dynamic water level of 3.35 m. The circulated water is 4.0 m³/h with a pumping head of 9 m.

2.5. Data Reduction

The rate of heat transfer per unit length of the buried heat exchanger is calculated by the following Holman equation (69)

\overset{`}{Q} = \frac{Q_{h e a t}}{L}

(7)

The rate of useful collected heat (Qu) from the PVT heat exchanger is calculated according to the Niyas et al. (70) equation

Q_{h e a t} = \dot{m} C_{p} (T_{i n} - T_{o u t})

(8)

The electrical efficiency (η_e)

η_{e} = \frac{P_{m p}}{G \cdot A_{m o d u l e}}

(9)

The PV modules’ maximum power

P_{m p} = V_{m p} I_{m p}

(10)

Exergy analysis has been considered by many researchers as an important method for determining efficient operating strategy or optimal design in many thermal systems. (71) Therefore, adopting the analysis of external energy in evaluating the performance of thermal systems means not neglecting the kinetic changes on the potential energy. Exergy analysis when heat is available helps in understanding the mechanical work resulting from useful heat and shows the level of energy produced (i.e., high or low level). (72,73)

The general exergy balance (74−76)

\sum E_{x_{i n}} - \sum E_{x_{o}} = \sum E_{x_{d}}

(11)

The general exergy balance (74−76)

\sum E_{x_{i n}} - \sum (E_{x_{t h}} + E_{x_{p v}}) = \sum E_{x_{d}}

(12)

The input exergy (74−76)

E_{x_{i n}} = A_{c} N_{c} I [1 - \frac{4}{3} (\frac{T_{a}}{T_{s}} + \frac{1}{3} {(\frac{T_{a}}{T_{s}})}^{4})]

(13)

The thermal exergy (74−76)

E_{x_{t h}} = Q_{u} (1 - \frac{T_{a} + 273}{T_{o} + 273})

(14)

The PV exergy (74−76)

E_{x_{P V}} = η_{c} A_{c} N_{c} I

(15)

The PVT exergy (74−76)

E_{x_{P V T}} = E_{x_{T h}} + E_{x_{P V}}

(16)

The exergy destruction or irreversibility (74−76)

E_{x_{d}} = T_{a} S_{g e n}

(17)

The exergy efficiency (74−76)

η_{e x} = 1 - \frac{E_{x_{d}}}{E_{x_{i n}}}

(18)

2.6. Uncertainty Analysis

Measurements’ errors occur in the scales deviate from the standard readings, which negatively affects the accuracy of the results in practical experiments. Hence, the importance of focusing (before the start of the experiments) on calibrating the devices and ensuring the validity of their practical measurements, which increases the reliability of the measurements and the validity of the results obtained. The readings’ deviations in the scales resulting from several factors represent the uncertainty affecting the accuracy of the measurement. The difference between the concepts of measurement accuracy and uncertainty must be taken into account. In addition, there are random errors such as human error resulting from the experience and credibility of the examiner himself. Sometimes exaggerated data appear, and in such cases, it is expressed in uncertainty resulting from obvious errors, and the causative factor must be identified and eliminated immediately and the measurements should be re-established. Here, it is important to mention that data that do not meet expectations should not be discarded as bad data. However, when exaggerated or unacceptable measurements are obtained under the same condition and the same operating conditions, the measuring devices and measurement method must be checked and re-examined and measured again. Repeatability (repeating experiments several times not less than three) is a very important procedure in practical experiments. It is possible, through repeatability, to neutralize deviation and measurement error to a high degree. Holman [69] concentrated on the importance of preventing human bias from interfering with practical measurements by misusing the concept of “should be”.

In the current experiments, the measuring devices used were calibrated and their deviation from the standard values was determined. In the second step, to reach the degree of uncertainty in the results, the following Klein and McClintock (1953) equation was applied

W_{R} = {[{(\frac{\partial R}{{\partial x}_{1}} w_{1})}^{2} + {(\frac{\partial R}{{\partial x}_{2}} w_{2})}^{2} + ... + {(\frac{\partial R}{{\partial x}_{n}} w_{n})}^{2}]}^{0.5}

(19)

WR is the results’ total uncertainty, the independent variable for a given function (x1, x2, ..., xn) is represented by R, and the independent variables uncertainties are represented by (w1, w2, ..., wn). Table 1 includes the devices used in the experiments measurements and its uncertainties.

Table 1. Measuring Devices (Used in This Study) Accuracies and Uncertainties

no.	measurement	device	range	accuracy	uncertainty (%)
1	thermocouples type K		–50 to 150	±2 °C	±0.87
2	flow meter	US hunter	0.53–80 l/min	±0.05 l/min	±0.88
3	relative humidity	RHT2	0–100%	±1.7 RH	±1.2
4	air temperature	AT2	–20 °C to +80 °C	±2 °C	±1.05
5	solar radiation intensity	BF5 solar sensor	0 to 1250 W/m²	±3 W/m²	±0.47
6	multimeter (voltage)	AstroAI	0–500 V	±2 V	±0.6
7	multimeter (current)	AstroAI	0–10 Amp	±1.3 amp	±0.73

From Table 1, it is clear that the measuring equipment used in the tests has a geometrically acceptable degree of uncertainty, which is less than 3%. To ensure repeatability, the measurements were repeated for each test at least three times and their arithmetic mean was taken.

2.7. Test Procedure

The area chosen for UHE burial adopted Majeed et al. (65) experiments to ensure the optimum conditions for the tests. Experiments were installed in an agricultural land in Baghdad city. The site’s soil has a moisture content, which aids in accelerating the process of transferring and dissipating heat from the buried exchanger. The depth was chosen after verifying the temperature of the earth’s layers and the validity of this layer to provide a large difference in temperature to accelerate heat transfer. Although the thermal conductivity of water is not high, however, if the temperature difference is large, the heat flow will be greater. Several mass flow rates of circulating water (0.1388, 0.1527, 0.1655, and 0.18) l/s were tested to reach the optimum thermal rate. The mass flow rate did not exceed 0.18 l/s because of the appearance of high vibrations in the PVT system. To prevent the PVT system form damage, experiments were carried out up to this rate (0.18 l/s). Practical experiments were carried out in July and August 2022. These 2 months are considered to be the hottest months of the year with temperatures (exceeding 60 °C on the day time) and solar radiation (the maximum solar radiation intensity measured in the tests was 1216 W/m² at 8/8/2022). In Iraq, dust rises in these 2 months; therefore, the solar modules are cleaned daily before the tests to ensure no dust deposition on the system according to the results of Chaichan and Kazem. (64) The practical measurements start at 7 AM in the morning and end at sunset, while the UHE temperatures are recorded and saved throughout the day.

3. Results and Discussion

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In the cold countries of the world, it is important to utilize the heat absorbed from the PV modules and retain it for use in other applications. However, in countries with very high ambient temperatures, the use of this heat is limited. It is necessary to get rid of this heat to achieve the best performance of PVT systems. This concept should be applied in Iraq (especially the central and southern cities, including Baghdad), which are characterized by high radiation intensity and high temperatures in summer. Figure 3 shows the measured values of the ambient temperatures are high and the solar radiation intensity is very high during the experiments period. The figure indicates that the average air temperature (for the period from 7 AM to 6 PM) was 43.73 °C, while the average radiation intensity (for the same pre-mentioned period) was 579.4 W/m². During the experimental period, the maximum achieved average ambient temperature was 49.22 °C, which was measured at 1:45 PM. Also, the maximum average radiation intensity measured was 833 W/m² which was measured in the time between 1:50 PM and 1:55 PM.

Figure 3. Tests average climatic conditions (ambient temperature and irradiance) during tests period.

It was noted that the temperature of the soil changes as the measurements go deeper. It is high on the surface due to direct exposure to sunlight. Soil temperature goes down as the drilling is done in depth. Figure 4 shows the average soil temperatures measured during the study’s 2 months. The surface temperatures of the study area were higher during the August by about 4 °C in comparison with July. This is normal, as the solar radiation intensity in August is higher than that of July. The average measured temperature reduced as the penetration takes place, reaching a temperature of 22.5 °C at a depth of 4 m below the surface of the earth. The difference between July and August measurements is present at other depths but disappears at this depth. This means that the effect of surface temperature does not affect it; thus, this depth selection for installing the UHE was appropriate. The results of the study are completely agreement with those of Majeed et al. (65)

Figure 4. Average soil temperature gradient in the study area during the tests.

Figure 5 shows the effect of water flow rate on its temperatures in the underground exchanger as measured by thermocouples distributed along the exchanger tube. At point 1, the water temperature is approximately equal and less than the water temperature coming from the PVT system due to the loss of a large part of the heat along the pipe (4 m depth). The higher the water volumetric flow rate, the lower its temperature at the end of UHE (points 8 and 9). The lowest temperature reached by the water at point 9 was 32 °C at 0.18 l/s flow rate; meanwhile, the water temperature at point 1 was 62 °C for the same flow rate.

Figure 5. Average temperatures distributed over sensors during morning operation.

This result shows the enormous potential of the soil to be a heat sink. The water temperature can be further reduced by increasing the flow rate that was determined (in recent study) to preserve the PVT system from vibrating. It is also possible to reach a water temperature equal to the temperature of the soil (22.5 °C) by increasing the length of the underground exchanger by several more meters. The main determinant of this increase is cost.

Figure 6 shows a summary of the different temperatures of the studied PVT system (above the earth’s surface). It is observed that the maximum average air temperature (measured in the shade) was 48 °C, which is very far from the measured PV panel’s surface temperatures. The surface of the standalone PV is completely exposed to solar radiation and the surrounding air which is much hotter than the ambient temperature due to exposure to the high solar radiation, which is an additional effect. The highest average surface temperature of PV reached 78 °C at 2 PM. The efficient cooling process causes a decrease of about 20 °C, bringing the average PV panel surface temperature of a PVT system to 58 °C at the same time. The Tout-Tin curve gives a direct indication of the heat transfer efficiency, as the difference was increased with the increase in the PVT system surface temperature, and the maximum average difference measured is at the highest temperatures of the PV surface. Therefore, higher PV module’s temperature contributes to a more efficient cooling process, bringing the difference between the temperature of the inlet and outlet water at 2 PM to 22 °C. It is clear from Figure 6 that the measured T_Win levels are low. This difference improves the heat transfer and enhances the cooling process.

Figure 6. Average distribution of measured temperatures of the PVT system during the tests.

After sunset: PV panels stop generating electricity and the circulation of cooling water in the PVT system was also stopped. Figure 7 shows the process of heat dissipated in water (in buried pipes) for the period from 7 PM to 6 AM of the next day. During this period, heat is transferred by natural convection through water and from it to the tube wall and soil by thermal conduction. This process could be slow, but the length of time is sufficient to reach a thermal equilibrium between the exchanger and the soil. To summarize the findings from this study, the comparison was made in this figure between the average temperatures at points 1 and 9, which represent the first point of water entry and the last measurement point before it transfers to the earth surface. The measured readings show that the time it took for this process was sufficient for the water to reach the soil temperature. However, when considering a larger system with more panels, here it is better to forcibly circulate water to cool the system after the above-ground PVT systems stop. Consideration should also be given to measuring the rate of soil heat dissipation, which directly depends on its thermal conductivity.

Figure 7. Average temperatures distributed over sensors during night.

The thermal, electrical, and overall efficiencies are usually calculated when studding PVT systems (Figure 8). Although in the current system, the thermal efficiency resulted from heat extracted from the PV panel was not utilized in any application but dissipated by the UHE. Thermal efficiency was calculated assuming the temperature of the water leaving the system for comparison purposes only. The standalone PV system electrical efficiency is very low in comparison with PVT system ones. Interestingly, this result explains the significant deterioration in the productivity of standalone PV module (5.2%) and insures the need for obtaining adequate cooling to recover some of their performance losses. It can be noticed that the electrical efficiency improved by increasing the flow rate of water in the PVT system, reaching its highest values of 11.82% at a flow rate of 0.18 l/s. This means an increase in electrical efficiency of up to 127.3% higher than standalone PV. This high improvement in electrical efficiency cannot be achieved without the participation of the GHE in cooling the circulated water.

Figure 8. Average PVT system’s efficiencies with flow rate variations.

Also, the thermal efficiency was raised by increasing flow rate as well. It is crucial to view the instantaneous electrical and thermal measurements to calculate the total efficiency of the PVT collector in addition to the peak achieved efficiency. However, it is better to evaluate the average efficiency corresponding to different operational parameters. Figure 8 shows the effect of water flow rate on the thermal, electrical, and total efficiency of the studied PVT system. The temperature of the water raised significantly during its passage through the heat exchanger of the PVT system and left the system with high temperatures, as shown in Figure 6. The heat gained by the water from the photovoltaic module was increased with its flow rate increase, which means an increase in the thermal efficiency of the system with a higher flow rate (0.18 l/s). Unfortunately, this efficiency is in fact is a wasted efficiency, as this heat is dissipated and disposed of by the UHE.

Figure 9 shows the exergy variance of the studied PV/T system. The figure represents the effect of the coolant flow rate on the thermal, electrical, and total exergies in the experiments. Tests were carried out at flow rates of 0.1388, 0.1527, 0.1655, and 0.18 l/s. The average obtained thermal exergies were 1.41, 0.67, 1.25, and 1.68%, respectively, compared to the standalone PV thermal exergy, which was 0.375%. Also, the electrical exergy of the PVT was in the range from 2.3 to 3.15% compared to 1.8 for the case of standalone PV module. The obtained results are consistent with the results of refs (77)– (78) (79). The figure also shows the total exergies of the PVT system, which was in the range of 2.97–4.83% compared to the standalone PV, which was 2.175%. This result is close to what was achieved by Nayak and Tiwari (80) who obtained a total exergy of 4% in a hybrid PVT application. The performance of the studied system was better than that tested by Sardarabadi et al., (81) in which PV modules were cooled using multiple nanofluids. The calculated exergies were in the range of 1.77, 1.85, and 2.08%. Hosseinzadeh et al. (82) studied the exergy of a PVT system cooled with nanofluid and a phase change material, and the resulting exergy was in the range of 1.59 and 3.19%. Therefore, the cooling technology (using an underground) heat exchanger is an effective tool that results in an increase in the electrical power produced and a decrease in the energy lost.

Figure 9. Average PVT system’s exergies variations vs studied flow rates.

Table 2 compares the results from current study with results obtained from previous studies published in the literature that employed water to cool PVT systems. This comparison cannot be completely relied upon, as it may not be fair to the included studies because of the different types of PV modules used, weather conditions (radiation and temperature) and the type of exchanger used in the PVT system, as well as the collected heat dissipation method. Previous studies (82,85,86) and (13) had a high radiation intensity of 800 W/m² and more, as in the case of the current study, but the ambient temperatures were clearly lower. From reading the weather conditions of the rest of the studies, it turns out that the harshest natural weather conditions that were studied are in the current study. Also, the electrical efficiency achieved in this study is considered high and suitable despite these harsh atmospheric conditions. Some designs of the current study adopted some distinguished studies in the field of PVT systems and linking them to an appropriate underground cooling system, which is unprecedented in the Middle East and North Africa.

Table 2. Comparison between the Results of Some Literature Studies and the Current Study

		climate conditions
refs	electrical efficiency (%)	max. solar intensity (W/m²)	max. ambient temperature (°C)	cooling fluid	collector type
Gomaa et al. (83)	9	1000	29	Water	Cross-fined channel box
Dubey and Tiwari (84)	9.5	850	38	Water	Flat plate
Ji et al. (85)	9.87	245.6	32.4	Water	Flat-box Al-alloy absorber plate
Chow et al. (86)	11	771	32.1	Water	Aluminum-alloy flat-box
Salem et al. (87)	13	800	35	Water	Aluminum channels
Kazem et al. (13)	9.3	880	38	Water	spiral flow
Shalaby et al. (88)	13	1087	43	Water	Direct flow
Menon et al. (89)	15	900	36	Water	serpentine copper pipes coil
Hasan et al. (90)	13.8	840	45	Water	Flat-box absorber plate
Kazem et al. (91)	10.8	773	37	Water	Web flow
Current study	11.82	833	49.22	Water	Spiral flow

4. Conclusions

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In this study, an UHEr was used to cool the circulating water in a PVT system installed in Baghdad-Iraq. The measurements were made in the most severe climate conditions during summer season (July and August 2022). In the beginning, it was preparing the ground and reaching the appropriate depth for the installation of the UHE and its proper burial. Several measurements were made on the system and it was compared with the performance of the standing PV system. Soil temperatures decreased with greater depth to reach stability at 4 m depth and 22.5 °C. Also, the length of the UHE has a role in reducing the temperatures of the circulating water, as does the water volumetric flow rate. It was found that the best flow rate used to reach the best performance in the study was 0.18 l/s. It can be concluded that the large difference between exit water temperatures of the UHE (entering the PVT system) to increase the system’s panel cooling efficiency. Furthermore, it was found that the standalone PV surface and PVT module’s surface temperature deference was by about 20 °C. From studying the UHE temperatures after sunset, the heat dissipation process during at the night was efficient, as the temperature of the water in it reached a degree equal to the soil temperature. The electrical efficiency of the studied PVT system was higher than the standalone PV by 127.3%. In comparison of the results obtained in this study, which is the first of its kind in Middle East and North Africa, with other studies from the literature, it was observed that the system is feasible and efficient in such harsh weather conditions. In the future, it is suggested that the focus should be on the use of underground pipes with a long operational life. In addition, study the possibility of cooling a system consisting of a large number of PV panels from an engineering and system’s cost point of view.

Author Information

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Corresponding Author
- Ahmed A. Al-Amiery - Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq; Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Bangi 43000, Selangor, Malaysia; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1033-4904; Email: [email protected] [email protected]
Authors
- Saif H. Majeed - Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
- Amar S. Abdul-Zahra - Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
- Dheya G. Mutasher - Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
- Hayder A. Dhahd - Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
- Mohammed A. Fayad - Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
- Ali H. A. Al-Waeli - Engineering Department, American University of Iraq, Sulaimani, Kurdistan Region, Sulaimani 46001, Iraq
- Hussein A. Kazem - Faculty of Engineering, Sohar University, P.O. Box 44, Sohar PCI 311, Oman
- Miqdam T. Chaichan - Energy and Renewable Energies Technology Center, University of Technology─Iraq, Baghdad 10001, Iraq
- Wan Nor Roslam Wan Isahak - Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi, Bangi 43000, Selangor, Malaysia; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1051-3120
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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The authors extend their appreciation to the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Nomenclature

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A_C	collector area (m²)
A_panel	PV area (m²)
E_f	primary energy (%)
$E_{x_{p v}}$	PV exergy (W)
$E_{x_{i n}}$	exergy input (W)
$E_{x_{o}}$	exergy output (W)
$E_{x_{d}}$	exergy destruction (W)
$E_{x_{t h}}$	thermal exergy (W)
$E_{x_{d}}$	PVT exergy (W)
I_s	$s o l a r i r r a d i a n c e (\frac{W}{m^{2}})$
I_mp	maximum power current (A)
ṁ	mass flow rate (kg/s)
N_c	number of cells
P_mp	maximum power output (W)
Q_u	heat gain (W)
T_i	inlet fluid (°C)
T_o	outlet fluid (°C)
V_mp	maximum power voltage (V)
η_th	thermal efficiency (%)
η_e	electrical efficiency of the PV (%)
η_PVT	photovoltaic-thermal efficiency (%)
η_PV	photovoltaic efficiency (%)

References

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Elminshawy, Ahmed; Morad, Kamal; Elminshawy, Nabil A. S.; Elhenawy, Yasser
International Journal of Energy Research (2021), 45 (2), 2959-2979CODEN: IJERDN; ISSN:0363-907X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
In the current study, a newly developed low photovoltaic concentrator (LCPV) equipped with nanofluid-based cooling channels, directly contacting the rare LCPV, was examd. in detail. Nanofluid acts as a coolant that flowing over the back of LCPV to maintain its optimal operating temp. with the best overall performance. The coolants used are water and aluminum oxide (Al2O3)/water nanofluids 1%, 2%, and 3% by vol. concn. When circulating a 3%-Al2O3/water nanofluid, the temp. of the LCPV module is dropped by 16.47°C compared to the uncooled module and keeps its operating temp. under 45°C during the exptl. tests. This redn. in the LCPV module temp. with V-trough reflector mirrors in turn increased its performance. The results revealed that the daily elec. output power of the uncooled LCPV module was 1646.85 W, whereas, was 1870.55 W with (13.58%) improvement with the case of water cooling. However, cooling with 3%-Al2O3/water nanofluid, the power output of the LPVC was 2319.88 W with (24.02%) and (40.86%) enhancement compared to pure water cooling and without cooling resp. The rise in the vol. fraction ratio of Al2O3 nanoparticles remarkably decreases the operating temp. of the LCPV module and improves both elec. and thermal efficiency.
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Sornek, K.; Goryl, W.; Figaj, R.; Dąbrowska, G.; Brezdeń, J. Development and tests of the water cooling system dedicated to photovoltaic panels. Energies 2022, 15, 5884, DOI: 10.3390/en15165884
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10
Sangeetha, M.; Manigandan, S.; Chaichan, M. T.; Kumar, V. Progress of MWCNT, Al 2 O 3 , and CuO with water in enhancing the photovoltaic thermal system. Int. J. Energy Res. 2020, 44, 821– 832, DOI: 10.1002/er.4905
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Progress of MWCNT, Al2O3, and CuO with water in enhancing the photovoltaic thermal system
Sangeetha, Manimaran; Manigandan, Sekar; Chaichan, Miqdam T.; Kumar, Vasanth
International Journal of Energy Research (2020), 44 (2), 821-832CODEN: IJERDN; ISSN:0363-907X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
Summary : Hybrid photovoltaic thermal system is an effective method to convert solar energy into elec. and thermal energy. However, its effectiveness is widely affected due to the high temp. of photovoltaic panel, and it can be minimized by employing nanofluids to the PV/T systems. In this research, the effect of various nanoparticles on the PV/T systems was studied exptl. The nanofluids Al2O3, CuO, and multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) were dispersed with water at different vol. fractions of 0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, and 5 (vol%) using ultrasonication process. The effect of nanomaterials on viscosity and d. was classified. All tests were carried out in an outdoor lab. setup for calibrating the PV temps., thermal cond., elec. power, elec. efficiency, and overall efficiency. In addn., the energy analyses were also made to est. the loss of heat owing to the nanofluids. Results show that use of the nanofluid increased the elec. power and elec. efficiency of PV/T compared with water. Furthermore, MWCNT and CuO reduced the cell temp. by 19%. Consequently, the nanofluids MWCNT, Al2O3, and CuO produced the impressive values of 60%, 55%, and 52% increase in an av. elec. efficiency than conventional PV. Particularly, the MWCNT produced superior results compared with other materials. It is evidently clear from the result that the introduction of the nanofluid increases the thermal efficiency without adding any extra energy to the system. Moreover, insertion of Al2O3, CuO, and MWCNT on PV/T system increases the exergy efficiency more than conventional PV module.
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Elminshawy, N.; Elminshawy, A.; Osama, A.; Bassyouni, M.; Arıcı, M. Experimental performance analysis of enhanced concentrated photovoltaic utilizing various mass flow rates of Al2O3-nanofluid: Energy, exergy, and exergoeconomic study. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 2022, 53, 102723, DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102723
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12
Hamzat, A. K.; Sahin, A. Z.; Omisanya, M. I.; Alhems, L. M. Advances in PV and PVT cooling technologies: A review. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 2021, 47, 101360, DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2021.101360
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13
Kazem, H. A.; Al-Waeli, A. H.; Chaichan, M. T.; Al-Waeli, K. H.; Al-Aasam, A. B.; Sopian, K. Evaluation and comparison of different flow configurations PVT systems in Oman: A numerical and experimental investigation. Sol. Energy 2020, 208, 58– 88, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2020.07.078
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14
Hou, G.; Taherian, H.; Song, Y.; Jiang, W.; Chen, D. A systematic review on optimal analysis of horizontal heat exchangers in ground source heat pump systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 154, 111830, DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111830
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15
Liang, B.; Chen, M.; Orooji, Y. Effective parameters on the performance of ground heat exchangers: A review of latest advances. Geothermics 2022, 98, 102283, DOI: 10.1016/j.geothermics.2021.102283
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Mahmoud, M.; Alkhedher, M.; Ramadan, M.; Pullen, K.; Olabi, A. G.; Naher, S. Experimental investigation into the potential of using a shallow ground-cooled condenser in Lebanon. Energy Convers. Manage. 2022, 264, 115729, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115729
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17
Zhou, K.; Mao, J.; Li, Y.; Zhang, H.; Chen, S.; Chen, F. Thermal and economic performance of horizontal ground source heat pump systems with different flowrate control methods. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 53, 104554, DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104554
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18
Soni, S. K.; Pandey, M.; Bartaria, V. N. Ground coupled heat exchangers: a review and applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 47, 83– 92, DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.014
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Renaud, T.; Verdin, P.; Falcone, G. Numerical simulation of a deep borehole heat exchanger in the Krafla geothermal system. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 2019, 143, 118496, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.118496
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20
Song, R.; Cui, M. Single- and multi-objective optimization of a plate-fin heat exchanger with offset strip fins adopting the genetic algorithm. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2019, 159, 113881, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.113881
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21
Cao, D.; Shi, B.; Zhu, H.-H.; Wei, G.; Bektursen, H.; Sun, M. A field study on the application of distributed temperature sensing technology in thermal response tests for borehole heat exchangers. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2019, 78, 3901– 3915, DOI: 10.1007/s10064-018-1407-2
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Nicholson, S. R.; Kober, L. R.; Atefrad, P.; Mwesigye, A.; Dworkin, S. B. The influence of geometry on the performance of a helical steel pile as a geo-exchange system. Renewable Energy 2021, 172, 714– 727, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2021.03.067
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23
Ramos, R.; Aresti, L.; Yiannoukos, L.; Tsiolakis, E.; Pekris, J.; Vieira, A.; Florides, G.; Christodoulides, P. Thermal and physical characteristics of soils in Cyprus for use in shallow geothermal energy applications. Energy, Ecol. Environ. 2019, 4, 300– 309, DOI: 10.1007/s40974-019-00137-2
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24
Naylor, S.; Ellett, K. M.; Gustin, A. R. Spatiotemporal variability of ground thermal properties in glacial sediments and implications for horizontal ground heat exchanger design. Renewable Energy 2015, 81, 21– 30, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2015.03.006
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Liang, B.; Chen, M.; Fu, B.; Li, H. Investigation on the thermal and flow performances of a vertical spiral-tube ground heat exchanger in sand combined with kaolin additive. Energy Build. 2019, 190, 235– 245, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.03.003
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Li, W.; Li, X.; Peng, Y.; Wang, Y.; Tu, J. Experimental and numerical studies on the thermal performance of ground heat exchangers in a layered subsurface with groundwater. Renewable Energy 2020, 147, 620– 629, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.09.008
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27
Hassanzadeh, R.; Darvishyadegari, M.; Arman, S. A new idea for improving the horizontal straight ground source heat exchangers performance. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 2018, 25, 138– 145, DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2017.12.006
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Javadi, H.; Mousavi Ajarostaghi, S. S.; Rosen, M. A.; Pourfallah, M. Performance of ground heat exchangers: a comprehensive review of recent advances. Energy 2019, 178, 207– 233, DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.04.094
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Hou, G.; Taherian, H.; Song, Y.; Jiang, W.; Chen, D. A systematic review on optimal analysis of horizontal heat exchangers in ground source heat pump systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 154, 111830, DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2021.111830
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There is no corresponding record for this reference.
30
Banerjee, A.; Chakraborty, T.; Matsagar, V. Evaluation of possibilities in geothermal energy extraction from oceanic crust using offshore wind turbine monopiles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 92, 685– 700, DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.114
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31
Noorollahi, Y.; Saeidi, R.; Mohammadi, M.; Amiri, A.; Hosseinzadeh, M. The effects of ground heat exchanger parameters changes on geothermal heat pump performance - A review. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2018, 129, 1645– 1658, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.10.111
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32
Agrawal, K. K.; Misra, R.; Agrawal, G. Improving the thermal performance of ground air heat exchanger system using sand-bentonite (in dry and wet condition) as backfilling material. Renewable Energy 2019, 146, 2008– 2023, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.08.044
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Faizal, M.; Bouazza, A.; Singh, R. M. Heat transfer enhancement of geothermal energy piles. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 57, 16– 33, DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.065
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Tang, F.; Nowamooz, H. Outlet temperatures of a slinky-type horizontal ground heat exchanger with the atmosphere-soil interaction. Renewable Energy 2020, 146, 705– 718, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.029
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35
Jia, G. S.; Tao, Z. Y.; Meng, X. Z.; Ma, C. F.; Chai, J. C.; Jin, L. W. Review of effective thermal conductivity models of rock-soil for geothermal energy applications. Geothermics 2019, 77, 1– 11, DOI: 10.1016/j.geothermics.2018.08.001
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36
Wang, Z.; Wang, F.; Liu, J.; Li, Y.; Wang, M.; Luo, Y.; Ma, L.; Zhu, C.; Cai, W. Energy analysis and performance assessment of a hybrid deep borehole heat exchanger heating system with direct heating and coupled heat pump approaches. Energy Convers. Manage. 2023, 276, 116484, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116484
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37
Cao, S.-J.; Kong, X.-R.; Deng, Y.; Zhang, W.; Yang, L.; Ye, Z.-P. Investigation on thermal performance of steel heat exchanger for ground source heat pump systems using full-scale experiments and numerical simulations. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 115, 91– 98, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.12.098
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38
Ren, C.; Deng, Y.; Cao, S.-J. Evaluation of polyethylene and steel heat exchangers of ground source heat pump systems based on seasonal performance comparison and life cycle assessment. Energy Build. 2018, 162, 54– 64, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.12.037
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39
Wan, R.; Chen, M. Q.; Huang, Y. W.; Zhou, T.; Liang, B.; Luo, H. Evaluation on the heat transfer performance of a vertical ground U-shaped tube heat exchanger buried in soil-polyacrylamide. Exp. Heat Tran. 2017, 30, 427– 440, DOI: 10.1080/08916152.2016.1276647
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40
Zhao, Q.; Chen, B.; Liu, F. Study on the thermal performance of several types of energy pile ground heat exchangers: U-shaped, W-shaped and spiral-shaped. Energy Build. 2016, 133, 335– 344, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.09.055
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41
Boughanmi, H.; Lazaar, M.; Farhat, A.; Guizani, A. Evaluation of soil thermal potential under Tunisian climate using a new conic basket geothermal heat exchanger: Energy and exergy analysis. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 113, 912– 925, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.10.204
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42
Brunetti, G.; Saito, H.; Saito, T.; Šimůnek, J. A computationally efficient pseudo-3D model for the numerical analysis of borehole heat exchangers. Appl. Energy 2017, 208, 1113– 1127, DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.09.042
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43
Dehghan, B. Effectiveness of using spiral ground heat exchangers in ground source heat pump system of a building for district heating/cooling purposes: comparison among different configurations. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2018, 130, 1489– 1506, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.11.124
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There is no corresponding record for this reference.
44
Cao, S.-J.; Kong, X.-R.; Deng, Y.; Zhang, W.; Yang, L.; Ye, Z.-P. Investigation on thermal performance of steel heat exchanger for ground source heat pump systems using full-scale experiments and numerical simulations. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2017, 115, 91– 98, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.12.098
Google Scholar
There is no corresponding record for this reference.
45
Ren, C.; Deng, Y.; Cao, S.-J. Evaluation of polyethylene and steel heat exchangers of ground source heat pump systems based on seasonal performance comparison and life cycle assessment. Energy Build. 2018, 162, 54– 64, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.12.037
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There is no corresponding record for this reference.
46
Bina, S. M.; Fujii, H.; Tsuya, S.; Kosukegawa, H. Comparative study of hybrid ground source heat pump in cooling and heating dominant climates. Energy Convers. Manage. 2022, 252, 115122, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.115122
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47
Lyu, C.; Leong, W. H.; Zheng, M.; Jiang, P.; Yu, F.; Liu, Y. Dynamic simulation and operating characteristics of ground-coupled heat pump with solar seasonal heat storage system. Heat Transfer Eng. 2020, 41, 840– 850, DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2019.1576423
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47
Dynamic Simulation and Operating Characteristics of Ground-Coupled Heat Pump with Solar Seasonal Heat Storage System
Lyu, Chao; Leong, Wey H.; Zheng, Maoyu; Jiang, Ping; Yu, Feng; Liu, Yueqin
Heat Transfer Engineering (2020), 41 (9-10), 840-850CODEN: HTEND2; ISSN:0145-7632. (Taylor & Francis, Inc.)
A hybrid ground-coupled heat pump (GCHP) is an efficient and sustainable technol. for space heating and cooling. A demonstration house equipped with GCHP with a solar seasonal heat storage (SSHS) system had been built in Harbin, a severe cold zone of China. A dynamic simulation model was built for the house and GCHP with the SSHS system using TRNSYS. The model used a newly developed vertical ground heat exchanger (VGHE) module which considered coupled heat and moisture transfer (CHMT) in ground with variable soil properties (VSPs) and phase change of soil moisture (PCSM). In the simulation, a large amt. of computing is consumed for VSP and PCSM, while the computing amt. for moisture transfer is small. The model with the new VGHE module produced better simulated results, compared with the field data. So, CHMT-VSP-PCSM affects the performance of VGHE and system to some extent, esp. CHMT. Hourly variation laws of temps. and energy parameters were analyzed, and different characteristics were showed up at different operating stages in heating and cooling seasons for both long and short terms. The GCHP with the SSHS system can meet the heating and cooling demands of the house in general. In cooling season, adjusting the ratio of the two groups of VGHE for heat storage and cooling will increase the utilization efficiency of VGHE and make the soil temp. more balanced.
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Mousa, M. M.; Bayomy, A. M.; Saghir, M. Z. Long-term performance investigation of a GSHP with actual size energy pile with PCM. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2022, 210, 118381, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118381
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49
Yoon, S.; Kim, M.-J.; Jeon, J.-S.; Jung, Y.-B. Significance evaluation of performance factors on horizontal spiral-coil ground heat exchangers. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 35, 102044, DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102044
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50
Zhou, K.; Mao, J.; Zhang, H.; Li, Y.; Yu, X.; Chen, F.; Li, M. Design strategy and techno-economic optimization for hybrid ground heat exchangers of ground source heat pump system. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 2022, 52, 102140, DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102140
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51
Zhou, C.; Zarrella, A.; Yao, Y.; Ni, L. Analysis of the effect of icing on the thermal behavior of helical coil heat exchangers in surface water heat pump applications. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 2022, 183, 122074, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.122074
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52
Jahanbin, A. Thermal performance of the vertical ground heat exchanger with a novel elliptical single U-tube. Geothermics 2020, 86, 101804, DOI: 10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101804
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Serageldin, A. A.; Radwan, A.; Katsura, T.; Sakata, Y.; Nagasaka, S.; Nagano, K. Parametric analysis, response surface, sensitivity analysis, and optimization of a novel spiral-double ground heat exchanger. Energy Convers. Manag. 2021, 240, 114251, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114251
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Zhou, K.; Mao, J.; Li, Y.; Xiang, J. Parameters optimization of borehole and internal thermal resistance for single U-tube ground heat exchangers using Taguchi method. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 201, 112177, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112177
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55
Liu, Z.; Xu, K.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, M. Numerical simulation on the heat recovery law of exploiting geothermal energy from a closed-loop geothermal system converted from an abandoned five-spot well pattern. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 41723– 41731, DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05925
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Numerical Simulation on the Heat Recovery Law of Exploiting Geothermal Energy from a Closed-Loop Geothermal System Converted from an Abandoned Five-Spot Well Pattern
Liu, Zouwei; Xu, Kai; Zhang, Qianqing; Yanga, Minghe
ACS Omega (2022), 7 (45), 41723-41731CODEN: ACSODF; ISSN:2470-1343. (American Chemical Society)
Exploiting geothermal energy from abandoned wells is a research hotpot at present. However, there is still a lack of research on exploiting geothermal energy using an abandoned well pattern. Aiming at this problem, in this paper, a novel method for exploiting geothermal energy from an abandoned well pattern is proposed. An unsteady heat transfer model is proposed to study the influence of some key parameters on the prodn. law of the novel scheme, and the proposed model is verified with field exptl. data. The result indicates that there exists a crit. flow rate that can change the form of the characteristic curve of the outlet temp. with prodn. time. The change of flow rate has more influence on the outlet temp. than that of temp. A higher geothermal gradient is conducive to prodn. When the total no. of wells and the total flow rate of the system are fixed, fewer prodn. wells will be conducive to prodn. When the no. of prodn. wells and injection wells is detd., changing the deployment of prodn. wells and injection wells has little effect on the outlet temp. and thermal power.
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Meng, X.; Han, Z.; Hu, H.; Zhang, H.; Li, X. Studies on the performance of ground source heat pump affected by soil freezing under groundwater seepage. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 33, 101632, DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101632
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Choudhary, K.; Jakhar, S.; Gakkhar, N.; Sangwan, K. S. Comparative life cycle assessments of photovoltaic thermal systems with earth water heat exchanger cooling. Procedia CIRP 2022, 105, 255– 260, DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2022.02.042
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Ruoping, Y.; Xiangru, Y.; Xiaohui, Y.; Yunpeng, B.; Huajun, W. Performance study of split type ground source heat pump systems combining with solar photovoltaic-thermal modules for rural households in North China. Energy Build. 2021, 249, 111190, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111190
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59
Sommerfeldt, N.; Madani, H. Review of solar PV/thermal plus ground source heat pump systems for European multi-family houses. In 11th ISES Eurosun Conference; Palma de Mallorca: Spain, 2016; pp 1382– 1393.
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Alnasser, T. M. A.; Mahdy, A. M. J.; Abass, K. I.; Chaichan, M. T.; Kazem, H. A. Impact of dust ingredient on photovoltaic performance: An experimental study. Sol. Energy 2020, 195, 651– 659, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2019.12.008
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Impact of dust ingredient on photovoltaic performance: An experimental study
Alnasser, Tamadher M. A.; Mahdy, Aedah M. J.; Abass, Khaleel I.; Chaichan, Miqdam T.; Kazem, Hussein A.
Solar Energy (2020), 195 (), 651-659CODEN: SRENA4; ISSN:0038-092X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
Different building materials such as sand, cement, and gypsum are transported and stored poorly in Iraq (open-air), so large amts. of them fly into the air and form part of the dust. In this study, collected amts. of dust deposited for three months studied in a controlled manner. The components of the accumulated dust were examd. and found that the largest part of it (more than 50%) is silicon oxides (sand), the rest of which represent most significant part of the components of cement and gypsum. In this study, the accumulation of building materials (sand, ordinary cement, egg cement, gypsum, and industrial gypsum) studied on the power output of a photovoltaic module (PV). The effect of periodic cleaning and its duration on the lost power of the PV were also studied. The study results showed that the accumulation of these materials, even in small quantities on PV reduces the transmittance and reduces the resulting power because it prevents the arrival of solar irradn. to the PV. The accumulation of natural and white cement followed by sand and gypsum gave the most considerable loss of energy produced. The studied module cleaned without using any liqs. so as not to react with the tested building materials. Natural cement is the most difficult of these materials in dry cleaning due to its particles' small size. The industrial gypsum causes the most substantial power redn. when accumulates in more than 25 g/m2. When studying the material's ability to adhere to the surface of the dry PV module, the industrial gypsum showed a high degree of adhesion followed by sand compared with the other studied materials. Three methods to prevent the dew water from being connected to the building material were studied, which is to clean the PV daily at the evening, cover the PV with plastic cover from evening until early morning, and turn the PV in the evening to face the ground. The first method limited in effectiveness, while the other two methods were effective in reducing dust accumulation damage and preventing its interaction with dew.
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Yin, H.; Zhang, C.; Zhou, X.; Chen, T.; Dong, F.; Cheng, W.; Tang, R.; Xu, G.; Jiao, P. Research on the Genetic Mechanism of High-Temperature Groundwater in the Geothermal Anomalous Area of Gold Deposit–Application to the Copper Mine Area of Yinan Gold Mine. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 43231– 43241, DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05936
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Research on the Genetic Mechanism of High-Temperature Groundwater in the Geothermal Anomalous Area of Gold Deposit-Application to the Copper Mine Area of Yinan Gold Mine
Yin, Huiyong; Zhang, Chengwei; Zhou, Xinlong; Chen, Tao; Dong, Fangying; Cheng, Wenju; Tang, Ruqian; Xu, Guoliang; Jiao, Peng
ACS Omega (2022), 7 (47), 43231-43241CODEN: ACSODF; ISSN:2470-1343. (American Chemical Society)
Geothermal energy is new, environmentally friendly, and clean energy, which is of great significance to realize energy saving and emission redn. The study of the genesis mechanism of geothermal water is the key to its rational development and utilization. In this study, based on 14 sets of water samples from the eastern section of the copper well mining area of Yinan Gold Mine, mineral satn. index, isotope anal. (δ18O, δD), Si-enthalpy mixing equation, and geochem. geothermal temp. scale were used to analyze the thermal storage temp., recharge characteristics, mixing ratio, circulation depth, and fluid passage to reveal the geothermal water fugitive transmission pattern and genesis mechanism in the study area and to propose a geothermal water genesis model. The study shows that the water supply elevation in the area is between 687.22 and 1164.15 m and a large amt. of cold water recharged it. It is inferred that the recharge area is the pptn. in the Northwest Mountain range and surrounding atm. Groundwater flows along the fracture zone in a south-easterly direction. It receives heating from the surrounding rocks, where the water level rises at the fracture zone intersection and is stored in the lower and middle Cambrian thermal reservoirs and continues to receive heating from deeper heat sources. Based on this study and previous regional research data, the fault structure in this area is within the influence range of the energy field of the Yishu fault zone. Yishu fault zone becomes the heating source under the background of cold water. It is inferred that the east-east Yishu fault zone in the study area may also be the recharge area.
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Adamo, N.; Al-Ansari, N.; Sissakian, V.; Jehad Fahmi, K.; Ali Abed, S. Climate change: Droughts and increasing desertification in the Middle East, with special reference to Iraq. Engineering 2022, 14, 235– 273, DOI: 10.4236/eng.2022.147021
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Evaluation on dispersion behavior of the aqueous copper nano-suspensions
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Journal of Colloid and Interface Science (2007), 310 (2), 456-463CODEN: JCISA5; ISSN:0021-9797. (Elsevier)
This paper presents a procedure for prepg. a nanofluid which is solid-liq. composite material consisting of solid nanoparticles with sizes typically of 1-100 nm suspended in liq. By means of the procedure, Cu-H2O nanofluids with and without dispersant were prepd., whose sediment photographs and particle size distribution were given to illustrate the stability and evenness of suspension with dispersant. Aiming at the dispersion of nano-Cu is regarded as the guide of heat transfer enhancement, the dispersion behavior of Cu nanoparticles in water were studied under different pH values, different dispersant types and concn. by the method of zeta potential, absorbency and sedimentation photographs. The results show that zeta potential has good corresponding relation with absorbency, and the higher abs. value of zeta potential and the absorbency are, the better dispersion and stability in system is. The abs. value of zeta potential and the absorbency are higher at pH 9.5. Hexadecyl tri-Me ammonium bromide (CATB) and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) can significantly increase the abs. value of zeta potential of particle surfaces by electrostatic repulsions, and polyoxyethylene (10) nonyl Ph ether (TX-10) can form a thick hydration layer on the particle surfaces by steric interference, which leads to the enhancement of the stability for Cu suspensions. In the 0.1% copper nano-suspensions, the optimizing concns. for TX-10, CATB, and SDBS are 0.43, 0.05, and 0.07%, resp., which have the best dispersion results.
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Cacua, Karen; Ordonez, Fredy; Zapata, Camilo; Herrera, Bernardo; Pabon, Elizabeth; Buitrago-Sierra, Robison
Colloids and Surfaces, A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects (2019), 583 (), 123960CODEN: CPEAEH; ISSN:0927-7757. (Elsevier B.V.)
Nanofluids are complex fluids, mainly proposed to improve the efficiency of thermal systems. However, their poor stability, caused by the agglomeration and sedimentation of nanoparticles over time, has limited their practical application. A common technique to increase the stability of nanofluids is to add surfactants, which produce electrostatic or steric repulsion between nanoparticles, thus avoiding their agglomeration. This work evaluated the effects of surfactants and their concn. on the zeta potential and hydrodynamic diam. at different pH values as an indicator of nanofluids stability. Com. alumina nanoparticles (0.1 wt.%) were dispersed in deionized water using two surfactants (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, CTAB and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, SDBS) at different concns., and the pH values were varied (2-12) by adding hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. The results show the importance of the crit. micelle concn. value in the nanofluids stabilization by electrostatic repulsion between nanoparticles and indicate that SDBS at a concn. of 0.064 wt.% (crit. micelle concn.) offers the best dispersion conditions according with their zeta potential values, allowing high stability regardless of the pH value of the suspension.
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Suganthi, K. S.; Rajan, K. S. Temperature induced changes in ZnO-water nanofluid: Zeta potential, size distribution and viscosity profiles. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 2012, 55, 7969– 7980, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.08.032
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Abuşka, M.; Şevik, S. Energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) analyses of flat-plate and V-groove solar air collectors based on aluminum and copper. Sol. Energy 2017, 158, 259– 277, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.045
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Energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) analyses of flat-plate and V-groove solar air collectors based on aluminum and copper
Abuska, Mesut; Sevik, Seyfi
Solar Energy (2017), 158 (), 259-277CODEN: SRENA4; ISSN:0038-092X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
An exptl. investigation has been carried out to study the effect of energy, economic, and environment of SACs which are smooth and roughened by v-groove protrusions arranged made of copper and aluminum materials. In this context; energy, exergy, economic, and environment (4E) analyses are investigated using data obtained from exptl. studies at air mass flow rates of 0.04, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.1 kg/s. Thermal, economic, and environmental impacts for performance enhancement of the SACs have been detd. It reveals that the av. thermal and exergy efficiencies of the SACs, for the installed region of collectors, were 43-60% and 6-12%, resp. Among all others with copper v-groove showed that the highest heat transfer enhancements with friction factors high than those of flat, thermal performance of copper v-groove are among the highest of the SACs tested in this study. The payback period was found to be between av. 4.3 and 4.6 years when calcd. on a yearly basis, which was significantly less than estd. lifetime of the system. The enviro-economic cost values were obtained between 4.5 and 5.77 $/yr. Consequently, the results show that the v-groove collectors to be preferable due to their performance despite the price disadvantage. The v-groove SACs, although slightly higher friction factors and cost, produce much higher heat transfer coeffs. compared with flat SACs.
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Nayak, S.; Tiwari, G. N. Energy and exergy analysis of photovoltaic/thermal integrated with a solar greenhouse. Energy Build. 2008, 40, 2015– 2021, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.05.007
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Sardarabadi, M.; Hosseinzadeh, M.; Kazemian, A.; Passandideh-Fard, M. Experimental investigation of the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids on a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from energy and exergy viewpoints. Energy 2017, 138, 682– 695, DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.046
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Experimental investigation of the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids on a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from energy and exergy viewpoints
Sardarabadi, Mohammad; Hosseinzadeh, Mohammad; Kazemian, Arash; Passandideh-Fard, Mohammad
Energy (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 138 (), 682-695CODEN: ENEYDS; ISSN:0360-5442. (Elsevier Ltd.)
In this paper, an exptl. investigation on the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids as a coolant system in a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from the energy and exergy viewpoints are presented. The considered nanoparticles include Al2O3, TiO2 and ZnO dispersed in deionized water as the base fluid by 0.2 wt%. A const. mass flow rate of 30 kg/h for the fluid flowing through the collector is considered. The expts. are performed on selected days in August and Sept. at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. The uncertainty of the expts. is less than 5%. The measured data are analyzed from the energy/exergy viewpoints and entropy generation. Based on the extensive results presented in this paper, the PVT/ZnO and PVT/TiO2 systems show a better overall energy and exergy efficiencies compared to other systems. The results indicate that the overall exergy efficiencies for the cases of PVT/water, PVT/TiO2, PVT/Al2O3, and PVT/ZnO are enhanced by 12.34%, 15.93%, 18.27% and 15.45%, resp., compared to that of the photovoltaic unit (PV) with no collector. Moreover, the PVT/Al2O3 system has the highest enhancement of entropy generation compared to the PV unit.
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Hosseinzadeh, M.; Sardarabadi, M.; Passandideh-Fard, M. Energy and exergy analysis of nanofluid based photovoltaic thermal system integrated with phase change material. Energy 2018, 147, 636– 647, DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2018.01.073
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Energy and exergy analysis of nanofluid based photovoltaic thermal system integrated with phase change material
Hosseinzadeh, Mohammad; Sardarabadi, Mohammad; Passandideh-Fard, Mohammad
Energy (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 147 (), 636-647CODEN: ENEYDS; ISSN:0360-5442. (Elsevier Ltd.)
In this study, the effects of simultaneous use of ZnO/water nanofluid with 0.2 wt% as the coolant as well as an org. paraffin wax as the phase change material (PCM) on the elec. and thermal efficiencies of a photovoltaic thermal (PVT) system are exptl. investigated. For this purpose, three different systems are studied and compared with each other: a conventional PV module, a nanofluid based PVT, and a nanofluid based PVT/PCM. The expts. are performed on selected days in August and Sept. at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The measured data are analyzed from the energy and exergy viewpoints. Based on the results, using the PCM in the nanofluid based PVT system enhances the output thermal power of the PVT system by about 29.60%. The results also indicate that the nanofluid based PVT/PCM system compared to the other two systems considered in this study (PV and nanofluid PVT) has the max. output overall exergy and overall exergy efficiency of 114.99 W/m2 and 13.61%, resp. In addn., the relative redn. of the entropy generation of the nanofluid based PVT and PVT/PCM systems compared to that of the conventional PV module are about 1.59% and 3.19%, resp.
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Gomaa, M. R.; Ahmed, M.; Rezk, H. Temperature distribution modeling of PV and cooling water PV/T collectors through thin and thick cooling cross-fined channel box. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 1144– 1153, DOI: 10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.061
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Chow, T. T.; Ji, J.; He, W. Photovoltaic-Thermal Collector System for Domestic Application. J. Sol. Energy Eng. 2007, 129, 205– 209, DOI: 10.1115/1.2711474
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Photovoltaic-Thermal Collector System for Domestic Application
Chow, T. T.; Ji, J.; He, W.
Journal of Solar Energy Engineering (2007), 129 (2), 205-209CODEN: JSEEDO; ISSN:0199-6231. (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) systems integrate photovoltaic and solar thermal technologies into one single system with dual prodn. of electricity and heat energy. A typical arrangement is the direct attachment of PV modules onto a solar thermal collector surface. For a given collector surface area, the overall system energy performance is expected higher than the conventional side-by-side PV and solar thermal systems. In the development of PV/T collector technol. using water as the coolant, the most common design follows the sheet-and-tube thermal absorber concept. Fin performance of the thermal absorber has been identified as one important factor that affects the overall energy performance of the collector. Accordingly, an aluminum-alloy flat-box type PV/T collector prototype was constructed and tested in Hong Kong. Our test results indicate that a high combined thermal and elec. efficiency can be achieved. The primary-energy-saving efficiency for daily exposure approaches 65% at zero reduced temp. operation. With a simple and handy design, the product is considered to be suitable for domestic application.
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Salem, M. R.; Elsayed, M. M.; Abd-Elaziz, A. A.; Elshazly, K. M. Performance enhancement of the photovoltaic cells using Al2O3/PCM mixture and/or water cooling-techniques. Renewable Energy 2019, 138, 876– 890, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.032
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Performance enhancement of the photovoltaic cells using Al2O3/PCM mixture and/or water cooling-techniques
Salem, M. R.; Elsayed, M. M.; Abd-Elaziz, A. A.; Elshazly, K. M.
Renewable Energy (2019), 138 (), 876-890CODEN: RNENE3; ISSN:0960-1481. (Elsevier Ltd.)
This work exptl. investigates the performance of a PV module cooling effect using a compd. enhancement technique. This is by employing water and/or Al2O3/PCM mixt. with different nanoparticles mass concns. (φ) from 0 to 1% and mass fluxes of the cooling water from 0 to 5.31 kg/s.m2 through straight aluminum channels beneath the PV panel. The effect of the occupation ratio of the Al2O3/PCM (λPCM) in the channels from 0 (100% water) to 100% (0% water) is also examd. The results illustrate that the Al2O3 nanoparticles of φ = 1% makes the compd. technique (Al2O3/PCM mixt. + water) better than the cooling with 100% water. Compared with all studied cooling techniques parameters, it is obsd. that the compd. technique; Al2O3(φ = 1%)/PCM mixt. (λPCM = 25%) + 75% water (5.31 kg/s.m2) achieves the highest PV performance. However, although the Al2O3/PCM mixt. of λPCM = 100% does not provide the highest PV elec. output power, it may be a superior soln. for the PV cooling as it solves the problems of using the cooling water. Finally, exptl. correlations are presented to predict the elec., thermal, and overall exergy efficiencies of the PV cell.
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Shalaby, S. M.; Elfakharany, M. K.; Moharram, B. M.; Abosheiasha, H. F. Experimental study on the performance of PV with water cooling. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 957– 961, DOI: 10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.155
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Menon, G. S.; Murali, S.; Elias, J.; Aniesrani Delfiya, D. A.; Alfiya, P. V.; Samuel, M. P. Experimental investigations on unglazed photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) system using water and nanofluid cooling medium. Renewable Energy 2022, 188, 986– 996, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2022.02.080
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Experimental investigations on unglazed photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) system using water and nanofluid cooling medium
Menon, Govind S.; Murali, S.; Elias, Jacob; Aniesrani Delfiya, D. S.; Alfiya, P. V.; Samuel, Manoj P.
Renewable Energy (2022), 188 (), 986-996CODEN: RNENE3; ISSN:0960-1481. (Elsevier Ltd.)
The elec. and thermal performance of an unglazed photovoltaic thermal (PVT) system integrated with a serpentine coil configured sheet and tube thermal absorber setup was evaluated using water and copper oxide-based nanofluid. An uncooled PVT system reached a max. panel temp. of 68.4°C at noon and obtained an av. elec. efficiency of 12.98%. Water and nanofluid cooling of the PVT system reduced the panel temp. by 15°C and 23.7°C at noontime, resp. Compared to the uncooled PVT system, the av. elec. efficiency of water and nanofluid cooled PVT system increased by 12.32% and 35.67% to obtain 14.58% and 17.61%, resp. The thermal efficiency of the nanofluid cooled PVT system (71.17%) was significantly higher than water cooling (58.77%) due to max. heat absorption by nanoparticles. It was also obsd. that the overall efficiency of the nanofluid cooled PVT system was 21% higher than the water-cooled system. Also, obtained the highest primary energy-saving efficiency for the nanofluid cooled PVT system.
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Hasan, H. A.; Sherza, J. S.; Mahdi, J. M.; Togun, H.; Abed, A. M.; Ibrahim, R. K.; Yaïci, W. Experimental evaluation of the thermoelectrical performance of photovoltaic-thermal systems with a water-cooled heat sink. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10231, DOI: 10.3390/su141610231
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Experimental Evaluation of the Thermoelectrical Performance of Photovoltaic-Thermal Systems with a Water-Cooled Heat Sink
Hasan, Husam Abdulrasool; Sherza, Jenan S.; Mahdi, Jasim M.; Togun, Hussein; Abed, Azher M.; Ibrahim, Raed Khalid; Yaici, Wahiba
Sustainability (2022), 14 (16), 10231CODEN: SUSTDE; ISSN:2071-1050. (MDPI AG)
A design for a photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) assembly with a water-cooled heat sink was planned, constructed, and exptl. evaluated in the climatic conditions of the southern region of Iraq during the summertime. The water-cooled heat sink was applied to thermally manage the PV cells, in order to boost the elec. output of the PVT system. A set of temp. sensors was installed to monitor the water intake, exit, and cell temps. The climatic parameters including the wind velocity, atm. pressure, and solar irradn. were also monitored on a daily basis. The effects of solar irradn. on the av. PV temp., elec. power, and overall elec.-thermal efficiency were investigated. The findings indicate that the PV temp. would increase from 65 to 73 °C, when the solar irradn. increases from 500 to 960 W/m2, with and without cooling, resp. Meanwhile, the output power increased from 35 to 55 W when the solar irradn. increased from 500 to 960 W/m2 during the daytime. The impact of varying the mass flow rate of cooling water in the range of 4 to 16 L/min was also examd., and it was found that the cell temp. declines as the water flow increases in intensity throughout the daytime. The max. cell temp. recorded for PV modules without cooling was in the middle of the day. The lowest cell temp. was also recorded in the middle of the day for a PVT solar system with 16 L/min of cooling water.
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Kazem, H. A.; Al-Waeli, A. H.; Chaichan, M. T.; Sopian, K. Numerical and experimental evaluation of nanofluids based photovoltaic/thermal systems in Oman: Using silicone-carbide nanoparticles with water-ethylene glycol mixture. Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2021, 26, 101009, DOI: 10.1016/j.csite.2021.101009
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Abstract
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Figure 1
Figure 1. (a) Drilling to the required depth in the study area; (b) the heat exchanger used in test photo; and (c) thermocouple distribution on the UHE.
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Figure 2
Figure 2. Spiral flow heat exchanger design and configurations; (a) exchanger manufacturing process and (b) exchanger dimensions.
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Figure 3
Figure 3. Tests average climatic conditions (ambient temperature and irradiance) during tests period.
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Figure 4
Figure 4. Average soil temperature gradient in the study area during the tests.
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Figure 5
Figure 5. Average temperatures distributed over sensors during morning operation.
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Figure 6
Figure 6. Average distribution of measured temperatures of the PVT system during the tests.
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Figure 7
Figure 7. Average temperatures distributed over sensors during night.
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Figure 8
Figure 8. Average PVT system’s efficiencies with flow rate variations.
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Figure 9
Figure 9. Average PVT system’s exergies variations vs studied flow rates.
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References
This article references 91 other publications.
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  A review. The combustion of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum [oil], and natural gas) is the major source of both air pollution and the greenhouse-gas emissions driving climate change. The fetus, infant, and child are esp. vulnerable to exposure to air pollution and climate change, which are already taking a major toll on the phys. and mental health of children. All children are at risk, but the greatest burden falls on those who are socially and economically disadvantaged. Protection of children's health requires that health professionals understand the multiple harms to children from climate change and air pollution and use available strategies to reduce these harms. The data are compelling that the toll on children and pregnant women from fossil-fuel-driven climate change and air pollution is large and growing, affecting immediate and long-term health. This is a review on climate change, fossil-fuel pollution, and children's health.
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  Application of choosing by advantages to determine the optimal site for solar power plants
  Goh, Hui Hwang; Li, Chunyu; Zhang, Dongdong; Dai, Wei; Lim, Chee Shen; Kurniawan, Tonni Agustiono; Goh, Kai Chen
  Scientific Reports (2022), 12 (1), 4113CODEN: SRCEC3; ISSN:2045-2322. (Nature Portfolio)
  Abstr.: Solar energy is a crit. component of the energy development strategy. The site selection for solar power plants has a significant impact on the cost of energy prodn. A favorable situation would result in significant cost savings and increased electricity generation efficiency. California is located in the southwest region of the United States of America and is blessed with an abundance of sunlight. In recent years, the state's economy and population have expanded quickly, resulting in an increased need for power. This study examines the south of California as a possibly well-suited site for the constructing large solar power plants to meet the local electricity needs. To begin, this article imposed some limits on the selection of three potential sites for constructing solar power plants (S1, S2, and S3). Then, a systematic approach for solar power plant site selection was presented, focusing on five major factors (economic, technol., social, geog., and environmental). This is the first time that the choosing by advantages (CBA) method has been used to det. the optimal sites for solar power plant construction, with the possible sites ranked as S2 > S1 > S3. The results were then compared with traditional methods such as the multi-criteria decision-making method. The findings of this study suggest that the CBA method not only streamlines the solar power plant site selection process but also closely aligns with the objectives and desires of the investors.
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  Lamaamar, I.; Tilioua, A.; Hamdi Alaoui, M. A. H. Thermal performance analysis of a poly c-Si PV module under semi-arid conditions. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 2022, 5, 243– 251, DOI: 10.1016/j.mset.2022.03.001
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  Thermal performance analysis of a poly c-Si PV module under semi-arid conditions
  Lamaamar, Ibtissam; Tilioua, Amine; Hamdi Alaoui, Moulay Ahmed
  Materials Science for Energy Technologies (2022), 5 (), 243-251CODEN: MSETBW; ISSN:2589-2991. (Elsevier B.V.)
  The performance of the photovoltaic (PV) module decreases as the PV module temp. increases. To improve the elec. performance, the PV module must be cooled by removing heat in some way. In this paper, the thermal performance of a PV module has been examd. by using a two-dimensional thermal model based on the finite vol. method. The radiative transfer is calcd. using the discrete ordinate method. The effect of front and back sheets on the temp. distribution of the PV module was studied. The obtained results show that the PV module temp. reaches the max. value 63.4°C. The temp. difference between the front and the PV cells is 0.5°C and, between the PV cells and the back side is 1.1°C. The glass front layer of the PV module presents a better efficiency compared to the PMMA front layer. By increasing the thickness of the glass from 0.003 m to 0.004 m and the thickness of the aluminum back sheet from 0.0005 m to 0.002 m, the PV cells temp. decreased.
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5. 5
  Martín-Chivelet, N.; Polo, J.; Sanz-Saiz, C.; Núñez Benítez, L. T.; Alonso-Abella, M.; Cuenca, J. Assessment of PV module temperature models for building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV). Sustainability 2022, 14, 1500, DOI: 10.3390/su14031500
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  Assessment of PV Module Temperature Models for Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)
  Martin-Chivelet, Nuria; Polo, Jesus; Sanz-Saiz, Carlos; Nunez Benitez, Lucy Tamara; Alonso-Abella, Miguel; Cuenca, Jose
  Sustainability (2022), 14 (3), 1500CODEN: SUSTDE; ISSN:2071-1050. (MDPI AG)
  This paper assesses two steady-state photovoltaic (PV) module temp. models when applied to building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) rainscreens and curtain walls. The models are the Ross and the Faiman models, both extensively used for PV modules mounted on open-rack support structures in PV plants. The exptl. setups arrange the BIPV modules vertically and with different backside boundary conditions to cover the mounting configurations under study. Data monitoring over more than a year was the exptl. basis to assess each model by comparing simulated and measured temps. with the help of four different metrics: mean abs. error, root mean square error, mean bias error, and coeff. of detn. The performance ratio of each system without the temp. effect was calcd. by comparing the exptl. energy output with the energy output detd. with the measured temps. This parameter allowed the estn. of the PV energy with the predicted temps. to assess the suitability of each temp. model for energy-prediction purposes. The assessment showed that the Ross model is the most suitable for predicting the annual PV energy in rainscreen and curtain-wall applications. Highlighted is the importance of fitting the model coeffs. with a representative set of in situ monitored data. The data set should preferably include the inner (backside) temp., i.e., the air chamber temp. in ventilated facades or the indoor temp. in curtain walls and windows.
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6. 6
  Herrando, M.; Ramos, A. Photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) systems for combined cooling, heating and power in buildings: A review. Energies 2022, 15, 3021, DOI: 10.3390/en15093021
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  Photovoltaic-Thermal (PV-T) Systems for Combined Cooling, Heating and Power in Buildings: A Review
  Herrando, Maria; Ramos, Alba
  Energies (Basel, Switzerland) (2022), 15 (9), 3021CODEN: ENERGA; ISSN:1996-1073. (MDPI AG)
  A review. Heating and cooling (H/C) represent the largest share of energy consumption worldwide. Buildings are the main consumers of H/C, while the share of renewable energy for H/C provision still represents a low percentage, 22.0% in 2019. Hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) systems are gaining increasing attention both in research and in applications, as they generate both electricity and useful heat simultaneously. The relevance and potential of PV-T collectors and their integration into wider systems are evident, but there is still a lack of review articles that address the potential of these systems in building applications in a comprehensive way. This work aims to review the state-of-the-art of PV-T collectors for building applications, as well as the corresponding PV-T systems for solar combined cooling, heating and power (S-CCHP) provision. The novelties of this work involve the comparison of these systems with conventional solar H/C technologies, the review of the market of H/C technologies, a summary of the challenges for the wider integration of S-CCHP systems and proposal lines of work to improve the cost-competitiveness of these systems. The first section summarises the focus and findings of previous reviews, followed by an overview of the current development status of the main types of PV-T collectors. Then, PV-T-based S-CCHP systems are reviewed, and the potential of PV-T systems' penetration in the built environment is evaluated and discussed.
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  Hossain, F.; Karim, M. R.; Bhuiyan, A. A. A review on recent advancements of the usage of nano fluid in hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar systems. Renewable Energy 2022, 188, 114– 131, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2022.01.116
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  A review on recent advancements of the usage of nano fluid in hybrid photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar systems
  Hossain, Farzad; Karim, Md. Rezwanul; Bhuiyan, Arafat A.
  Renewable Energy (2022), 188 (), 114-131CODEN: RNENE3; ISSN:0960-1481. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  A review. The continuous increase in global energy consumption as a result of rapid population growth, combined with the detrimental impact of fossil fuels on the atm., has made it crit. to ext. renewable energy through various technologies and turn it into electricity. A hybrid photovoltaic-thermal collector can be an innovative alternative to harness renewable energy. The utilization of hybrid photovoltaic-thermal solar collectors is increasing day by day due to its advantages. This type of collector can generate both heat and electricity at the same time and convert absorbed solar radiation more efficiently than a solar thermal collector or a typical photovoltaic module. In order to improve the performance of the hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) solar collector, nanofluid can be an effective soln. It has been found that serpentine, rectangular, microchannel, sheet and tube, etc. are some categories of geometries utilized in the PV/T system. Both exptl. and computational studies were conducted related to nanofluids application in PV/T collectors in recent years. Most of the studies were done utilizing some common nanofluids, e.g., Al2O3, CuO, ZnO, and SiO2. It has been noticed that utilizing nanofluids significantly enhances overall performance, thermal and elec. efficiency, heat transfer characteristics, and exergy. This paper comprehensively reviewed various aspects of using nanofluids, including energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, overall efficiency, heat transfer coeff., daily yield, power generation, entropy prodn., exergy loss, and temp. drop in hybrid PV/T collectors in a systematic way. Besides, the paper incorporated all recent findings and included exptl., numerical, and combined studies in the review.
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8. 8
  Elminshawy, A.; Morad, K.; Elminshawy, N. A. S.; Elhenawy, Y. Performance enhancement of concentrator photovoltaic systems using nanofluids. Int. J. Energy Res. 2021, 45, 2959– 2979, DOI: 10.1002/er.5991
  8
  Performance enhancement of concentrator photovoltaic systems using nanofluids
  Elminshawy, Ahmed; Morad, Kamal; Elminshawy, Nabil A. S.; Elhenawy, Yasser
  International Journal of Energy Research (2021), 45 (2), 2959-2979CODEN: IJERDN; ISSN:0363-907X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
  In the current study, a newly developed low photovoltaic concentrator (LCPV) equipped with nanofluid-based cooling channels, directly contacting the rare LCPV, was examd. in detail. Nanofluid acts as a coolant that flowing over the back of LCPV to maintain its optimal operating temp. with the best overall performance. The coolants used are water and aluminum oxide (Al2O3)/water nanofluids 1%, 2%, and 3% by vol. concn. When circulating a 3%-Al2O3/water nanofluid, the temp. of the LCPV module is dropped by 16.47°C compared to the uncooled module and keeps its operating temp. under 45°C during the exptl. tests. This redn. in the LCPV module temp. with V-trough reflector mirrors in turn increased its performance. The results revealed that the daily elec. output power of the uncooled LCPV module was 1646.85 W, whereas, was 1870.55 W with (13.58%) improvement with the case of water cooling. However, cooling with 3%-Al2O3/water nanofluid, the power output of the LPVC was 2319.88 W with (24.02%) and (40.86%) enhancement compared to pure water cooling and without cooling resp. The rise in the vol. fraction ratio of Al2O3 nanoparticles remarkably decreases the operating temp. of the LCPV module and improves both elec. and thermal efficiency.
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9. 9
  Sornek, K.; Goryl, W.; Figaj, R.; Dąbrowska, G.; Brezdeń, J. Development and tests of the water cooling system dedicated to photovoltaic panels. Energies 2022, 15, 5884, DOI: 10.3390/en15165884
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10. 10
  Sangeetha, M.; Manigandan, S.; Chaichan, M. T.; Kumar, V. Progress of MWCNT, Al 2 O 3 , and CuO with water in enhancing the photovoltaic thermal system. Int. J. Energy Res. 2020, 44, 821– 832, DOI: 10.1002/er.4905
  10
  Progress of MWCNT, Al2O3, and CuO with water in enhancing the photovoltaic thermal system
  Sangeetha, Manimaran; Manigandan, Sekar; Chaichan, Miqdam T.; Kumar, Vasanth
  International Journal of Energy Research (2020), 44 (2), 821-832CODEN: IJERDN; ISSN:0363-907X. (John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)
  Summary : Hybrid photovoltaic thermal system is an effective method to convert solar energy into elec. and thermal energy. However, its effectiveness is widely affected due to the high temp. of photovoltaic panel, and it can be minimized by employing nanofluids to the PV/T systems. In this research, the effect of various nanoparticles on the PV/T systems was studied exptl. The nanofluids Al2O3, CuO, and multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) were dispersed with water at different vol. fractions of 0, 0.5, 1, 2.5, and 5 (vol%) using ultrasonication process. The effect of nanomaterials on viscosity and d. was classified. All tests were carried out in an outdoor lab. setup for calibrating the PV temps., thermal cond., elec. power, elec. efficiency, and overall efficiency. In addn., the energy analyses were also made to est. the loss of heat owing to the nanofluids. Results show that use of the nanofluid increased the elec. power and elec. efficiency of PV/T compared with water. Furthermore, MWCNT and CuO reduced the cell temp. by 19%. Consequently, the nanofluids MWCNT, Al2O3, and CuO produced the impressive values of 60%, 55%, and 52% increase in an av. elec. efficiency than conventional PV. Particularly, the MWCNT produced superior results compared with other materials. It is evidently clear from the result that the introduction of the nanofluid increases the thermal efficiency without adding any extra energy to the system. Moreover, insertion of Al2O3, CuO, and MWCNT on PV/T system increases the exergy efficiency more than conventional PV module.
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46. 46
  Bina, S. M.; Fujii, H.; Tsuya, S.; Kosukegawa, H. Comparative study of hybrid ground source heat pump in cooling and heating dominant climates. Energy Convers. Manage. 2022, 252, 115122, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.115122
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
47. 47
  Lyu, C.; Leong, W. H.; Zheng, M.; Jiang, P.; Yu, F.; Liu, Y. Dynamic simulation and operating characteristics of ground-coupled heat pump with solar seasonal heat storage system. Heat Transfer Eng. 2020, 41, 840– 850, DOI: 10.1080/01457632.2019.1576423
  47
  Dynamic Simulation and Operating Characteristics of Ground-Coupled Heat Pump with Solar Seasonal Heat Storage System
  Lyu, Chao; Leong, Wey H.; Zheng, Maoyu; Jiang, Ping; Yu, Feng; Liu, Yueqin
  Heat Transfer Engineering (2020), 41 (9-10), 840-850CODEN: HTEND2; ISSN:0145-7632. (Taylor & Francis, Inc.)
  A hybrid ground-coupled heat pump (GCHP) is an efficient and sustainable technol. for space heating and cooling. A demonstration house equipped with GCHP with a solar seasonal heat storage (SSHS) system had been built in Harbin, a severe cold zone of China. A dynamic simulation model was built for the house and GCHP with the SSHS system using TRNSYS. The model used a newly developed vertical ground heat exchanger (VGHE) module which considered coupled heat and moisture transfer (CHMT) in ground with variable soil properties (VSPs) and phase change of soil moisture (PCSM). In the simulation, a large amt. of computing is consumed for VSP and PCSM, while the computing amt. for moisture transfer is small. The model with the new VGHE module produced better simulated results, compared with the field data. So, CHMT-VSP-PCSM affects the performance of VGHE and system to some extent, esp. CHMT. Hourly variation laws of temps. and energy parameters were analyzed, and different characteristics were showed up at different operating stages in heating and cooling seasons for both long and short terms. The GCHP with the SSHS system can meet the heating and cooling demands of the house in general. In cooling season, adjusting the ratio of the two groups of VGHE for heat storage and cooling will increase the utilization efficiency of VGHE and make the soil temp. more balanced.
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48. 48
  Mousa, M. M.; Bayomy, A. M.; Saghir, M. Z. Long-term performance investigation of a GSHP with actual size energy pile with PCM. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2022, 210, 118381, DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118381
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
49. 49
  Yoon, S.; Kim, M.-J.; Jeon, J.-S.; Jung, Y.-B. Significance evaluation of performance factors on horizontal spiral-coil ground heat exchangers. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 35, 102044, DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102044
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
50. 50
  Zhou, K.; Mao, J.; Zhang, H.; Li, Y.; Yu, X.; Chen, F.; Li, M. Design strategy and techno-economic optimization for hybrid ground heat exchangers of ground source heat pump system. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assessments 2022, 52, 102140, DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102140
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
51. 51
  Zhou, C.; Zarrella, A.; Yao, Y.; Ni, L. Analysis of the effect of icing on the thermal behavior of helical coil heat exchangers in surface water heat pump applications. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 2022, 183, 122074, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.122074
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
52. 52
  Jahanbin, A. Thermal performance of the vertical ground heat exchanger with a novel elliptical single U-tube. Geothermics 2020, 86, 101804, DOI: 10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101804
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
53. 53
  Serageldin, A. A.; Radwan, A.; Katsura, T.; Sakata, Y.; Nagasaka, S.; Nagano, K. Parametric analysis, response surface, sensitivity analysis, and optimization of a novel spiral-double ground heat exchanger. Energy Convers. Manag. 2021, 240, 114251, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114251
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
54. 54
  Zhou, K.; Mao, J.; Li, Y.; Xiang, J. Parameters optimization of borehole and internal thermal resistance for single U-tube ground heat exchangers using Taguchi method. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 201, 112177, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112177
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
55. 55
  Liu, Z.; Xu, K.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, M. Numerical simulation on the heat recovery law of exploiting geothermal energy from a closed-loop geothermal system converted from an abandoned five-spot well pattern. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 41723– 41731, DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05925
  55
  Numerical Simulation on the Heat Recovery Law of Exploiting Geothermal Energy from a Closed-Loop Geothermal System Converted from an Abandoned Five-Spot Well Pattern
  Liu, Zouwei; Xu, Kai; Zhang, Qianqing; Yanga, Minghe
  ACS Omega (2022), 7 (45), 41723-41731CODEN: ACSODF; ISSN:2470-1343. (American Chemical Society)
  Exploiting geothermal energy from abandoned wells is a research hotpot at present. However, there is still a lack of research on exploiting geothermal energy using an abandoned well pattern. Aiming at this problem, in this paper, a novel method for exploiting geothermal energy from an abandoned well pattern is proposed. An unsteady heat transfer model is proposed to study the influence of some key parameters on the prodn. law of the novel scheme, and the proposed model is verified with field exptl. data. The result indicates that there exists a crit. flow rate that can change the form of the characteristic curve of the outlet temp. with prodn. time. The change of flow rate has more influence on the outlet temp. than that of temp. A higher geothermal gradient is conducive to prodn. When the total no. of wells and the total flow rate of the system are fixed, fewer prodn. wells will be conducive to prodn. When the no. of prodn. wells and injection wells is detd., changing the deployment of prodn. wells and injection wells has little effect on the outlet temp. and thermal power.
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56. 56
  Meng, X.; Han, Z.; Hu, H.; Zhang, H.; Li, X. Studies on the performance of ground source heat pump affected by soil freezing under groundwater seepage. J. Build. Eng. 2021, 33, 101632, DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101632
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
57. 57
  Choudhary, K.; Jakhar, S.; Gakkhar, N.; Sangwan, K. S. Comparative life cycle assessments of photovoltaic thermal systems with earth water heat exchanger cooling. Procedia CIRP 2022, 105, 255– 260, DOI: 10.1016/j.procir.2022.02.042
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
58. 58
  Ruoping, Y.; Xiangru, Y.; Xiaohui, Y.; Yunpeng, B.; Huajun, W. Performance study of split type ground source heat pump systems combining with solar photovoltaic-thermal modules for rural households in North China. Energy Build. 2021, 249, 111190, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111190
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
59. 59
  Sommerfeldt, N.; Madani, H. Review of solar PV/thermal plus ground source heat pump systems for European multi-family houses. In 11th ISES Eurosun Conference; Palma de Mallorca: Spain, 2016; pp 1382– 1393.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
60. 60
  Alnasser, T. M. A.; Mahdy, A. M. J.; Abass, K. I.; Chaichan, M. T.; Kazem, H. A. Impact of dust ingredient on photovoltaic performance: An experimental study. Sol. Energy 2020, 195, 651– 659, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2019.12.008
  60
  Impact of dust ingredient on photovoltaic performance: An experimental study
  Alnasser, Tamadher M. A.; Mahdy, Aedah M. J.; Abass, Khaleel I.; Chaichan, Miqdam T.; Kazem, Hussein A.
  Solar Energy (2020), 195 (), 651-659CODEN: SRENA4; ISSN:0038-092X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  Different building materials such as sand, cement, and gypsum are transported and stored poorly in Iraq (open-air), so large amts. of them fly into the air and form part of the dust. In this study, collected amts. of dust deposited for three months studied in a controlled manner. The components of the accumulated dust were examd. and found that the largest part of it (more than 50%) is silicon oxides (sand), the rest of which represent most significant part of the components of cement and gypsum. In this study, the accumulation of building materials (sand, ordinary cement, egg cement, gypsum, and industrial gypsum) studied on the power output of a photovoltaic module (PV). The effect of periodic cleaning and its duration on the lost power of the PV were also studied. The study results showed that the accumulation of these materials, even in small quantities on PV reduces the transmittance and reduces the resulting power because it prevents the arrival of solar irradn. to the PV. The accumulation of natural and white cement followed by sand and gypsum gave the most considerable loss of energy produced. The studied module cleaned without using any liqs. so as not to react with the tested building materials. Natural cement is the most difficult of these materials in dry cleaning due to its particles' small size. The industrial gypsum causes the most substantial power redn. when accumulates in more than 25 g/m2. When studying the material's ability to adhere to the surface of the dry PV module, the industrial gypsum showed a high degree of adhesion followed by sand compared with the other studied materials. Three methods to prevent the dew water from being connected to the building material were studied, which is to clean the PV daily at the evening, cover the PV with plastic cover from evening until early morning, and turn the PV in the evening to face the ground. The first method limited in effectiveness, while the other two methods were effective in reducing dust accumulation damage and preventing its interaction with dew.
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61. 61
  Yin, H.; Zhang, C.; Zhou, X.; Chen, T.; Dong, F.; Cheng, W.; Tang, R.; Xu, G.; Jiao, P. Research on the Genetic Mechanism of High-Temperature Groundwater in the Geothermal Anomalous Area of Gold Deposit–Application to the Copper Mine Area of Yinan Gold Mine. ACS Omega 2022, 7, 43231– 43241, DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c05936
  61
  Research on the Genetic Mechanism of High-Temperature Groundwater in the Geothermal Anomalous Area of Gold Deposit-Application to the Copper Mine Area of Yinan Gold Mine
  Yin, Huiyong; Zhang, Chengwei; Zhou, Xinlong; Chen, Tao; Dong, Fangying; Cheng, Wenju; Tang, Ruqian; Xu, Guoliang; Jiao, Peng
  ACS Omega (2022), 7 (47), 43231-43241CODEN: ACSODF; ISSN:2470-1343. (American Chemical Society)
  Geothermal energy is new, environmentally friendly, and clean energy, which is of great significance to realize energy saving and emission redn. The study of the genesis mechanism of geothermal water is the key to its rational development and utilization. In this study, based on 14 sets of water samples from the eastern section of the copper well mining area of Yinan Gold Mine, mineral satn. index, isotope anal. (δ18O, δD), Si-enthalpy mixing equation, and geochem. geothermal temp. scale were used to analyze the thermal storage temp., recharge characteristics, mixing ratio, circulation depth, and fluid passage to reveal the geothermal water fugitive transmission pattern and genesis mechanism in the study area and to propose a geothermal water genesis model. The study shows that the water supply elevation in the area is between 687.22 and 1164.15 m and a large amt. of cold water recharged it. It is inferred that the recharge area is the pptn. in the Northwest Mountain range and surrounding atm. Groundwater flows along the fracture zone in a south-easterly direction. It receives heating from the surrounding rocks, where the water level rises at the fracture zone intersection and is stored in the lower and middle Cambrian thermal reservoirs and continues to receive heating from deeper heat sources. Based on this study and previous regional research data, the fault structure in this area is within the influence range of the energy field of the Yishu fault zone. Yishu fault zone becomes the heating source under the background of cold water. It is inferred that the east-east Yishu fault zone in the study area may also be the recharge area.
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62. 62
  Adamo, N.; Al-Ansari, N.; Sissakian, V.; Jehad Fahmi, K.; Ali Abed, S. Climate change: Droughts and increasing desertification in the Middle East, with special reference to Iraq. Engineering 2022, 14, 235– 273, DOI: 10.4236/eng.2022.147021
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
63. 63
  Chaichan, M. T.; Kazem, H. A.; Alnaser, N. W.; Gholami, A.; Al-Waeli, A. H.; Alnaser, W. E. Assessment cooling of photovoltaic modules using underground water. Arab. Gulf J. Sci. Res. 2022, 39, 151– 169, DOI: 10.51758/agjsr-02-2021-0016
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
64. 64
  Chaichan, M. T.; Kazem, H. A. Experimental evaluation of dust composition impact on photovoltaic performance in Iraq. Energy Sources, Part A 2020, 1– 22, DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2020.1746444
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
65. 65
  Majeed, S. H.; Abdul-Zahra, A. S.; Mutasher, D. G. Performance evaluation of different types of ground source heat exchangers in a hot and dry climate. Heat Transfer 2022, 51, 5700– 5722, DOI: 10.1002/htj.22566
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
66. 66
  Kazem, H. A.; Al-Waeli, A. H.; Chaichan, M. T.; Al-Waeli, K. H.; Al-Aasam, A. B.; Sopian, K. Evaluation and comparison of different flow configurations PVT systems in Oman: A numerical and experimental investigation. Sol. Energy 2020, 208, 58– 88, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2020.07.078
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
67. 67
  Al-Smairan, M. Application of photovoltaic array for pumping water as an alternative to diesel engines in Jordan Badia, Tall Hassan station: Case study. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 4500– 4507, DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.033
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
68. 68
  Kazem, H. A.; Khatib, T.; Sopian, K. Sizing of a standalone photovoltaic/battery system at minimum cost for remote housing electrification in Sohar, Oman. Energy Build. 2013, 61, 108– 115, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.02.011
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
69. 69
  Heat Transfer, 10th ed.; Holman, J., Ed.; McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2010.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
70. 70
  Niyas, H.; Prasad, S.; Muthukumar, P. Performance investigation of a lab-scale latent heat storage prototype - Numerical results. Energy Convers. Manage. 2017, 135, 188– 199, DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2016.12.075
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
71. 71
  Qi, C.; Li, C.; Li, K.; Han, D. Natural convection of nanofluids in solar energy collectors based on a two-phase lattice Boltzmann model. J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2021, 147, 2417– 2438, DOI: 10.1007/s10973-021-10668-8
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
72. 72
  Huang, J.; Wang, X.; Long, Q.; Wen, X.; Zhou, Y.; Li, L. Influence of pH on the stability characteristics of nanofluids. In Proceedings of the 2009 Symposium Photonics Optoelectron, SOPO, Wuhan, China, 14–16 August 2009; 2–4. DOI: 10.1109/SOPO.2009.5230102 .
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
73. 73
  Li, X.; Zhu, D.; Wang, X. Evaluation on dispersion behavior of the aqueous copper nano-suspensions. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2007, 310, 456– 463, DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2007.02.067
  73
  Evaluation on dispersion behavior of the aqueous copper nano-suspensions
  Li, Xinfang; Zhu, Dongsheng; Wang, Xianju
  Journal of Colloid and Interface Science (2007), 310 (2), 456-463CODEN: JCISA5; ISSN:0021-9797. (Elsevier)
  This paper presents a procedure for prepg. a nanofluid which is solid-liq. composite material consisting of solid nanoparticles with sizes typically of 1-100 nm suspended in liq. By means of the procedure, Cu-H2O nanofluids with and without dispersant were prepd., whose sediment photographs and particle size distribution were given to illustrate the stability and evenness of suspension with dispersant. Aiming at the dispersion of nano-Cu is regarded as the guide of heat transfer enhancement, the dispersion behavior of Cu nanoparticles in water were studied under different pH values, different dispersant types and concn. by the method of zeta potential, absorbency and sedimentation photographs. The results show that zeta potential has good corresponding relation with absorbency, and the higher abs. value of zeta potential and the absorbency are, the better dispersion and stability in system is. The abs. value of zeta potential and the absorbency are higher at pH 9.5. Hexadecyl tri-Me ammonium bromide (CATB) and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS) can significantly increase the abs. value of zeta potential of particle surfaces by electrostatic repulsions, and polyoxyethylene (10) nonyl Ph ether (TX-10) can form a thick hydration layer on the particle surfaces by steric interference, which leads to the enhancement of the stability for Cu suspensions. In the 0.1% copper nano-suspensions, the optimizing concns. for TX-10, CATB, and SDBS are 0.43, 0.05, and 0.07%, resp., which have the best dispersion results.
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74. 74
  Utomo, A. T.; Poth, H.; Robbins, P. T.; Pacek, A. W. Experimental and theoretical studies of thermal conductivity, viscosity and heat transfer coefficient of titania and alumina nanofluids. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 2012, 55, 7772– 7781, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.08.003
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
75. 75
  Cacua, K.; Ordoñez, F.; Zapata, C.; Herrera, B.; Pabón, E.; Buitrago-Sierra, R. Surfactant concentration and pH effects on the zeta potential values of alumina nanofluids to inspect stability. Colloids Surf., A 2019, 583, 123960, DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.123960
  75
  Surfactant concentration and pH effects on the zeta potential values of alumina nanofluids to inspect stability
  Cacua, Karen; Ordonez, Fredy; Zapata, Camilo; Herrera, Bernardo; Pabon, Elizabeth; Buitrago-Sierra, Robison
  Colloids and Surfaces, A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects (2019), 583 (), 123960CODEN: CPEAEH; ISSN:0927-7757. (Elsevier B.V.)
  Nanofluids are complex fluids, mainly proposed to improve the efficiency of thermal systems. However, their poor stability, caused by the agglomeration and sedimentation of nanoparticles over time, has limited their practical application. A common technique to increase the stability of nanofluids is to add surfactants, which produce electrostatic or steric repulsion between nanoparticles, thus avoiding their agglomeration. This work evaluated the effects of surfactants and their concn. on the zeta potential and hydrodynamic diam. at different pH values as an indicator of nanofluids stability. Com. alumina nanoparticles (0.1 wt.%) were dispersed in deionized water using two surfactants (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, CTAB and sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, SDBS) at different concns., and the pH values were varied (2-12) by adding hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. The results show the importance of the crit. micelle concn. value in the nanofluids stabilization by electrostatic repulsion between nanoparticles and indicate that SDBS at a concn. of 0.064 wt.% (crit. micelle concn.) offers the best dispersion conditions according with their zeta potential values, allowing high stability regardless of the pH value of the suspension.
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76. 76
  Suganthi, K. S.; Rajan, K. S. Temperature induced changes in ZnO-water nanofluid: Zeta potential, size distribution and viscosity profiles. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 2012, 55, 7969– 7980, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2012.08.032
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
77. 77
  Mugi, V. R.; Chandramohan, V. P. Energy and exergy analysis of forced and natural convection indirect solar dryers: Estimation of exergy inflow, outflow, losses, exergy efficiencies and sustainability indicators from drying experiments. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 282, 124421, DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124421
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
78. 78
  Abdelkader, T. K.; Zhang, Y.; Gaballah, E. S.; Wang, S.; Wan, Q.; Fan, Q. Energy and exergy analysis of a flat-plate solar air heater coated with carbon nanotubes and cupric oxide nanoparticles embedded in black paint. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 250, 119501, DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119501
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
79. 79
  Abuşka, M.; Şevik, S. Energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) analyses of flat-plate and V-groove solar air collectors based on aluminum and copper. Sol. Energy 2017, 158, 259– 277, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2017.09.045
  79
  Energy, exergy, economic and environmental (4E) analyses of flat-plate and V-groove solar air collectors based on aluminum and copper
  Abuska, Mesut; Sevik, Seyfi
  Solar Energy (2017), 158 (), 259-277CODEN: SRENA4; ISSN:0038-092X. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  An exptl. investigation has been carried out to study the effect of energy, economic, and environment of SACs which are smooth and roughened by v-groove protrusions arranged made of copper and aluminum materials. In this context; energy, exergy, economic, and environment (4E) analyses are investigated using data obtained from exptl. studies at air mass flow rates of 0.04, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.1 kg/s. Thermal, economic, and environmental impacts for performance enhancement of the SACs have been detd. It reveals that the av. thermal and exergy efficiencies of the SACs, for the installed region of collectors, were 43-60% and 6-12%, resp. Among all others with copper v-groove showed that the highest heat transfer enhancements with friction factors high than those of flat, thermal performance of copper v-groove are among the highest of the SACs tested in this study. The payback period was found to be between av. 4.3 and 4.6 years when calcd. on a yearly basis, which was significantly less than estd. lifetime of the system. The enviro-economic cost values were obtained between 4.5 and 5.77 $/yr. Consequently, the results show that the v-groove collectors to be preferable due to their performance despite the price disadvantage. The v-groove SACs, although slightly higher friction factors and cost, produce much higher heat transfer coeffs. compared with flat SACs.
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80. 80
  Nayak, S.; Tiwari, G. N. Energy and exergy analysis of photovoltaic/thermal integrated with a solar greenhouse. Energy Build. 2008, 40, 2015– 2021, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.05.007
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
81. 81
  Sardarabadi, M.; Hosseinzadeh, M.; Kazemian, A.; Passandideh-Fard, M. Experimental investigation of the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids on a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from energy and exergy viewpoints. Energy 2017, 138, 682– 695, DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.046
  81
  Experimental investigation of the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids on a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from energy and exergy viewpoints
  Sardarabadi, Mohammad; Hosseinzadeh, Mohammad; Kazemian, Arash; Passandideh-Fard, Mohammad
  Energy (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2017), 138 (), 682-695CODEN: ENEYDS; ISSN:0360-5442. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  In this paper, an exptl. investigation on the effects of using metal-oxides/water nanofluids as a coolant system in a photovoltaic thermal system (PVT) from the energy and exergy viewpoints are presented. The considered nanoparticles include Al2O3, TiO2 and ZnO dispersed in deionized water as the base fluid by 0.2 wt%. A const. mass flow rate of 30 kg/h for the fluid flowing through the collector is considered. The expts. are performed on selected days in August and Sept. at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran. The uncertainty of the expts. is less than 5%. The measured data are analyzed from the energy/exergy viewpoints and entropy generation. Based on the extensive results presented in this paper, the PVT/ZnO and PVT/TiO2 systems show a better overall energy and exergy efficiencies compared to other systems. The results indicate that the overall exergy efficiencies for the cases of PVT/water, PVT/TiO2, PVT/Al2O3, and PVT/ZnO are enhanced by 12.34%, 15.93%, 18.27% and 15.45%, resp., compared to that of the photovoltaic unit (PV) with no collector. Moreover, the PVT/Al2O3 system has the highest enhancement of entropy generation compared to the PV unit.
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82. 82
  Hosseinzadeh, M.; Sardarabadi, M.; Passandideh-Fard, M. Energy and exergy analysis of nanofluid based photovoltaic thermal system integrated with phase change material. Energy 2018, 147, 636– 647, DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2018.01.073
  82
  Energy and exergy analysis of nanofluid based photovoltaic thermal system integrated with phase change material
  Hosseinzadeh, Mohammad; Sardarabadi, Mohammad; Passandideh-Fard, Mohammad
  Energy (Oxford, United Kingdom) (2018), 147 (), 636-647CODEN: ENEYDS; ISSN:0360-5442. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  In this study, the effects of simultaneous use of ZnO/water nanofluid with 0.2 wt% as the coolant as well as an org. paraffin wax as the phase change material (PCM) on the elec. and thermal efficiencies of a photovoltaic thermal (PVT) system are exptl. investigated. For this purpose, three different systems are studied and compared with each other: a conventional PV module, a nanofluid based PVT, and a nanofluid based PVT/PCM. The expts. are performed on selected days in August and Sept. at the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. The measured data are analyzed from the energy and exergy viewpoints. Based on the results, using the PCM in the nanofluid based PVT system enhances the output thermal power of the PVT system by about 29.60%. The results also indicate that the nanofluid based PVT/PCM system compared to the other two systems considered in this study (PV and nanofluid PVT) has the max. output overall exergy and overall exergy efficiency of 114.99 W/m2 and 13.61%, resp. In addn., the relative redn. of the entropy generation of the nanofluid based PVT and PVT/PCM systems compared to that of the conventional PV module are about 1.59% and 3.19%, resp.
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83. 83
  Gomaa, M. R.; Ahmed, M.; Rezk, H. Temperature distribution modeling of PV and cooling water PV/T collectors through thin and thick cooling cross-fined channel box. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 1144– 1153, DOI: 10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.061
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
84. 84
  Dubey, S.; Tiwari, G. N. Analysis of PV/T flat plate water collectors connected in series. Sol. Energy 2009, 83, 1485– 1498, DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2009.04.002
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
85. 85
  Ji, J.; Lu, J. P.; Chow, T. T.; He, W.; Pei, G. A sensitivity study of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal water-heating system with natural circulation. Appl. Energy 2007, 84, 222– 237, DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2006.04.009
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
86. 86
  Chow, T. T.; Ji, J.; He, W. Photovoltaic-Thermal Collector System for Domestic Application. J. Sol. Energy Eng. 2007, 129, 205– 209, DOI: 10.1115/1.2711474
  86
  Photovoltaic-Thermal Collector System for Domestic Application
  Chow, T. T.; Ji, J.; He, W.
  Journal of Solar Energy Engineering (2007), 129 (2), 205-209CODEN: JSEEDO; ISSN:0199-6231. (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)
  Photovoltaic-thermal (PV/T) systems integrate photovoltaic and solar thermal technologies into one single system with dual prodn. of electricity and heat energy. A typical arrangement is the direct attachment of PV modules onto a solar thermal collector surface. For a given collector surface area, the overall system energy performance is expected higher than the conventional side-by-side PV and solar thermal systems. In the development of PV/T collector technol. using water as the coolant, the most common design follows the sheet-and-tube thermal absorber concept. Fin performance of the thermal absorber has been identified as one important factor that affects the overall energy performance of the collector. Accordingly, an aluminum-alloy flat-box type PV/T collector prototype was constructed and tested in Hong Kong. Our test results indicate that a high combined thermal and elec. efficiency can be achieved. The primary-energy-saving efficiency for daily exposure approaches 65% at zero reduced temp. operation. With a simple and handy design, the product is considered to be suitable for domestic application.
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87. 87
  Salem, M. R.; Elsayed, M. M.; Abd-Elaziz, A. A.; Elshazly, K. M. Performance enhancement of the photovoltaic cells using Al2O3/PCM mixture and/or water cooling-techniques. Renewable Energy 2019, 138, 876– 890, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2019.02.032
  87
  Performance enhancement of the photovoltaic cells using Al2O3/PCM mixture and/or water cooling-techniques
  Salem, M. R.; Elsayed, M. M.; Abd-Elaziz, A. A.; Elshazly, K. M.
  Renewable Energy (2019), 138 (), 876-890CODEN: RNENE3; ISSN:0960-1481. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  This work exptl. investigates the performance of a PV module cooling effect using a compd. enhancement technique. This is by employing water and/or Al2O3/PCM mixt. with different nanoparticles mass concns. (φ) from 0 to 1% and mass fluxes of the cooling water from 0 to 5.31 kg/s.m2 through straight aluminum channels beneath the PV panel. The effect of the occupation ratio of the Al2O3/PCM (λPCM) in the channels from 0 (100% water) to 100% (0% water) is also examd. The results illustrate that the Al2O3 nanoparticles of φ = 1% makes the compd. technique (Al2O3/PCM mixt. + water) better than the cooling with 100% water. Compared with all studied cooling techniques parameters, it is obsd. that the compd. technique; Al2O3(φ = 1%)/PCM mixt. (λPCM = 25%) + 75% water (5.31 kg/s.m2) achieves the highest PV performance. However, although the Al2O3/PCM mixt. of λPCM = 100% does not provide the highest PV elec. output power, it may be a superior soln. for the PV cooling as it solves the problems of using the cooling water. Finally, exptl. correlations are presented to predict the elec., thermal, and overall exergy efficiencies of the PV cell.
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88. 88
  Shalaby, S. M.; Elfakharany, M. K.; Moharram, B. M.; Abosheiasha, H. F. Experimental study on the performance of PV with water cooling. Energy Rep. 2022, 8, 957– 961, DOI: 10.1016/j.egyr.2021.11.155
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
89. 89
  Menon, G. S.; Murali, S.; Elias, J.; Aniesrani Delfiya, D. A.; Alfiya, P. V.; Samuel, M. P. Experimental investigations on unglazed photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) system using water and nanofluid cooling medium. Renewable Energy 2022, 188, 986– 996, DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2022.02.080
  89
  Experimental investigations on unglazed photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) system using water and nanofluid cooling medium
  Menon, Govind S.; Murali, S.; Elias, Jacob; Aniesrani Delfiya, D. S.; Alfiya, P. V.; Samuel, Manoj P.
  Renewable Energy (2022), 188 (), 986-996CODEN: RNENE3; ISSN:0960-1481. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  The elec. and thermal performance of an unglazed photovoltaic thermal (PVT) system integrated with a serpentine coil configured sheet and tube thermal absorber setup was evaluated using water and copper oxide-based nanofluid. An uncooled PVT system reached a max. panel temp. of 68.4°C at noon and obtained an av. elec. efficiency of 12.98%. Water and nanofluid cooling of the PVT system reduced the panel temp. by 15°C and 23.7°C at noontime, resp. Compared to the uncooled PVT system, the av. elec. efficiency of water and nanofluid cooled PVT system increased by 12.32% and 35.67% to obtain 14.58% and 17.61%, resp. The thermal efficiency of the nanofluid cooled PVT system (71.17%) was significantly higher than water cooling (58.77%) due to max. heat absorption by nanoparticles. It was also obsd. that the overall efficiency of the nanofluid cooled PVT system was 21% higher than the water-cooled system. Also, obtained the highest primary energy-saving efficiency for the nanofluid cooled PVT system.
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90. 90
  Hasan, H. A.; Sherza, J. S.; Mahdi, J. M.; Togun, H.; Abed, A. M.; Ibrahim, R. K.; Yaïci, W. Experimental evaluation of the thermoelectrical performance of photovoltaic-thermal systems with a water-cooled heat sink. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10231, DOI: 10.3390/su141610231
  90
  Experimental Evaluation of the Thermoelectrical Performance of Photovoltaic-Thermal Systems with a Water-Cooled Heat Sink
  Hasan, Husam Abdulrasool; Sherza, Jenan S.; Mahdi, Jasim M.; Togun, Hussein; Abed, Azher M.; Ibrahim, Raed Khalid; Yaici, Wahiba
  Sustainability (2022), 14 (16), 10231CODEN: SUSTDE; ISSN:2071-1050. (MDPI AG)
  A design for a photovoltaic-thermal (PVT) assembly with a water-cooled heat sink was planned, constructed, and exptl. evaluated in the climatic conditions of the southern region of Iraq during the summertime. The water-cooled heat sink was applied to thermally manage the PV cells, in order to boost the elec. output of the PVT system. A set of temp. sensors was installed to monitor the water intake, exit, and cell temps. The climatic parameters including the wind velocity, atm. pressure, and solar irradn. were also monitored on a daily basis. The effects of solar irradn. on the av. PV temp., elec. power, and overall elec.-thermal efficiency were investigated. The findings indicate that the PV temp. would increase from 65 to 73 °C, when the solar irradn. increases from 500 to 960 W/m2, with and without cooling, resp. Meanwhile, the output power increased from 35 to 55 W when the solar irradn. increased from 500 to 960 W/m2 during the daytime. The impact of varying the mass flow rate of cooling water in the range of 4 to 16 L/min was also examd., and it was found that the cell temp. declines as the water flow increases in intensity throughout the daytime. The max. cell temp. recorded for PV modules without cooling was in the middle of the day. The lowest cell temp. was also recorded in the middle of the day for a PVT solar system with 16 L/min of cooling water.
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91. 91
  Kazem, H. A.; Al-Waeli, A. H.; Chaichan, M. T.; Sopian, K. Numerical and experimental evaluation of nanofluids based photovoltaic/thermal systems in Oman: Using silicone-carbide nanoparticles with water-ethylene glycol mixture. Case Stud. Therm. Eng. 2021, 26, 101009, DOI: 10.1016/j.csite.2021.101009
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1. Introduction

2. Experimental Setup

2.1. Study Area

2.2. Underground Heat Exchanger Characterizations

Figure 1

2.3. PVT System Description

Figure 2

2.4. Pump Selection and Hydraulic Measures

2.5. Data Reduction

2.6. Uncertainty Analysis

2.7. Test Procedure

3. Results and Discussion

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4. Conclusions

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Cooling of a PVT System Using an Underground Heat Exchanger: An Experimental Study
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