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Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Self-Compacting Concrete
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  • Aijaz Ahmad Zende*
    Aijaz Ahmad Zende
    Department of Civil Engineering, BLDEA’s Vachana Pitamaha Dr. P.G Halakatti College of Engineering and Technology, Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Vijayapur 586103, Karnataka, India
    *Email: [email protected]
    More by Aijaz Ahmad Zende
  • Asif Iqbal. A. Momin*
    Asif Iqbal. A. Momin
    Department of Civil Engineering, BLDEA’s Vachana Pitamaha Dr. P.G Halakatti College of Engineering and Technology, Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Vijayapur 586103, Karnataka, India
    *Email: [email protected]
    More by Asif Iqbal. A. Momin
  • Rajesab B. Khadiranaikar
    Rajesab B. Khadiranaikar
    Department of Civil Engineering, SECAB Institute of Engineering and Technology, Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Vijayapur 586109, Karnataka, India
    More by Rajesab B. Khadiranaikar
  • Abdullah H. Alsabhan
    Abdullah H. Alsabhan
    Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
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  • Shamshad Alam
    Shamshad Alam
    Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
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  • Mohammad Amir Khan
    Mohammad Amir Khan
    Department of Civil Engineering, Galgotia College of Engineering, Knowledge Park I, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201310, India
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  • Mohammad Obaid Qamar
    Mohammad Obaid Qamar
    Department of Civil Engineering (Environmental Science & Engineering), Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, South Korea
    More by Mohammad Obaid Qamar
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ACS Omega

Cite this: ACS Omega 2023, 8, 20, 18000–18008
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c01204
Published May 9, 2023

Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under

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Abstract

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In this research work, the mechanical properties of high-strength self-compacting concrete (HSSCC) were studied. Three mixes were selected, having compressive strengths of more than 70, 80, and 90 MPa, respectively. For these three mixes, the stress–strain characteristics were studied by casting cylinders. It was observed during the testing that the binder content and water-to-binder ratio influence the strength of HSSCC, and slow changes in stress–strain curves were seen as the strength increased. The use of HSSCC results in reduced bond cracking, leading to a more linear and steeper stress–strain curve in the ascending branches as the strength of the concrete increases. Elastic properties such as modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of HSSCC were calculated using experimental data. In HSSCC, since the aggregate content is lower and the size of the aggregates is smaller, it will have a lower modulus of elasticity compared to normal vibrating concrete (NVC). Thus, an equation is proposed from the experimental results for predicting the modulus of elasticity of HSSCC. The results suggest that the proposed equation for predicting the elastic modulus of HSSCC for strengths ranging from 70 to 90 MPa is valid. It was also observed that the Poisson’s ratio values for all three mixes of HSSCC were found to be lower than the typical value for NVC, indicating a higher degree of stiffness.

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1. Introduction

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Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a type of concrete that flows easily, consolidates, and spreads into formwork without the need for external vibration. High-strength self-compacting concrete (HSSCC) is formulated to have high compressive strengths, typically exceeding 60 MPa. (1,2) The production of HSSCC requires different materials and mix proportions compared to normal vibrating concrete (NVC), and therefore, a comprehensive understanding of its mechanical properties is essential. The use of HSSCC in construction is becoming increasingly popular due to its potential for reducing construction costs, improving workability, and improving durability. However, there is limited research available on the mechanical properties of HSSCC, and further investigation is required to fully understand its potential. In recent times, there have been several studies carried out to examine the mechanical properties of HSSCC. (3,4) These studies have shown that HSSCC has improved compressive and tensile strengths compared to conventional SCC and that its mechanical properties are influenced by factors like the type of aggregates used, curing conditions, and the type of admixtures. Numerous research works have been undertaken to analyze the mechanical properties of HSSCC, including but not limited to stress–strain behavior, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. (5−8) These studies have shown that the binder content, W/B ratio, and type and size of aggregates used in the mixes significantly influence the mechanical properties of HSSCC. Zende et al. (9) investigated the stress–strain characteristics of SCC and compared them with those of normal concrete. The study found that SCC exhibited higher compressive strength and elastic modulus compared to normal vibrating concrete (NVC), as well as a lower rate of strain at peak stress. However, in other studies, the elastic modulus of HSSCC has been found to be lower compared to high-strength NVC due to the lower aggregate content and smaller aggregate size in HSSCC. (10−14) Ozkul (15) observed that the modulus of elasticity of SCC was greater than that of NVC, due to the higher compressive strength and lower rate of strain at peak stress of SCC. The Poisson’s ratio of SCC was similar to that of NVC, suggesting that SCC exhibits similar lateral contraction behavior under load compared to normal concrete. This suggests that SCC may be more suitable for use in structures subjected to high stress and load compared to normal concrete. While both HSSCC and high-strength NVC are types of high-strength concrete, they differ in their material characteristics and performance. HSSCC is known for its excellent workability, durability, and high compressive strength. The use of superplasticizers and viscosity-modifying admixtures allows for a high-volume fraction of fine particles and fibers to be incorporated into the mix, resulting in a highly dense and homogeneous microstructure. In contrast, high-strength NVC is typically produced using a low water-to-cement ratio and a higher cement content, resulting in a highly dense and compact microstructure. (16,17)
In this study, we aim to contribute to the current body of knowledge on the mechanical properties of HSSCC by investigating its stress–strain characteristics, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. Three mixes are selected with compressive strengths of 70, 80, and 90, and cylindrical specimens are cast and tested to determine the stress–strain characteristics of each mix. The modulus of elasticity of HSSCC was also obtained for each mix, and a proposed equation was developed for predicting the elastic modulus of HSSCC for strength ranges between 70 and 90 MPa. This study provides valuable insights into the mechanical behavior of high-strength self-consolidating concrete (HSSCC) and its potential application in the construction industry. This study fills this gap by providing a detailed analysis of the stress–strain behavior of HSSCC under axial loading, which can help in designing structures that are more resilient and durable. The findings of this study can be of significant value to civil engineers and construction professionals involved in designing and constructing high-performance structures.

2. Experimental Program

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Making the right material selection is essential for producing high-strength self-compacting concrete. These materials should include cement, water, aggregate, and chemical and mineral admixtures. Chemical admixtures control the slump of the concrete, while mineral admixtures enhance its strength. In this study, ordinary Portland cement confirming to IS 12269-1987 (18) was used, along with fly ash (FA) and silica fume (SF) as supplementary cementing materials acting as binders. The physical and chemical characteristics of these materials are listed in Table 1. The fineness of the mineral admixtures was determined by wet sieving with a 45 m sieve every 2 h, according to the ASTM C 430-08 (2009a) (19) standard. After 20 h, it was observed that more than 90% of the particles passed through the sieve, indicating superior performance to ordinary Portland cement.
Table 1. Chemical Analysis of Cement, Fly Ash, and Silica Fume
chemical compositionOPCFASF
SiO2 (%)19.362.6391.9
Al2O3 (%)5.223.340.7
Fe2O3 (%)2.43.930.3
CaO (%)61.22.04 
MgO (%)1.251.30.1
SO3 (%)3.20.60.1
Na2O (%)0.0690.630.06
density (kg/m3)308922702260
specific surface area BET (103/kg)0.552.1426.43
fineness % retained on 90 μm sieve3%  
initial setting time in min62  
final setting time in min370  
specific gravity2.962.22.15
compressive strength (MPA)   
7-day45  
28-day65  
Fine aggregate was obtained from the bed of the Krishna River in Karnataka and was locally available. The sand was black in color and met the specifications for zone II grade as defined in the IS code (IS: 383-1970). (20) The coarse aggregates (CA) were sourced from local stone crushers of 10 mm downsize. CA were made of crushed basalt stones with a specific gravity of 2.7. To enhance the strength, fly ash and silica fume were utilized as mineral admixtures, which helped to fill voids. (21) Superplasticizer, along with a viscosity-modifying agent (VMA), was used to improve the workability and decrease the W/B ratio in the concrete. (22) To produce HSSCC with a strength of up to 90 MPa, a series of trial mix proportions were developed by varying the cement content, coarse aggregate content, fine aggregate content, and W/B ratio. All mixes were evaluated to ensure that they met the characteristics of SCC as per the guidelines set by EFNARC. (23) Tables 2 and 3 show the trial mix proportion and the fresh properties of SCC, respectively.
Table 2. Trial Mix Proportions
mix trial no.W/C ratiocement (kg/m3)FA (%)SF (%)sand (kg/m3)CA (kg/m3)
MF10.3443010 950800
MF20.3243020 850800
MF30.3243030 870770
MA10.32480 10900800
MA20.30480 20890860
MA30.28480 30755995
MC10.3048055890860
MC20.284801010755960
MC30.284801515755995
MC40.264802020780945
Table 3. Summary of Test Results on Fresh SCC
sl. no.12345678910
concrete designationMF1MF2MF3MA1MA2MA3MC1MC2MC3MC4
Slump Flow Test
diameter in mm702699685684665650692680675670
EFNARC (23) range650–800 mm
T-500
time (s)3.524.14.24.064.4553.554.024.044.1
EFNARC (23) range2–5 s
V-Funnel Test
time in (s)9.59.5610.41011.32129.5610.110.1511.55
EFNARC (23) range6–12 s
L-Box Test
H1 in cm10.310.210.1109.8109.79.4910.1
H2 in cm9.99.4998.48.18.88.37.78.1
L-box test value in H2/H10.960.920.890.90.850.810.90.880.850.8
EFNARC (23) rangeH2/H1─0.8–1
To check the stress–strain characteristics, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s ratio of high-strength SCC, three mix proportions were selected in the compressive strength range of 70–79, 80–89, and 90–90 MPa from Table 2. The selected mix proportions are MC2 with a compressive strength of 79.57 MPa, MC4 with a compressive strength of 86.93 MPa, and MC3 with a compressive strength of 94.36 MPa.

3. Results and Discussion

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3.1. Compressive Strength

The production of HSSCC requires a high powder content to achieve the desired flowability and stability. The water-to-binder ratio should also be kept to a minimum, and a high dose of superplasticizers and VMA should be used. The strength of HSSCC is greatly influenced by both the type and proportion of binder as well as the water-to-binder ratio. Figure 1 shows the average 28-day compressive strength of all SCC specimens for all mixes. The strength development was faster in the concrete specimens that contained only silica fume compared to the other specimens. This could be attributed to the use of microsilica as the mineral admixture. Table 4 gives the details of the compressive strength for all mixes with different percentages of FA and SF. Reducing the W/B ratio led to a rise in compressive strength. The greater content of binder led to higher production of calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) gel, improving the physical packing of aggregate and leading to higher compressive strengths.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Compressive strength of trial mixes.

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Table 4. Compressive Strength of HSSCC Mixes
mix trial no.W/B ratioFA (%)SF (%)compressive strengtha (MPa)
MF10.3410 45.87 (1.63)
MF20.3220 46 (1.15)
MF30.3230 50.31 (1.78)
MA10.32 1065.67 (2.33)
MA20.30 2071.25 (2.4)
MA30.28 3085.65 (2.36)
MC10.305584.43 (2.7)
MC20.28101079.57 (2.8)
MC30.28151594.36 (1.1)
MC40.26202086.93 (1.8)
a

Average of three tests with standard deviation given in the bracket.

It was noted that HSSCC with 30% silica fume (MA3) had approximately 40% higher compressive strength compared to SCC with fly ash. The strength increase can be attributed to the incorporation of mineral admixtures that possess pozzolanic and micro-filling properties. This can also be explained by the reduction of pore size and refinement of crystals with the introduction of fine and reactive silica fume particles. (24) SF and FA in the concrete reduced the voids and increased the density by decreasing the size of the pores. The pozzolanic reaction of the FA and SF affects the compressive strength of the concrete by enhancing the microstructure of the binder paste and improving the bond between the paste and aggregate. Previous works reported that the compressive strength of concrete is reduced at early stages when fly ash is used. (24) Mineral admixtures generally have three effects on cement hydration when used with cement in concrete: first, as a filler effect to the cement, then as a pozzolanic effect, and lastly, provide additional nucleation effects during hydration.
The compressive strength of the FA mix was lower compared to that of the silica fume mixes. This was due to FA’s slow pozzolanic reaction, which resulted in the dilution effect dominating at an early age in the specimens. Only a limited amount of fly ash participated in the reaction. (25)
However, at 15% replacement with SF, a significant amount of CaOH2 was liberated from the hydration process, resulting in an increase in the C–S–H gel by the pozzolanic reaction due to the higher SiO2 content in the mineral admixture. The C–S–H that formed had a lesser calcium-to-silica ratio and absorbed alkali ions from the pore solution, thus reducing the silica reaction. Additionally, the high specific surface area of SF allowed for better absorption of calcium ions, which, when removed from the surrounding cement particles, accelerated the hydration process. (26) This acceleration and the pozzolanic reaction from silica fume also activated the hydration of fly ash. It was found that using silica fume led to a reduction in the porosity of the transition zone and densified it, thus reducing the concentrations of large, oriented CH precipitates near the aggregate surfaces. It was observed that the CaOH2 content in the FA mix reached its highest value after 7–14 days and decreased afterward as a result of its consumption in the pozzolanic reaction. This decrease in CaOH2 content corresponded with an increase in strength due to the use of FA.

3.2. Split Tensile Strength (STS)

The STS of any type of concrete is directly related to its compressive strength, but this relationship can be influenced by the type of aggregate, particle size distribution, age of the concrete, or curing processes. (27) In HSSCC, mix design method and placement also affect STS. The split tensile strength was obtained for all 10 mixes by averaging the results of three cylinders for each mix. All 10 HSSCC cylinders failed in the expected splitting failure mode.
The failure mode of different SCC specimens can be classified into three features:
(1)

Ideal failure, where the splitting crack develops at the center of the diametrical tensile zone and propagates toward the boundaries, causing failure of the specimens;

(2)

central cracks with local crushing, where after reaching the maximum load, the specimens fail due to local crushing; and

(3)

central cracks with other cracks, where after the development of a central crack, other cracks occur and lead to failure.

Figure 2 shows the cylinder specimen used for testing STS, and Table 5 gives the results of all of the mixes. It can be observed that SCC with silica fume mixes exhibits nearly 15% more STS compared to SCC with FA. Mix MC3 gives 19.5% more STS compared to SCC with FA alone. The increase in STS when silica fume is added can be attributed to the filling effects of fine particles in the voids of the specimens. Figure 3 shows the relationship between STS and the compressive strength of HSSCC. Previous works have shown that the STS of self-compacting concrete is lower compared to NVC. (27) This is because SCC is produced using polycarboxylate-type superplasticizers, which form large C–H crystals and ettringite that weaken the transition zone of aggregate and paste, reducing split tensile strength. Additionally, the higher binder content in HSSCC results in more microcracks, increased shrinkage, and a weaker aggregate–paste transition zone due to the decrease in surface area of the aggregates.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Cylinder specimens.

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Figure 3

Figure 3. Split tensile strength vs compressive strength.

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Table 5. Split Tensile Strengths of HSSCC
  STS (MPa)
sl. no.concrete designation7-day28-day
1MF12.503.67
2MF22.603.80
3MF32.903.96
4MA13.104.11
5MA22.704.39
6MA32.954.67
7MC13.394.55
8MC22.904.52
9MC32.604.95
10MC42.904.39

3.3. Stress–Strain Characteristics

It is well known that concrete has a nonlinear stress–strain behavior, making the modulus of elasticity an important parameter to design a concrete structure. It was reported that the microcracks are present in the concrete even before the loads are applied, and these cracks increase with an increase in loading. (28) Thus, studying the stress–strain characteristics of HSSCC is critical for designing HSSCC structures. To understand the stress–strain characteristics of HSSCC, three grades of concrete were finalized, i.e., M1, M2, and M3. The apparatus to test cylinder specimens is shown in Figure 4. The stress–strain curves for all three mixes are plotted in Figure 5. During testing, it was seen that the binder content and W/B ratio influence the strength of HSSCC, and slow changes in stress–strain curves were seen as the strength increased.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Apparatus to test cylinder specimens.

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Figure 5

Figure 5. Stress–strain curves for all three mixes.

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It can be observed that as the compressive strength of HSSCC increases, the strain at peak stresses also increases. M3 mix has a higher strain at peak stresses as compared to M2 mix, and similarly, M2 mix has a higher strain at peak stresses as compared to M1 mix. It can also be seen that, for higher-strength concrete, the stress–strain curves are more linear as compared to lower-strength concrete. The increase in compressive strength of HSSCC also increases the linear portion of the ascending branches. The peak stresses were found to be 76.02, 86.44, and 98.46 MPa, and the strains at peak stresses were 0.00283, 0.0027, and 0.0023 for M1, M2, and M3, respectively. It is a fact that as the strength of concrete increases, microcracks in the concrete decrease. This is also the case for HSSCC. High-strength concrete has lower bond cracking, and hence, as the strength of concrete increases, the stress–strain curve becomes more linear and steeper in ascending branches.
The results of our testing showed that, for higher-strength concrete, a large decline in stress–strain curves was observed as the HSSCC reached its ultimate load, and failure occurred suddenly. This indicates that the descending part of the stress–strain curve exhibits brittle characteristics, and the sudden failure of the HSSCC specimens is due to the brittle nature of the concrete. This finding is consistent with the analysis of the literature in this area, which has shown that the descending portion of the stress–strain curve is an important parameter for ultimate strength design. (11,29) Future studies can build on our findings by exploring the factors that influence the brittleness of concrete and how these factors can be mitigated to improve the ductility and toughness of HSSCC.

3.4. Modulus of Elasticity

The elastic modulus was evaluated at a 40% stress level, and the results are shown in Table 6. The average elastic modulus obtained from the experimental testing was 43.02, 44.07, and 45.03 GPa for mixes M1, M2, and M3, respectively. Similar to the STS of concrete, the modulus of elasticity also depends on the compressive strength of concrete, and an increase in strength results in an increase in the modulus of elasticity. Many other factors, such as the type of aggregate, particle size distribution, type of mix proportion, concrete age, and curing process, also influence this relationship. Concrete containing a larger amount of coarse aggregate has a higher elastic modulus. It was reported that concrete tested in wet conditions has a 15% higher modulus of elasticity compared to dry conditions. (30) Thus, coarse aggregates significantly contribute to the modulus of elasticity of concrete. HSSCC tends to have a lower modulus of elasticity compared to NVC since it has less coarse aggregate. Some studies (31,32) have shown that NVC with the same compressive strength has a higher modulus of elasticity than SCC. As the strength of concrete increases, the difference in elastic modulus between SCC and NVC decreases. It was reported that EC-2 predicts the elastic modulus of HSSCC quite well and falls within the acceptable band. Therefore, it can be said that the relationship between the elastic modulus and compressive strength of SCC is still valid. The databases for the elastic modulus of concrete and high-strength concrete, as proposed by different codes and researchers, are presented in Tables 7 and 8, respectively.
Table 6. Experimental Results of Ec
mixgrade of concrete (MPa)compressive Strength fc in (MPa)elastic modulus Ec in (GPa)
M17078.4144.24
M17079.943.36
M17080.442.36
M28089.645.03
M28086.944.01
M28084.343.06
M39092.4645.13
M39097.3544.47
M39093.3245.63
Table 7. Elastic Modulus of Concrete
Sl. Nocodeequation (MPa)
1.IS-456:2000 (33)
2.ACI-318-14 (34)
3.ACI-363-10 (35)
4.NS 3473 (36)
5.CSA A23.3-M84 (37)
6.EN 1992-1-1:2004 (38)
Table 8. Modulus of Elasticity of High Strength Concrete
sl. no.researcher(s)equation for Ec
1.Mostoufinezhad and Nozhati (39)Ec = 10.25(fc′)0.316, (R2 = 0.87) for limestone aggregate
Ec = 8(fc′)0.352, (R2 = 0.85) for andesite aggregate
Ec = 10.75(fc′)0.312, (R2 = 0.88) for quartzite aggregate
2.Rashid, Mansur, and Paramsivam (40)Ec = 8900β(fc′)0.33, β is the coarse aggregate coefficient, applicable for 20 ≤ fc′ ≤ 130 MPa
3.Nassif et al. (41)Ec = 0.036(wc)1.5(fc′)0.5, wc is the unit weight of concrete in kg/m3
4.Logan et al. (42)Ec = 0.000035k1(wc)2.5(fc′)0.33, fc′ < 124 MPa; k1 is the correction factor to account for the source of aggregates
Many researchers (39−41) have reported that the modulus of elasticity of HSSCC is lower than that of NVC for the same class of strength. All of the equations available in the codal provisions given in Table 7 either overestimate or underestimate the value of Ec. Since there is no specific equation available for HSSCC, it is essential to propose an equation to compute the modulus of elasticity of HSSCC. Previous studies (39−41) on high-strength concrete have shown that various factors such as the type and percentage of additives, curing conditions, and mix proportions can significantly affect the mechanical properties, including the modulus of elasticity. Therefore, developing accurate and reliable equations for predicting the modulus of elasticity of high-strength SCC is of great significance. The regression analysis of the experimental test results of elastic modulus provided the eq 1. This equation is limited to the HSSCC strength range from 70 to 90 MPa.
Ec=18000×(fck+8)0.2
(1)
The significance of this equation is that it does not underestimate or overestimate the value of modulus of elasticity as compared to international codal provisions for high-strength concrete. The above equation is verified with different codal provisions and researchers, and the graphical comparison is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Comparison of modulus of elasticity.

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3.5. Poisson’s Ratio

Figure 7 depicts the lateral to longitudinal strain curves for all three mixes. Table 9 shows the Poisson’s ratio values for all three mixes. It can be seen from the figure that the relationship between lateral strain and longitudinal strain in elastic regions under compression for HSSCC is nearly similar to NVC. It can also be seen from the figure that as the strength of concrete increases, the curve becomes more linear.

Figure 7

Figure 7. Lateral strain vs longitudinal strain for all three mixes.

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Table 9. Experimental Results of Poisson’s Ratio
mixgrade of concrete (MPa)compressive strength fc in (MPa)Poisson’s ratio
M17078.410.168
M17079.90.164
M17080.40.159
M28089.60.153
M28086.90.148
M28084.30.151
M39092.460.136
M39097.350.131
M39093.320.139
The mean values of Poisson’s ratio were found to be 0.20, 0.18, and 0.17 for M1, M2, and M3 mixes, respectively. It is well known that microcracks form parallel to the directions of stress at higher stresses. Thus, at higher stress levels, an increase in transverse strains can be seen in the figures. While testing, it was observed that when the cylinders of all three grades reached their ultimate strength, Poisson’s ratio increased rapidly until they failed. Thus, Poisson’s ratio was measured at a 40% level of axial stress, similarly to the modulus of elasticity. The decision to measure Poisson’s ratio at this point was influenced by the fact that it is a critical point in the testing process where the material begins to deform plastically and eventually fails, providing valuable information about the material’s behavior under extreme loading conditions. (43)

3.6. Mode of Failure

While testing the cylinder specimens, the failure mode of all of the mixes was closely observed. It was observed that inclined microcracks appeared and came together near the corner. With the increase in load, vertical cracks formed. It was also seen that, for the M1 mix, the first crack appeared at approximately 60% of the ultimate load, whereas for the M3 mix, it was around 75%. It was also observed that when the stress levels reached around 80%, more cracks appeared on the opposite face, and ultimately the cylinders failed, and it was also observed by different researchers. (44,45) Figure 8 shows the mode of failure of HSSCC specimens.

Figure 8

Figure 8. Failure modes.

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Conclusions

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Three mixes with compressive strengths of 70, 80, and 90 MPa were studied to evaluate the stress–strain characteristics, Young’s modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. For each mix, three specimens were tested to obtain complete stress–strain curves of high-strength self-compacting concrete (HSSCC). The following conclusions were drawn from the current experimental program.
1.

The rate of strength development in the specimens containing only silica fume was observed to be faster in comparison to the other specimens.

2.

Due to the higher binder content in HSSCC, more microcracks are formed, which increases shrinkage and influences the STS of concrete.

3.

The strain at peak stress and the linear portion in the ascending branches both increased as the compressive strength of HSSCC increased.

4.

When the HSSCC reached its ultimate load, a large decline in the curves was observed, and failure occurred suddenly, demonstrating brittle characteristics in the descending part.

5.

HSSCC has a lower modulus of elasticity compared to NVC due to the significant contribution of coarse aggregates to the modulus of elasticity.

6.

An equation was proposed for predicting the elastic modulus of HSSCC, which is limited to the range of 70–90 MPa. This equation was verified with various codal provisions and researchers and did not underestimate or overestimate the value of the modulus of elasticity.

7.

It was observed that the Poisson’s ratio increased rapidly until failure when the cylinders of all three grades reached their ultimate strength. Also, at higher stress levels, an increase in transverse strains can be seen.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Authors
    • Aijaz Ahmad Zende - Department of Civil Engineering, BLDEA’s Vachana Pitamaha Dr. P.G Halakatti College of Engineering and Technology, Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Vijayapur 586103, Karnataka, India;  Email: [email protected]
    • Asif Iqbal. A. Momin - Department of Civil Engineering, BLDEA’s Vachana Pitamaha Dr. P.G Halakatti College of Engineering and Technology, Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Vijayapur 586103, Karnataka, India;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Rajesab B. Khadiranaikar - Department of Civil Engineering, SECAB Institute of Engineering and Technology, Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Vijayapur 586109, Karnataka, India
    • Abdullah H. Alsabhan - Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
    • Shamshad Alam - Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
    • Mohammad Amir Khan - Department of Civil Engineering, Galgotia College of Engineering, Knowledge Park I, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201310, India
    • Mohammad Obaid Qamar - Department of Civil Engineering (Environmental Science & Engineering), Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, South Korea
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgments

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The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by Researchers Supporting Project Number RSP2023R473, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

References

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This article references 45 other publications.

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    This paper evaluates the high-strength lightwt. self-compacting concrete (HLSCC) manufd. by Nan-Su, of which the main factor PF of its design mixing method has been modified and improved. The study analyzes HLSCC performance at its fresh condition as well as its mech. properties at the hardened condition. The evaluation of HLSCC fluidity has been conducted per the std. of second class rating of JSCE, by three categories of flowability, segregation resistance ability and filling ability of fresh concrete. For the mech. properties of HLSCC, the study has been conducted as follows: compressive strength with elapsed age, splitting tensile strength, elastic moduli and d., all at its cured after 28 days. As a result, HLSCC at its fresh condition has been rated as less than LC 75% and LF 50% for the mix ratio of lightwt. aggregate, thus satisfying the second class std. of JSCE. The compressive strength of HLSCC at 28 days has come out to more than 40 MPa in all mix except the case with LC 100%, while the structural efficiency in relation to its d. tended to increase proportionally as the mixing ratio of LF increases. The relationship between the splitting tensile and compressive strength has been calcd. as fs = 0.076fck + 0.5582. The range of elastic moduli has come out as 24-33 GPa, comparably lower than the control concrete. Compressive strength and structural efficiency of HLSCC at 28 days from the multiple regression anal. resulted as fc=-0.07619LCA+0.08648LFB + 46.714 and fse=-0.00436LCA+0.0627LFB+20.257, resp.

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  1. Md. Faiz Alam, Kumar Shubham, Sanjay Kumar, Arvind Kumar Lal Srivastava. Enhancing high-strength self-compacting concrete properties through Nano-silica: analysis and prediction of mechanical strengths. Journal of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation 2024, 9 (1) https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-024-00386-7
  2. Muhammad Murtaza, Jinxi Zhang, Ce Yang, Xuhao Cui, Ci Su, Ahmed Nabil Ramadan. Performance analysis of self compacting concrete by incorporating fly ash, coal gangue powder, cement kiln dust and recycled concrete powder by absolute volume method. Construction and Building Materials 2024, 431 , 136601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136601
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1. Compressive strength of trial mixes.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Cylinder specimens.

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    Figure 3. Split tensile strength vs compressive strength.

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    Figure 4. Apparatus to test cylinder specimens.

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    Figure 5

    Figure 5. Stress–strain curves for all three mixes.

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    Figure 6

    Figure 6. Comparison of modulus of elasticity.

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    Figure 7

    Figure 7. Lateral strain vs longitudinal strain for all three mixes.

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  • References

    This article references 45 other publications.

    1. 1
      Abbas, S. A.; Ali, I. F.; Abdulridha, A. A. Behavior and Strength of Steel Fiber Reinforced Self-compacting Concrete Columns Wrapped by Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers Strips. Int. J. Eng., Trans. B 2021, 34, 382– 392,  DOI: 10.5829/ije.2021.34.02b.10
      1
      Behavior and strength of steel fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete columns wrapped by carbon fiber reinforced polymers strips
      Abbas, S. A.; Ali, I. F.; Abdulridha, A. A.
      International Journal of Engineering, Transactions B: Applications (2021), 34 (2), 382-392CODEN: IJETHX ISSN:. (Materials and Energy Research Center)
      Strength capacity of reinforced concrete columns is very important to resists and transmit the external loadings. For Architects the engineerings requirements to use small cross section of reinforced concrete columns or in case of poor control quality we need to increase the compressive strength of concrete or use a strengthening technique of the structural elements such as column. In the present paper, the behavior and strength of four steel fiber reinforced self-compact concrete columns reinforced by one layer of CFRP that is wrapped around a square of reinforced concrete columns subjected to static loads is investigated. Self-compacting concrete by using limestone powder is adopted and is mixed with different percentages of steel fiber such as 1%, 1.5% and 2%. Different tests are adopted to investigate the mech. properties of self-compacted concrete mixed with different steel fiber percentages. Test results show that there is an increase in concrete mech. properties such as compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of rupture that reflects on the increase in load capacity of column; specimens when wrapped by CFRP. The increment in columns strength capacity is more than 50% as compared with the control column. All the test specimens are modeled using finite element anal. by ANSYS and the numerical results are compared with tested specimens.
    2. 2
      Theint, P. S.; Ruangrassamee, A.; Hussain, Q. Strengthening of Shear-Critical RC Columns by High-Strength Steel-Rod Collars. Eng. J. 2020, 24, 107– 128,  DOI: 10.4186/ej.2020.24.3.107
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    3. 3
      Basheerudeen, A.; Anandan, S. Particle Packing Approach for Designing the Mortar Phase of Self Compacting Concrete. Eng. J. 2014, 18, 127– 140,  DOI: 10.4186/ej.2014.18.2.127
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    4. 4
      Basheerudeen, A.; Anandan, S. Simplified Mix Design Procedures for Steel Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete. Eng. J. 2015, 19, 21– 36,  DOI: 10.4186/ej.2015.19.1.21
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    5. 5
      Desnerck, P.; De Schutter, G.; Taerwe, L. In Shear Friction of Reinforced Self-Compacting Concrete Members , 10th ACI International Conference on Recent Advances in Concrete Technology and Sustainability Issues, 2009; pp 133– 143.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    6. 6
      Boel, V.; Helincks, P.; Desnerck, P.; De Schutter, G. In Bond Behaviour and Shear Capacity of Self-Compacting Concrete, Design, Production and Placement of Self-Consolidating Concrete: Proceedings of SCC2010, Montreal, Canada, September 26–29, 2010; Springer: Netherlands, 2010; pp 343– 353.
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    7. 7
      Hassan, A. A. A.; Hossein, K. M. A.; Lachemi, M. Behavior of full-scale self-consolidating concrete beams in shear. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2008, 30, 588– 596,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2008.03.005
      7
      Behavior of full-scale self-consolidating concrete beams in shear
      Hassan, A. A. A.; Hossain, K. M. A.; Lachemi, M.
      Cement & Concrete Composites (2008), 30 (7), 588-596CODEN: CCOCEG; ISSN:0958-9465. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      An exptl. investigation was conducted to study the shear strength and cracking behavior of full-scale beams made with self-consolidating concrete (SCC) as well as normal concrete (NC). A total of 20 flexurally reinforced concrete beams, with no shear reinforcement, were tested under mid-span concd. load until shear failure occurred. The exptl. test parameters included concrete type/coarse aggregate content, beam depth and the longitudinal reinforcing steel ratio. The beam depth ranged from 150 to 750 mm while the shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) was kept const. in all beams. The two longitudinal reinforcing steel ratios used were 1% and 2%. The performance of SCC/NC beams was evaluated based on the results of crack pattern, crack widths, loads at the first flexure/diagonal cracking, ultimate shear resistance, and failure modes. The ultimate shear strength of SCC beams was found to be slightly lower than that of NC beams and the difference was more pronounced with the redn. of longitudinal steel reinforcement and with the increase of beam depth. The performance of code based equations in predicting the shear resistance of SCC/NC beams is also presented. The recommendations of this paper can be of special interest to designers considering the use of SCC in structural applications.
    8. 8
      Campione, G.; Cucchiara, C.; Monaco, A. Shear Design of High Strength Concrete Beams in MRFs. Front. Built Environ. 2019, 5, 42  DOI: 10.3389/fbuil.2019.00042
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    9. 9
      Zende, A. A.; Khadiranaikar, R. B.; Momin, A. I. A. Shear behaviour of high strength self-compacting concrete with varying stirrup spacing. Int. J. Struct. Eng. 2022, 12, 374– 387,  DOI: 10.1504/IJSTRUCTE.2022.126192
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    10. 10
      Revilla-Cuesta, V.; Shi, J.-y.; Skaf, M.; Ortega-López, V.; Manso, J. M. Non-destructive density-corrected estimation of the elastic modulus of slag-cement self-compacting concrete containing recycled aggregate. Dev. Built Environ. 2022, 12, 100097  DOI: 10.1016/j.dibe.2022.100097
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    11. 11
      Toma, I.-O.; Ţăranu, G.; Alexa-Stratulat, S.-M.; Toma, A.-M. In Influence of the Strength Class on the Long Term Elastic Modulus of Self-Compacting Concrete , Proceedings─Extended Abstracts─of the 3rd Conference on Testing and Experimentation in Civil, 2022; p 3.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    12. 12
      Safitri, E.; Saifullah, H. A.; Perdana, F. S. In The Strength and Modulus of Elasticity of High Strength Self-Compacting Concrete (HSSCC) with 12.5% Metakaolin and Variations of Silica Fume, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Rehabilitation and Maintenance in Civil Engineering: ICRMCE 2021, July 8–9, Surakarta, Indonesia; Springer: Singapore, 2022; pp 1173– 1180.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    13. 13
      Hilmioglu, H.; Sengul, C.; Özkul, M. The effects of limestone powder and fly ash as an addition on fresh, elastic, inelastic and strength properties of self-compacting concrete. Adv. Concr. Constr. 2022, 14, 93– 102,  DOI: 10.12989/acc.2022.14.2.093
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    14. 14
      Benaicha, M.; Jalbaud, O.; Hafidi Alaoui, A.; Burtschell, Y. Porosity effects on rheological and mechanical behavior of self-compacting concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2022, 48, 103964  DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103964
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    15. 15
      Ozkul, H. Fresh and hardened state properties of SCCS prepared with limestone-based manufactured aggregates and powder. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniv. Mühendislik Bilimleri Derg. 2022, 25, 259– 272,  DOI: 10.17780/ksujes.1100188
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    16. 16
      Montaser, W. M.; Shaaban, I. G.; Rizzuto, J. P.; Zaher, A. H.; Rashad, A.; El Sadany, S. M. Steel reinforced self-compacting concrete (SCC) cantilever beams: bond behaviour in poor condition zones. Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. 2023, 17, 19  DOI: 10.1186/s40069-023-00581-9
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    17. 17
      Han, B.; Zhang, L.; Ou, J. Self-Compacting Concrete. Smart and Multifunctional Concrete Toward Sustainable Infrastructures; Springer: Singapore, 2017; pp 23– 57.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    18. 18
      Indian Standard-IS. IS 12269-1987: Specifications for 53 Grade Ordinary Portland Cement; Bureau of Indian Standards: New Delhi, 1987.
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    19. 19
      American Society for Testing and Materials. 430-08: Standard Test Method for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-μm (No. 325) Sieve; American Society for Testing and Materials, 2009.
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    20. 20
      IS: 383-1970, Specifications for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete; Bureau of Indian Standards: New Delhi, India, 1970.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    21. 21
      Momin, A. A.; Khadiranaikar, R. B.; Zende, A. A. Flexural Strength and Behavioral Study of High-performance Concrete Beams using Stress-Block Parameters. Int. J. Eng., Trans. B 2021, 34, 2557– 2565,  DOI: 10.5829/ije.2021.34.11b.18
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    22. 22
      Zende, A. A.; Khadiranaikar, R. B.; Momin, A. I. A. Shear Behavior of High Strength Self-Compacting Concrete Slender Beams Without Web Reinforcement. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. 2022, 26, 1– 10,  DOI: 10.6180/jase.202301_26(1).0001
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    23. 23
      EFNARC. Specification and Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete; European Federation of Specialist Construction Chemicals and Concrete System, 2002.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    24. 24
      Gao, S.; Guo, X.; Ban, S.; Ma, Y.; Yu, Q.; Sui, S. Influence of supplementary cementitious materials on ITZ characteristics of recycled concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023, 363, 129736  DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129736
      24
      Influence of supplementary cementitious materials on ITZ characteristics of recycled concrete
      Gao, Song; Guo, Xin; Ban, Shunli; Ma, Yanxuan; Yu, Qi; Sui, Shiyu
      Construction and Building Materials (2023), 363 (), 129736CODEN: CBUMEZ; ISSN:1879-0526. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The poor performance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) limits its application on wide filed. This paper attempted to study the influence of fly ash (FA), slag powder (SP) and silica fume (SF) on the performance of RAC from a microscopic point of view. The compressive strength and chloride resistance were evaluated when FA, SP and SF were used. Then the evolution of ITZ performance with different admixts. was obsd. by backscattering scanning electron (BSE) microscopy image, Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), microhardness and so forth. Result indicate that, (1) the supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) can improve the compressive strength and chloride penetration resistance of RAC, with a certain dosage range for different SCMs; (2) the SCMs can refine the pore structure of ITZs for RAC, increase the microhardness and modify the phases around ITZs; (3) the three SCMs both fill the cement paste voids and promote the compactness of ITZ structure by reacting with calcium hydroxide to generate C-S-H gels, which in turn enhance the macroscopic performance of RAC. The results of this research can provide a meaningful ref. for further study of SCMs to improve the ITZs structure of RAC.
    25. 25
      Hutagi, A.; Khadiranaikar, R. B.; Zende, A. A. Behavior of geopolymer concrete under cyclic loading. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 246, 118430  DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118430
      25
      Behavior of geopolymer concrete under cyclic loading
      Hutagi, Aslam; Khadiranaikar, R. B.; Zende, Aijaz Ahmad
      Construction and Building Materials (2020), 246 (), 118430CODEN: CBUMEZ; ISSN:1879-0526. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Much effort has been done on compressive strength of Geo Polymer Concrete (GPC) under monotonic loading to study the mech. and durability properties. It is also very important to study its behavior when the concrete members are subjected to cyclic loads. In this research, some new concepts of nature of stress-strain curve, envelope curve and common point curve of geopolymer concrete are presented for three different grades of GPC. Investigations related to study of stress-strain characteristics of geopolymer concrete under cyclic loading is focused. The locus of common and stability points was detd. from the cyclic stress-strain curve. The identification of these is an important contribution for the design of GPC. Anal. equations were proposed for envelope curve, common point curve and stability point curve. The Proposed curves fit well with exptl. test data.
    26. 26
      Kurdi, A.; Khouiy, S.; Abbas, R. A new concrete for the 21 century: Reactive Powder Concrete. Alexandria Eng. J. 2001, 40, 893– 909
      26
      A new concrete for the 21 century: Reactive powder concrete
      Kurdi, Adel; Khoury, Shafik; Abbas, Rafik
      Alexandria Engineering Journal (2001), 40 (6), 893-909CODEN: AEJAEB; ISSN:1110-0168. (Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University)
      A recent topic of concrete researches is the so-called Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) that was developed in France in 1994 based on a new advanced technol. was used for the first time in the area of construction in 1997 in Canada. RPC is a new family of high-strength cement-based composites that achieves compressive strength on the order of 200 MPa and may reach 600 MPa under some circumstances. Based on extensive review of the literature, a state-of-the-art report on RPC is presented. It is aimed at defining the current status of RPC. The second phase of the work includes an exptl. study to investigate the possibility of producing RPC using selective locally available materials. Optimization of RPC mix proportions, through detailed examn. of different ingredient percentages, was studied in terms of compressive and flexural strengths. A total of 29 mixts. were considered. The compns. of RPC included Portland cement, silica fume, fine sand, crushed quartz, and polycarboxylate superplasticizer. Water-cement ratio (w/c) ranged from 0.15 to 0.21. Compressive strength up to 181 MPa and flexural strength up to 37.5 MPa (7 times greater than conventional normal-strength concrete and 3 times that for high-strength concrete) were achieved throughout the program. This concrete is designated herein as "RPC F30". Results show that silica fume and crushed quartz are essential ingredients of RPC. Optimum contents are recommended. The pos. interaction between quartz and silica fume is also discussed. Optimization of the whole grain size distribution, densification of the matrix, utilizing aggregate with 600 μm max. size, and the using low w/c are the key-aspects of producing RPC. The research demonstrates that RPC can be locally produced.
    27. 27
      Neville, A. M. Tecnología del concreto; Limusa: Mexico, 1988.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    28. 28
      Mehta, P. K.; Monteiro, P. J. M. Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, 2nd ed.; Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    29. 29
      Hutagi, A.; Khadiranaikar, R. B. Factors affecting properties of high strength geopolymer concrete cured at ambient temperature. Int. J. Microstruct. Mater. Prop. 2018, 13, 277– 294,  DOI: 10.1504/IJMMP.2018.097214
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    30. 30
      Sriram, M.; Sidhaarth, K. A. Mechanical properties of ramie fibers and hooked-end steel fibers reinforced high strength concrete incorporating metakaolin and silica fume. J. Build. Pathol. Rehabil. 2022, 7, 45  DOI: 10.1007/s41024-022-00185-y
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    31. 31
      Domone, P. L. A review of the hardened mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2007, 29, 1– 2,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2006.07.010
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    32. 32
      Anagnostopoulos, N.; Sideris, K. K.; Georgiadis, A. Mechanical characteristics of self-compacting concretes with different filler materials, exposed to elevated temperatures. Mater. Struct. 2009, 42, 1393– 1405,  DOI: 10.1617/s11527-008-9459-6
      32
      Mechanical characteristics of self-compacting concretes with different filler materials, exposed to elevated temperatures
      Anagnostopoulos, N.; Sideris, K. K.; Georgiadis, A.
      Materials and Structures (Dordrecht, Netherlands) (2009), 42 (10), 1393-1405CODEN: MASTED; ISSN:1359-5997. (Springer)
      In this paper, the studies concern the influence that different fillers have on the properties of SCC of different strength classes when exposed to high temps. A total of six different SCC and two conventional concrete mixts. were produced. The specimens produced are placed at the age of 180 days in an elec. furnace which is capable of reaching 300°C at half an hour and 600°C at 70 min. The max. temp. is maintained for an hour. Then the specimens are let to cool down in the furnace. The hardened properties measured after fire exposures are the compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, water capillary absorption and the ultrasonic pulse velocity. Explosive spalling occurred in most cases when specimens of higher strength class are exposed to high temps. The spalling tendency is increased for specimens of higher strength class C30/37 irresp. of the mixt. type (SCC or NC) and the type of filler used.
    33. 33
      IS 456-2000. Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Cement Concrete; Bureau of Indian Standards: New Delhi, 2000.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    34. 34
      ACI Committee. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary; American Concrete Institute, 2014.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    35. 35
      ACI Committee 363. Report on High-Strength Concrete, ACI 363R-10; American Concrete Institute Committee 363: Farmington Hills, MI, 2010.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    36. 36
      Standard Norwegian. Design of Concrete Structures (NS 3473); Norwegian Council for Building Standardization: Oslo, Norway, 1992.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    37. 37
      Canadian Standards Association. Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings─A National Standard of Canada (CSA-A23. 3-M84); Canadian Standards Association: Ottawa, Ontario, 1984.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    38. 38
      Comité Européen de Normalisation. EN 1992-1-1: 2004. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures─Part 1-1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings; Comité Européen de Normalisation, 2004.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    39. 39
      Mostoufinezhad, D.; Nozhati, M. Prediction of the Modulus of Elasticity of High Strength Concrete. Iran. J. Sci. Technol., Trans. Civ. Eng. 2005, 29, 311– 321,  DOI: 10.22099/ijstc.2013.785
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    40. 40
      Rashid, M. A.; Mansur, M. A.; Paramasivam, P. Correlations between mechanical properties of high-strength concrete. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2002, 14, 230– 238,  DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2002)14:3(230)
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    41. 41
      Nassif, H. H.; Najm, H.; Suksawang, N. Effect of pozzolanic materials and curing methods on the elastic modulus of HPC. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2005, 27, 661– 670,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.12.005
      41
      Effect of pozzolanic materials and curing methods on the elastic modulus of HPC
      Nassif, Hani H.; Najm, Husam; Suksawang, Nakin
      Cement & Concrete Composites (2005), 27 (6), 661-670CODEN: CCOCEG; ISSN:0958-9465. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      The modulus of elasticity of a material is a fundamental property required for the proper modeling of its constitutive behavior and for its proper use in various structural applications. This paper discusses exptl. evaluation of the elastic modulus of high-performance concrete made from mixes using various percentages of fly ash, silica fume, and granulated blast furnace slag. Results are compared to those from control specimens at various ages between 1 and 90 days. The results presented are part of a study for the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) to develop and implement High-Performance Concrete (HPC) mix design and tech. specifications for transportation structures. The study also investigates the effect of curing on the elastic modulus. Three methods of curing were evaluated: (1) air-dry curing, (2) curing compd., and (3) wet curing with burlap. The results showed that adding silica fume resulted in an increase in strength and modulus at early ages, however, there was no change in the modulus at 28 and 56 days. In addn., adding 20% fly ash with various percentage of silica fume had an adverse effect on both strength and modulus values at all ages to 90 days. It is also shown that dry curing and curing compd. reduce the modulus of elasticity compared to wet curing with burlap. Results showed the elastic modulus of HPC is proportional to the compressive strength, but the prediction equations of ACI-318 and ACI-363 may not accurately predict the modulus values for high-performance concrete with pozzolans.
    42. 42
      Logan, A.; Choi, W.; Mirmiran, A.; Rizkalla, S.; Zia, P. Short-Term Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Concrete. ACI Mater. J. 2009, 106, 413– 418
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    43. 43
      Mellor, M. A Review of Basic Snow Mechanics; US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory: Hanover, NH, 1974.
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    44. 44
      Hassan, A. A. A.; Ismail, M. K.; Mayo, J. Shear behavior of SCC beams with different coarse-to-fine aggregate ratios and coarse aggregate types. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2015, 27, 04015022  DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001276
      44
      Shear behavior of SCC beams with different coarse-to-fine aggregate ratios and coarse aggregate types
      Hassan, Assem A. A.; Ismail, Mohamed K.; Mayo, Justin
      Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering (2015), 27 (11), 04015022/1-04015022/11CODEN: JMCEE7; ISSN:0899-1561. (American Society of Civil Engineers)
      The effect of mixt. compn. and coarse aggregate d. on the shear strength and cracking behavior of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) beams are presented in this study. The exptl. test parameters included coarse/fine (C/F) aggregate ratio (ranging from 0.7 to 1.2), coarse aggregate size (10 and 20 mm), coarse aggregate type/d. (slag, expanded slate, and crushed stone), and varying compressive strengths (26-72 MPa). The d. of the tested mixts. varied from 1,848 to 2,286 kg/m3. The study investigates the fresh properties of all tested mixts. and the shear strength and cracking behavior of 16 full-scale concrete beams. Based on some selected design codes, the ultimate shear strength of the tested beams is also predicted. The results showed that SCC mixts. with a higher C/F ratio or bigger normal-wt. aggregate had better flowability and less high range water reducer admixts. (HRWRA) demand. Although all tested beams showed comparable normalized shear strength, beams with a high C/F ratio or bigger normal-wt. aggregate had higher post- diagonal cracking resistance. The results also showed that the expanded slate and slag lightwt. aggregates were found to be relatively strong (compared to most common lightwt. aggregates) as they did not entirely break along the diagonal crack. Increasing the vol. of these lightwt. aggregates in SCC mixts. not only reduced the mixt. d. but also enhanced the postdiagonal cracking resistance.
    45. 45
      Choi, Y. W.; Kim, Y. J.; Shin, H. C.; Moon, H. Y. An experimental research on the fluidity and mechanical properties of high-strength lightweight self-compacting concrete. Cem. Concr. Res. 2006, 36, 1595– 1602,  DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.11.003
      45
      An experimental research on the fluidity and mechanical properties of high-strength lightweight self-compacting concrete
      Choi, Yun Wang; Kim, Yong Jic; Shin, Hwa Cheol; Moon, Han Young
      Cement and Concrete Research (2006), 36 (9), 1595-1602CODEN: CCNRAI; ISSN:0008-8846. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      This paper evaluates the high-strength lightwt. self-compacting concrete (HLSCC) manufd. by Nan-Su, of which the main factor PF of its design mixing method has been modified and improved. The study analyzes HLSCC performance at its fresh condition as well as its mech. properties at the hardened condition. The evaluation of HLSCC fluidity has been conducted per the std. of second class rating of JSCE, by three categories of flowability, segregation resistance ability and filling ability of fresh concrete. For the mech. properties of HLSCC, the study has been conducted as follows: compressive strength with elapsed age, splitting tensile strength, elastic moduli and d., all at its cured after 28 days. As a result, HLSCC at its fresh condition has been rated as less than LC 75% and LF 50% for the mix ratio of lightwt. aggregate, thus satisfying the second class std. of JSCE. The compressive strength of HLSCC at 28 days has come out to more than 40 MPa in all mix except the case with LC 100%, while the structural efficiency in relation to its d. tended to increase proportionally as the mixing ratio of LF increases. The relationship between the splitting tensile and compressive strength has been calcd. as fs = 0.076fck + 0.5582. The range of elastic moduli has come out as 24-33 GPa, comparably lower than the control concrete. Compressive strength and structural efficiency of HLSCC at 28 days from the multiple regression anal. resulted as fc=-0.07619LCA+0.08648LFB + 46.714 and fse=-0.00436LCA+0.0627LFB+20.257, resp.