Transparent, Antibiofouling Window Obtained with Surface NanostructuringClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!
- Wiktoria K. Szapoczka*Wiktoria K. Szapoczka*Email: [email protected]University of Bergen, Department of Physics and Technology, Bergen 5007, NorwayMore by Wiktoria K. Szapoczka
- Viljar H. LarsenViljar H. LarsenUniversity of Bergen, Department of Physics and Technology, Bergen 5007, NorwayMore by Viljar H. Larsen
- Hanna Böpple
- Dorinde M. M. KleinegrisDorinde M. M. KleinegrisUniversity of Bergen, Department of Biological Sciences, Bergen 5006, NorwayNORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen 5008, NorwayMore by Dorinde M. M. Kleinegris
- Zhaolu DiaoZhaolu DiaoDepartment of Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg D-69120, GermanyMore by Zhaolu Diao
- Tore Skodvin
- Joachim P. SpatzJoachim P. SpatzDepartment of Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg D-69120, GermanyMore by Joachim P. Spatz
- Bodil HolstBodil HolstUniversity of Bergen, Department of Physics and Technology, Bergen 5007, NorwayMore by Bodil Holst
- Peter J. Thomas*Peter J. Thomas*Email: [email protected]NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen 5008, NorwayMore by Peter J. Thomas
Abstract
Biofouling is one of the key factors which limits the long-term performance of seawater sensors. Common measures to hinder biofouling include toxic paints, mechanical cleaning and UV radiation. All of these measures have various limitations. A very attractive solution would be to prevent biofilm formation by changing the surface structure of the sensor. This idea has been implemented successfully in various settings, but little work has been done on structuring optically transparent materials, which are often needed in sensor applications. In order to achieve good antibiofouling properties and efficient optical transparency, the structuring must be on the nanoscale. Here, we investigate a transparent, antibiofouling surface obtained by patterning a semihexagonal nanohole structure on borosilicate glass. The nanoholes are approximately 50 nm in diameter and 200 nm deep, and the interparticle distance is 135 nm, allowing the structure to be optically transparent. The antibiofouling properties of the surface were tested by exposing the substrates to the microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum for four different time intervals. This species was chosen because it is common in the Norwegian coastal waters. The tests were compared with unstructured borosilicate glass substrates. The experiments show that the nanostructured surface exhibits excellent antibiofouling properties. We attribute this effect to the relative size between the structure and the biofouling microorganism. Specifically, the small dimensions of the nanoholes, compared to the biofouling microorganism, make it more difficult for the microalgae to attach. However, lubrication of the substrates with FC-70 perfluorocarbon resulted in contamination at a rate comparable to the reference substrate, possibly due to the chemical attractiveness of the alkane chains in FC-70 for the microalgae.
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License Summary*
You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:
Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license.
Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator.
*Disclaimer
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License Summary*
You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:
Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license.
Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator.
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Introduction
Figure 1
Figure 1. Scanning electron microscopy image of diatom microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum from B58 strain in the fusiform. Cultured from NORCE, Bergen, Norway.
Results and Discussion
Characterization of the Substrates
Figure 2
Figure 2. (A) Scanning electron microscopy image of the surface morphology of a nanostructured glass. (B) Optical images of a 10 μL super distilled water droplet on a reference glass (top) and nanostructured glass (bottom) and the corresponding optical contact angles.
Evaluation of Antibiofouling
Figure 3
Figure 3. Schematic of the antibiofouling experiment. The substrates (ref: reference substrate; nh: nanostructured substrate) are placed in a Petri dish filled with the microalgae stock and stored under UV growing lights for either 1 day, 7 days, 21 days or 180 days. (A) After a specific amount of time, the substrates are gently washed in freshly filtered seawater for 15 s by stirring so that the loose microalgae are removed, and only the sticking microalgae are left on the surface to evaluate further. (B) The substrates are placed on a microscope slide for optical analysis. (C) The images obtained are further used in statistical analysis using ImageJ software.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Reference substrate before (left) and after (right) washing for 15 s in 60 mL of freshly filtered seawater after submersion in the algal stock for 21 days.
Figure 5
Figure 5. Adhesion of microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum to the test substrates after the washing step. Top row: reference substrate. Bottom row: nanostructured substrate. Each column shows the corresponding substrates after a certain amount of time: (a,e) after 1 day, (b,f) after 7 days, (c,g) after 21 days and (d,h) after 180 days.
Figure 6
Figure 6. Percentage biofouled area for the different time intervals (1-180 days). Blue: reference substrate. Orange: nanostructured substrate. The error bars represent the mean ± standard error of three independent experiments’ mean (s.e.). No error bar is depicted for Day 1, as the s.e. is 0%. For 180 days, only one nanostructured and one reference substrate were tested. Detailed data can be found in the Supporting Information.
Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Experimental Section
Materials
Synthesis and Characterization of the Substrates
Biofouling Setup and Characterization
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.4c03030.
Supporting Information OCA measurements; the adapted seawater medium recipe; two tables containing biofouled areas by percentage of reference and nanostructured substrates; fluorescence microscopy images of the reference and nanostructured substartes after 7 and 21 days; images of the fluorinated and lubricated substrates and their corresponding biofouled areas in percentage; Cassie–Baxter equations (PDF). The following files are available free of charge. (PDF)
Terms & Conditions
Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Qiang Wei for the insightful feedback and willingness to answer questions. A huge thank you to Sabrina Daniela Eder for helping with the SEM of the nanostructured substrates and to the Electron microscopic laboratory (ELMI) at the University of Bergen for the assistance with the SEM imaging of the microalgae. The work was financially supported by the Norwegian Research Council, project number 309612 - SFI Smart Ocean.
References
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- 6Flemming, H.-C.; Wingender, J. The biofilm matrix. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2010, 8, 623– 633, DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2415Google Scholar6https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXpsFWlur4%253D&md5=28ecf529c890b3eb5a906487b654c0e1The biofilm matrixFlemming, Hans-Curt; Wingender, JostNature Reviews Microbiology (2010), 8 (9), 623-633CODEN: NRMACK; ISSN:1740-1526. (Nature Publishing Group)A review. The microorganisms in biofilms live in a self-produced matrix of hydrated extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that form their immediate environment. EPS are mainly polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids; they provide the mech. stability of biofilms, mediate their adhesion to surfaces and form a cohesive, three-dimensional polymer network that interconnects and transiently immobilizes biofilm cells. In addn., the biofilm matrix acts as an external digestive system by keeping extracellular enzymes close to the cells, enabling them to metabolize dissolved, colloidal and solid biopolymers. Here we describe the functions, properties and constituents of the EPS matrix that make biofilms the most successful forms of life on earth.
- 7Achinas, S.; Charalampogiannis, N.; Euverink, G. J. W. A brief recap of microbial adhesion and biofilms. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2801, DOI: 10.3390/app9142801Google Scholar7https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXisFCqtLs%253D&md5=f8a6f4500e61a7680ed857c87fa65329A brief recap of microbial adhesion and biofilmsAchinas, Spyridon; Charalampogiannis, Nikolaos; Euverink, Gerrit Jan WillemApplied Sciences (2019), 9 (14), 2801CODEN: ASPCC7; ISSN:2076-3417. (MDPI AG)Food and beverage industries operate their prodn. units under stringent hygiene stds. to verify high-quality products. However, the presence of biofilms can cause hygienic problems in the industries in the case of pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms can form biofilms, which are resistant to cleaning and disinfection. Microorganisms in biofilms are closely packed in a matrix that acts as a barrier to cleaning and disinfection. Biofilms are obsd. in processing equipment and open surfaces, resulting in food safety problems or weakening of prodn. efficiency. This review provides a recap of the biofouling process, including the prodn. mechanisms and control techniques of microbial adhesion. Microbial adhesion and colonization are the sine qua non of the establishment of bacterial pathogenesis and this report focuses on their prevention.
- 8Subbiahdoss, G.; Reimhult, E. Biofilm formation at oil-water interfaces is not a simple function of bacterial hydrophobicity. Colloids Surf., B 2020, 194, 111163, DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111163Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 9Yue, D.; Jiang, X.; Yu, H.; Sun, D. In-situ fabricated hierarchical nanostructure on titanium alloy as highly stable and durable super-lubricated surface for anti-biofouling in marine engineering. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 463, 142389, DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.142389Google Scholar9https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3sXlvFWmurw%253D&md5=a6695f3dee38fd513d875798737d0f59In-situ fabricated hierarchical nanostructure on titanium alloy as highly stable and durable super-lubricated surface for anti-biofouling in marine engineeringYue, Dizhu; Jiang, Xuzhou; Yu, Hongying; Sun, DongbaiChemical Engineering Journal (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2023), 463 (), 142389CODEN: CMEJAJ; ISSN:1385-8947. (Elsevier B.V.)Titanium alloys, with superior corrosion resistance, have been widely used in marine engineering. However, they are biocompatible and attractive to biofouling organisms. In this work, based on the micro-arc oxidn. and hydrothermal treatment, a Slippery Liq.-Infused Porous and Prickly Surface (SLIPPS) was in-situ fabricated on titanium alloy (TA2) via a cost-efficient and facile process. The hierarchical nanostructure consisting of micro/nano-pores and nano-prickles was infused by lubricant to form a super-lubricated surface. The micro/nano-pores can offer sufficient space to store the lubricant, and the tiny prickles on/inside the pores can provide the firm mech. interlock with the lubricant. These unique features can ensure the long-lasting storage and conservation of the lubricant, which endows the excellent stability and durability. The SLIPPS remains well lubricated after a series of tests with extreme conditions, such as the high-rate centrifugation, scouring test and long-time immersion. As an inert barrier, this stable and durable lubricant layer also significantly improves the corrosion resistance. Compared with pristine TA2 and super-hydrophobic samples, the SLIPPS possesses an impressive anti-biofouling performance. After being immersed for 31 days with two typical biofouling organisms (Chlorella and Phaeodactylum tricornutum), the coverage percentages are only 0.03% and 0.06% on SLIPPS, resp., while for the pristine TA2, the corresponding values are 53.3% and 23.2%, resp. Therefore, this in-situ fabricated, low-cost and super-lubricated coating on the titanium alloy surface can effectively, stably and durably prevent from biofouling and corrosion in seawater, which may pave the way for the large-scale applications of titanium alloys in marine engineering.
- 10Karygianni, L.; Ren, Z.; Koo, H.; Thurnheer, T. Biofilm matrixome: extracellular components in structured microbial communities. Trends Microbiol. 2020, 28, 668– 681, DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.03.016Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXnt1Wjsbo%253D&md5=33a8d64b007a1be3d717a9d239181935Biofilm Matrixome: Extracellular Components in Structured Microbial CommunitiesKarygianni, L.; Ren, Z.; Koo, H.; Thurnheer, T.Trends in Microbiology (2020), 28 (8), 668-681CODEN: TRMIEA; ISSN:0966-842X. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review. Biofilms consist of microbial communities embedded in a 3D extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of a complex array of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that contribute to the unique attributes of biofilm lifestyle and virulence. This ensemble of chem. and functionally diverse biomols. is termed the 'matrixome'. The compn. and mechanisms of EPS matrix formation, and its role in biofilm biol., function, and microenvironment are being revealed. This perspective article highlights recent advances about the multifaceted role of the 'matrixome' in the development, phys.-chem. properties, and virulence of biofilms. We emphasize that targeting biofilm-specific conditions such as the matrixome could lead to precise and effective antibiofilm approaches. We also discuss the limited knowledge in the context of polymicrobial biofilms, and the need for more in-depth analyses of the EPS matrix in mixed communities that are assocd. with many human infectious diseases.
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- 12Guardiola, F. A.; Cuesta, A.; Meseguer, J.; Esteban, M. A. Risks of using antifouling biocides in aquaculture. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2012, 13, 1541– 1560, DOI: 10.3390/ijms13021541Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XivVKhsLw%253D&md5=5e6e2dbbdb26c99b88d381067a44b6b4Risks of using antifouling biocides in aquacultureGuardiola, Francisco Antonio; Cuesta, Alberto; Meseguer, Jose; Esteban, Maria AngelesInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences (2012), 13 (), 1541-1560CODEN: IJMCFK; ISSN:1422-0067. (MDPI AG)A review. Biocides are chem. substances that can deter or kill the microorganisms responsible for biofouling. The rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry is having a significant impact on the marine ecosystems. As the industry expands, it requires the use of more drugs, disinfectants and antifoulant compds. (biocides) to eliminate the microorganisms in the aquaculture facilities. The use of biocides in the aquatic environment, however, has proved to be harmful as it has toxic effects on the marine environment. Org. booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to the organotin compds. found in antifouling products after restrictions were imposed on the use of tributyltin (TBT). The replacement products are generally based on copper metal oxides and org. biocides. The biocides that are most commonly used in antifouling paints include chlorothalonil, dichlofluanid, DCOIT (4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one, Sea-Nine 211), Diuron, Irgarol 1051, TCMS pyridine (2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl pyridine), zinc pyrithione and Zineb. There are two types of risks assocd. with the use of biocides in aquaculture: (i) predators and humans may ingest the fish and shellfish that have accumulated in these contaminants and (ii) the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This paper provides an overview of the effects of antifouling (AF) biocides on aquatic organisms. It also provides some insights into the effects and risks of these compds. on non-target organisms.
- 13Antizar-Ladislao, B. Environmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environment. A review. Environ. Int. 2008, 34, 292– 308, DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.09.005Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhvFygu7Y%253D&md5=d6fb1090cc637333930d1b31096d23ecEnvironmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environmentAntizar-Ladislao, BlancaEnvironment International (2008), 34 (2), 292-308CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chem. used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compds. in its list of priority compds. in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Addnl., the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of Jan. 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of Jan. 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compds. have been detected in a no. of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compds. have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent org. pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compds. for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on exptl. toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compds. are clearly necessary.
- 14Konstantinou, I.; Albanis, T. Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review. Environ. Int. 2004, 30, 235– 248, DOI: 10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00176-4Google Scholar14https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXmvFGksw%253D%253D&md5=abef62a0a1642e2ba39b9a8d13a660e6Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a reviewKonstantinou, I. K.; Albanis, T. A.Environment International (2004), 30 (2), 235-248CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier)A review is given. Org. booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to organotin compds. in antifouling products, after restrictions imposed on the use of tributyltin (TBT) in 1987. Replacement products are generally based on copper metal oxides and org. biocides. This ban has led to an increase in alternative coating products contg. the above biocides. The most commonly used biocides in antifouling paints are: Irgarol 1051, diuron, Sea-nine 211, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil, zinc pyrithione, TCMS (2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl) pyridine, TCMTB [2-(thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole], and zineb. Since 1993, several studies have demonstrated the presence of these biocides in European coastal environment as a result of their increased use. More recently, the presence of these biocides was also revealed in waters from Japan, United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda. This paper reviews the currently available data on the occurrence of these biocides in the aquatic environment. Some data dealing with the environmental fate, partitioning, behavior and risk assessment of antifouling paint booster biocides are also reported in order to discuss the detected levels of contamination.
- 15Han, S.; Ji, S.; Abdullah, A.; Kim, D.; Lim, H.; Lee, D. Superhydrophilic nanopillar-structured quartz surfaces for the prevention of biofilm formation in optical devices. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 429, 244– 252, DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.07.164Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXht1CksrfJ&md5=bfd4cd664699d473cd92a72fa44a92d3Superhydrophilic nanopillar-structured quartz surfaces for the prevention of biofilm formation in optical devicesHan, Soo; Ji, Seungmuk; Abdullah, Abdullah; Kim, Duckil; Lim, Hyuneui; Lee, DonghyunApplied Surface Science (2018), 429 (), 244-252CODEN: ASUSEE; ISSN:0169-4332. (Elsevier B.V.)Bacterial biofilm formation on optical devices such as contact lenses, optical glasses, endoscopic devices, and microscopic slides and lenses are major concerns in the field of medicine and biomedical engineering. To solve these problems, here we present the first report of superhydrophilic transparent nanopillar-structured surfaces with bactericidal properties. To construct bactericidal surfaces, we imitated a topol. mechanism found in nature in which nanopillar-structured surfaces cause a mech. disruption of the outer cell membranes of bacteria, resulting in bacterial cell death. We used nanosphere lithog. to fabricate nanopillars with various sharpnesses and heights on a quartz substrate. Water contact angle and light reflectance measurements revealed superhydrophilic, antifogging and antireflective properties, which are important for use in optical devices. To det. bactericidal efficiency, the fabricated surfaces were incubated and tested against two Gram-neg. bacteria assocd. with biofilm formation and various diseases in humans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. The highest bactericidal activity was achieved with nanopillars that measured 300 nm in height and 10 nm in apex diam. Quartz substrates patterned with such nanopillars killed ∼38,000 P. aeruginosa and ∼27,000 E. coli cells cm-2 min-1, resp. Thus, the newly designed nanopillar-structured bactericidal surfaces are suitable for use in the development of superhydrophilic and transparent optical devices.
- 16Delgado, A.; Briciu-Burghina, C.; Regan, F. Antifouling strategies for sensors used in water monitoring: review and future perspectives. Sensors 2021, 21, 389, DOI: 10.3390/s21020389Google Scholar16https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXjs1Wqtb0%253D&md5=08e907ea8d23b0f6d93089a1c1d982faAntifouling strategies for sensors used in water monitoring: review and future perspectivesDelgado, Adrian; Briciu-Burghina, Ciprian; Regan, FionaSensors (2021), 21 (2), 389CODEN: SENSC9; ISSN:1424-8220. (MDPI AG)A review. Water monitoring sensors in industrial, municipal and environmental monitoring are advancing our understanding of science, aid developments in process automatization and control and support real-time decisions in emergency situations. Sensors are becoming smaller, smarter, increasingly specialized and diversified and cheaper. Advanced deployment platforms now exist to support various monitoring needs together with state-of-the-art power and communication capabilities. For a large percentage of submersed instrumentation, biofouling is the single biggest factor affecting the operation, maintenance and data quality. This increases the cost of ownership to the extent that it is prohibitive to maintain operational sensor networks and infrastructures. In this context, the paper provides a brief overview of biofouling, including the development and properties of biofilms. The state-of-the-art established and emerging antifouling strategies are reviewed and discussed. A summary of the currently implemented solns. in com. available sensors is provided and current trends are discussed. Finally, the limitations of the currently used solns. are reviewed, and future research and development directions are highlighted.
- 17Granhag, L.; Finlay, J.; Jonsson, P.; Callow, J.; Callow, M. Roughness-dependent removal of settled spores of the green alga Ulva (syn. Enteromorpha) exposed to hydrodynamic forces from a water jet. Biofouling 2004, 20, 117– 122, DOI: 10.1080/08927010410001715482Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2czms1ynsQ%253D%253D&md5=11e6440c40f6f24ad1c9a66cc8d805a5Roughness-dependent removal of settled spores of the green alga Ulva (syn. Enteromorpha) exposed to hydrodynamic forces from a water jetGranhag L M; Finlay J A; Jonsson P R; Callow J A; Callow M EBiofouling (2004), 20 (2), 117-22 ISSN:0892-7014.Topographic features change the hydrodynamic regime over surfaces subjected to flow. Hydrodynamic microenvironments around topographic structures may have consequences for recruitment and removal of propagules of marine benthic organisms. The settlement and adhesion of zoospores from the green alga Ulva linza (syn. Enteromorpha linza) to defined topographies was investigated. A range of topographic size scales (Rz: 25-100 microm) was manufactured from plankton nets, creating patterns with ridges and depressions. The topographic scales span a roughness similar to that of natural substrata and antifouling coatings. Spores were removed from the surfaces by a calibrated water jet. Fewer spores were removed from the smallest topographic structure tested (Rz: 25 microm) compared to both the smooth (Rz: 1) and the roughest (Rz: 100 microm) structures. Zoospores that settled in depressions were less likely to be removed compared to spores on the ridges. The results in terms of the interaction between surface topography and hydrodynamic forces have implications for both natural substrata exposed to wave action and antifouling surfaces on ships' hulls. The possible effects of topography on increasing zoospore adhesion and offering a refuge from hydrodynamic forces are discussed.
- 18Naik, A.; Smithers, M.; Moisander, P. H. Impacts of UV-C irradiation on marine biofilm community succession. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2022, 88, 022988, DOI: 10.1128/aem.02298-21Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 19Titus, J. M.; Ryskiewich, B. S. Ultraviolet marine anti-biofouling systems. 1994; US Patent 5,322,569 A.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 20Graham, M. V.; Cady, N. C. Nano and Microscale Topographies for the Prevention of Bacterial Surface Fouling. Coatings 2014, 4, 37– 59, DOI: 10.3390/coatings4010037Google Scholar20https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXlsVChu7o%253D&md5=4288172813de04a24d7fa3b0f2241550Nano and microscale topographies for the prevention of bacterial surface foulingGraham, Mary V.; Cady, Nathaniel C.Coatings (2014), 4 (1), 37-59, 23 pp.CODEN: COATED; ISSN:2079-6412. (MDPI AG)Bacterial surface fouling is problematic for a wide range of applications and industries, including, but not limited to medical devices (implants, replacement joints, stents, pacemakers), municipal infrastructure (pipes, wastewater treatment), food prodn. (food processing surfaces, processing equipment), and transportation (ship hulls, aircraft fuel tanks). One method to combat bacterial biofouling is to modify the topog. structure of the surface in question, thereby limiting the ability of individual cells to attach to the surface, colonize, and form biofilms. Multiple research groups have demonstrated that micro and nanoscale topogs. significantly reduce bacterial biofouling, for both individual cells and bacterial biofilms. Antifouling strategies that utilize engineered topog. surface features with well-defined dimensions and shapes have demonstrated a greater degree of controllable inhibition over initial cell attachment, in comparison to undefined, texturized, or porous surfaces. This review article will explore the various approaches and techniques used by researches, including work from our own group, and the underlying phys. properties of these highly structured, engineered micro/nanoscale topogs. that significantly impact bacterial surface attachment.
- 21Carman, M. L.; Estes, T. G.; Feinberg, A. W.; Schumacher, J. F.; Wilkerson, W.; Wilson, L. H.; Callow, M. E.; Callow, J. A.; Brennan, A. B. Engineered antifouling microtopographies–correlating wettability with cell attachment. Biofouling 2006, 22, 11– 21, DOI: 10.1080/08927010500484854Google Scholar21https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28Xis1CjtL8%253D&md5=e1f15054724992cfc9c944ad0add2977Engineered antifouling microtopographies - correlating wettability with cell attachmentCarman, Michelle; Estes, Thomas; Feinberg, Adam; Schumacher, James; Wilkerson, Wade; Wilson, Leslie; Callow, Maureen; Callow, James; Brennan, AnthonyBiofouling (2006), 22 (1/2), 11-21CODEN: BFOUEC; ISSN:0892-7014. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)Bioadhesion and surface wettability are influenced by microscale topog. Engineered pillars, ridges and biomimetic topog. inspired by the skin of fast moving sharks (Sharklet AF) were replicated in polydimethylsiloxane elastomer. Sessile drop contact angle changes on the surfaces correlated well (R2 = 0.89) with Wenzel and Cassie and Baxter's relationships for wettability. Two sep. biol. responses, i.e. settlement of Ulva linza zoospores and alignment of porcine cardiovascular endothelial cells, were inversely proportional to the width (between 5 and 20 μm) of the engineered channels. Zoospore settlement was reduced by ∼85% on the finer (ca 2 μm) and more complex Sharklet AF topogs. The response of both cell types suggests their responses are governed by the same underlying thermodn. principles as wettability.
- 22Nir, S.; Reches, M. Bio-inspired antifouling approaches: the quest towards non-toxic and non-biocidal materials. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2016, 39, 48– 55, DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.12.012Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtlKgsA%253D%253D&md5=a8138669eb2cdedf0b9e770d523d2088Bio-inspired antifouling approaches: the quest towards non-toxic and non-biocidal materialsNir, Sivan; Reches, MeitalCurrent Opinion in Biotechnology (2016), 39 (), 48-55CODEN: CUOBE3; ISSN:0958-1669. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Biofouling is an undesirable process in which organisms and their byproducts encrust a surface. Antifouling solns. are of great importance since biofouling has neg. effects on numerous species, ecosystems, and areas including water treatment facilities, health-care systems, and marine devices. Many useful solns. have been developed in the last few decades. However, with the emergence of environmental issues, the search for new promising non-toxic materials has expanded. One approach tries to mimic natural antifouling surfaces and relies on mechanisms of action derived from nature. Since these materials are based on natural systems, they are mostly biocompatible and more efficient against complex fouling. In this review, we cover the latest advances in the field of antifouling materials. We specifically focus on biomaterials that are based on the chem. and phys. behavior of biol. systems.
- 23Chambers, L. D.; Stokes, K. R.; Walsh, F. C.; Wood, R. J. Modern approaches to marine antifouling coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2006, 201, 3642– 3652, DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2006.08.129Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28Xht1agsL%252FF&md5=391a0682badd428697d2ec2e7ff69c9eModern approaches to marine antifouling coatingsChambers, L. D.; Stokes, K. R.; Walsh, F. C.; Wood, R. J. K.Surface and Coatings Technology (2006), 201 (6), 3642-3652CODEN: SCTEEJ; ISSN:0257-8972. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Marine structures such as platforms, jetties and ship hulls are subject to diverse and severe biofouling. Methods for inhibiting both org. and inorg. growth on wetted substrates are varied but most antifouling systems take the form of protective coatings. Biofouling can neg. affect the hydrodynamics of a hull by increasing the required propulsive power and the fuel consumption. This paper reviews the development of antifouling coatings for the prevention of marine biol. fouling. As a result of the 2001 International Maritime Organization (IMO) ban on tributyltin (TBT), replacement antifouling coatings have to be environmentally acceptable and maintain a long life. Tin-free self-polishing copolymer (SPC) and foul release technologies are current applications but many alternatives were suggested. Modern approaches to environmentally effective antifouling systems and their performance are highlighted.
- 24Li, J.; Wang, G.; Meng, Q.; Ding, C.; Jiang, H.; Fang, Y. A biomimetic nano hybrid coating based on the lotus effect and its anti-biofouling behaviors. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2014, 315, 407– 414, DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.07.147Google Scholar24https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhtlWru7rF&md5=4ec31eca09f0bcfbbb756487cf018a3eA biomimetic nano hybrid coating based on the lotus effect and its anti-biofouling behaviorsLi, Jiang; Wang, Guoqing; Meng, Qinghua; Ding, Chunhua; Jiang, Hong; Fang, YongzengApplied Surface Science (2014), 315 (), 407-414CODEN: ASUSEE; ISSN:0169-4332. (Elsevier B.V.)To develop an environmentally friendly anti-biofouling coating in virtue of bionics, a block copolymer contg. fluorine (Coplm_F) of low surface energy was prepd. by copolymn. The Ag-loaded mesoporous silica (Ag@SBA) acting as a controlled-release antifoulant was prepd. from the mesoporous silica (SBA-15). The nano hybrid coating (Ag@SBA/Coplm_F) composing of the Coplm_F and Ag@SBA was to biomimetically simulate the lotus microstructure. The concn. of fluorine element on surface was analyzed by the energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and found rising to 1.45% after hybridation, which could be explained by the driving effect of SBA-15 via the hydrogen bond. This nanoscale morphol. of the hybrid coating was measured and found highly semblable to the microstructure of the lotus surface. The contact angle was detd. as 151° which confirmed the superhydrophobicity and lotus effect. The adhesion behaviors of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Diatoms, and Chlorella on the surface of the nano hybrid coating (Ag@SBA/Coplm_F) were studied and good effects of anti-biofouling were obsd.
- 25Kirschner, C. M.; Brennan, A. B. Bio-inspired antifouling strategies. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2012, 42, 211– 229, DOI: 10.1146/annurev-matsci-070511-155012Google Scholar25https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhsFKmsbvI&md5=4c4f24992febf6ae64c1309b04f21ff1Bio-inspired antifouling strategiesKirschner, Chelsea M.; Brennan, Anthony B.Annual Review of Materials Research (2012), 42 (), 211-229CODEN: ARMRCU; ISSN:1531-7331. (Annual Reviews Inc.)A review. Biofouling is a complex, dynamic problem that globally impacts both the economy and environment. Interdisciplinary research in marine biol., polymer science, and engineering has led to the implementation of bio-inspired strategies for the development of the next generation of antifouling marine coatings. Natural fouling defense mechanisms have been mimicked through chem., phys., and/or stimuli-responsive strategies. This review outlines the detrimental effects assocd. with biofouling, describes the theor. basis for antifouling coating design, and highlights prominent advances in bio-inspired antifouling technologies.
- 26Rostami, S.; Garipcan, B. Evolution of antibacterial and antibiofouling properties of sharkskin-patterned surfaces. Surf. Innovations 2022, 10, 165– 190, DOI: 10.1680/jsuin.21.00055Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 27He, B.; Du, Y.; Wang, B.; Wang, X.; Ye, Q.; Liu, S. Grafting embedded poly (ionic liquid) brushes on biomimetic sharklet resin surface for anti-biofouling applications. Prog. Org. Coat. 2021, 157, 106298, DOI: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106298Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28Vellwock, A. E.; Su, P.; Zhang, Z.; Feng, D.; Yao, H. Reconciling the conflict between optical transparency and fouling resistance with a nanowrinkled surface inspired by zebrafish’s cornea. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 7617– 7625, DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c22205Google Scholar28https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB38XisVGisb4%253D&md5=f4476657746c9c9aa301ef364382bc1eReconciling the Conflict between Optical Transparency and Fouling Resistance with a Nanowrinkled Surface Inspired by Zebrafish's CorneaVellwock, Andre E.; Su, Pei; Zhang, Zijing; Feng, Danqing; Yao, HaiminACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2022), 14 (6), 7617-7625CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)Surface topog. was demonstrated as an effective nonchem. strategy for controlling the fouling resistance of a surface, but its impact on optical transparency remains a barrier to the application of this strategy in optical materials. To reconcile the conflicting effects of surface topog. on optical transparency and fouling resistance, here we study the optical properties and antifouling performance of nanowrinkled surfaces inspired by the corneal surface of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Exptl. and numerical analyses demonstrate that a good compromise between optical transparency and antifouling efficacy can be achieved by wavy nanowrinkles with a characteristic wavelength of 800 nm and an amplitude of 100 nm. In particular, the optimal wrinkled surface under study can reduce biofouling by up to 96% in a single-species (Pseudoalteromonas sp.) bacterial settlement assay in the lab. and 89% in a field test while keeping the total transmittance above 0.98 and haze below 0.04 underwater. Moreover, our nanowrinkled surface also exhibits excellent resistance against contamination by inorg. particles. This work provides a nonchem. strategy for achieving the coexistence of optical transparency and fouling resistance on one single material, which implies significant application potential in various optical devices and systems, such as antibacterial contact lenses and self-cleaning solar panels.
- 29Wang, P.; Zhang, D.; Sun, S.; Li, T.; Sun, Y. Fabrication of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface with high underwater transparency for the control of marine biofouling. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 972– 982, DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b09117Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvFGgsb7L&md5=095850b9a7b2fbbed1cf1c5b7e2ca544Fabrication of Slippery Lubricant-Infused Porous Surface with High Underwater Transparency for the Control of Marine BiofoulingWang, Peng; Zhang, Dun; Sun, Shimei; Li, Tianping; Sun, YanACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2017), 9 (1), 972-982CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)Marine optical instruments are bearing serious biofouling problem, which affects the accuracy of data collected. To solve the biofouling problem of marine optical instruments, a novel instance of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface (SLIPS) with high underwater-transparency was designed over glass substrate via infusing lubricant into its porous micro-structure fabricated with hydrothermal method. The advantage of SLIPS as anti-biofouling strategy to marine optical instruments was proven by comparing its underwater optical and anti-biofouling performances with three kinds of samples (hydrophilic glass sample, textured hydrophilic glass sample, and super-hydrophobic glass sample). The modification of SLIPS enhances the underwater-transparency of glass sample within the wavelength of 500-800 nm, for the infusion of lubricant with lower refractive index than glass substrate. In contrast with hydrophilic surface, textured hydrophilic surface and super-hydrophobic surface, SLIPS can significantly inhibit bacterial and algal settlements, thereby maintaining high underwater-transparency in both dynamic and static seawater. The inhibition of bacterial and algal settlements over SLIPS results from its liq.-like property. The contact angle hysteresis of water over SLIPS increases with immersion time in seawater under different conditions (static, dynamic, and vibration conditions). Both dynamic and vibration conditions accelerate the failure of SLIPS exposed in seawater. This research provides valuable information for solving biofouling problem of marine optical instruments with SLIPS.
- 30Wang, J.; Lee, S.; Bielinski, A. R.; Meyer, K. A.; Dhyani, A.; Ortiz-Ortiz, A. M.; Tuteja, A.; Dasgupta, N. P. Rational design of transparent nanowire architectures with tunable geometries for preventing marine fouling. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 7, 2000672, DOI: 10.1002/admi.202000672Google Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhslygsrrK&md5=2b5a2891a54455aaec823cd8f9f1dd94Rational Design of Transparent Nanowire Architectures with Tunable Geometries for Preventing Marine FoulingWang, Jing; Lee, Sudarat; Bielinski, Ashley R.; Meyer, Kevin A.; Dhyani, Abhishek; Ortiz-Ortiz, Alondra M.; Tuteja, Anish; Dasgupta, Neil P.Advanced Materials Interfaces (2020), 7 (17), 2000672CODEN: AMIDD2; ISSN:2196-7350. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)Marine biofouling is a sticky global problem that hinders maritime industries. Various microscale surface structures inspired by marine biol. species have been explored for their anti-fouling properties. However, systematic studies of anti-marine-fouling performance on surface architectures with characteristic length-scales spanning from below 100 nm to greater than 10μm are generally lacking. Herein, a study on the rational design and fabrication of ZnO/Al2O3 core-shell nanowire architectures with tunable geometries (length, spacing, and branching) and surface chem. is presented. The ability of the nanowires to significantly delay or prevent marine biofouling is demonstrated. Compared to planar surfaces, hydrophilic nanowires can reduce fouling coverage by up to ≈60% after 20 days. The fouling redn. mechanism is mainly due to two geometric effects: reduced effective settlement area and mech. cell penetration. Addnl., superhydrophobic nanowires can completely prevent marine biofouling for up to 22 days. The nanowire surfaces are transparent across the visible spectrum, making them applicable to windows and oceanog. sensors. Through the rational control of surface nano-architectures, the coupled relationships between wettability, transparency, and anti-biofouling performance are identified. It is envisioned that the insights gained from the work can be used to systematically design surfaces that reduce marine biofouling in various industrial settings.
- 31Zhang, M.; Cabane, E.; Claverie, J. Transparent antifouling coatings via nanoencapsulation of a biocide. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2007, 105, 3826– 3833, DOI: 10.1002/app.26659Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 32Diao, Z.; Hirte, J.; Chen, W.; Spatz, J. P. Inverse moth eye nanostructures with enhanced antireflection and contamination resistance. ACS omega 2017, 2, 5012– 5018, DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b01001Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtlymsrjM&md5=5662f2dfdc031a4b023036da80d4928dInverse Moth Eye Nanostructures with Enhanced Antireflection and Contamination ResistanceDiao, Zhaolu; Hirte, Johannes; Chen, Wenwen; Spatz, Joachim P.ACS Omega (2017), 2 (8), 5012-5018CODEN: ACSODF; ISSN:2470-1343. (American Chemical Society)Moth eye-inspired nanostructures are highly useful for antireflection applications. However, block copolymer micelle lithog., an effective method to prep. moth eye nanopillars, can only be used on a limited choice of substrates. Another drawback of nanopillar substrates is that contamination is easily absorbed, thereby reducing transmittance. The prodn. of antireflective surfaces that are contamination-resistant or that can be cleaned easily without the loss of optical properties remains challenging. Here, we describe an approach for creating inverse moth eye nanostructures on other optical substrates than the most commonly used fused silica. We demonstrate its feasibility by fabricating a borosilicate substrate with inverse nanostructures on both sides. The etching of nanoholes on both sides of the substrate improves its transmittance by 8%, thereby surpassing the highest increase of transmittance yet to be obtained with nanopillars on fused silica. More importantly, the substrate with inverse moth eye nanostructures is more robust against contaminations than substrates with nanopillars. No significant decrease in performance is obsd. after five cycles of repeated contamination and cleaning. Our approach is transferable to a variety of optical materials, rendering our antireflection nanostructures ideal for applications in touch devices like touch screens and display panels.
- 33Mirotznik, M. S.; Good, B. L.; Ransom, P.; Wikner, D.; Mait, J. N. Broadband antireflective properties of inverse motheye surfaces. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 2010, 58, 2969– 2980, DOI: 10.1109/TAP.2010.2052575Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 34Nosonovsky, M.; Bhushan, B. Why re-entrant surface topography is needed for robust oleophobicity. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., A 2016, 374, 20160185, DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0185Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 35Zhang, M.; Li, C.; Yang, S.; Hirte, J.; Zhao, W.; Wei, Q.; Diao, Z.; Spatz, J. P.; Zhao, C. Ultra-transparent slippery surface. Smart Mater. Med 2021, 2, 38– 45, DOI: 10.1016/j.smaim.2020.10.001Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 36Wong, T.-S.; Kang, S. H.; Tang, S. K.; Smythe, E. J.; Hatton, B. D.; Grinthal, A.; Aizenberg, J. Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicity. Nature 2011, 477, 443– 447, DOI: 10.1038/nature10447Google Scholar36https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXht1WltLnO&md5=6e87e0847466d77ecdc599cf1ff0f231Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicityWong, Tak-Sing; Kang, Sung Hoon; Tang, Sindy K. Y.; Smythe, Elizabeth J.; Hatton, Benjamin D.; Grinthal, Alison; Aizenberg, JoannaNature (London, United Kingdom) (2011), 477 (7365), 443-447CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)Creating a robust synthetic surface that repels various liqs. would have broad technol. implications for areas ranging from biomedical devices and fuel transport to architecture but proved extremely challenging. Inspirations from natural nonwetting structures, particularly the leaves of the lotus, led to the development of liq.-repellent microtextured surfaces that rely on the formation of a stable air-liq. interface. Despite over a decade of intense research, these surfaces are, however, still plagued with problems that restrict their practical applications: limited oleophobicity with high contact angle hysteresis, failure under pressure and upon phys. damage, inability to self-heal and high prodn. cost. To address these challenges, here the authors report a strategy to create self-healing, slippery liq.-infused porous surface(s) (SLIPS) with exceptional liq.- and ice-repellency, pressure stability and enhanced optical transparency. The approach-inspired by Nepenthes pitcher plants-is conceptually different from the lotus effect, because the authors use nano/microstructured substrates to lock in place the infused lubricating fluid. The authors define the requirements for which the lubricant forms a stable, defect-free and inert slippery' interface. This surface outperforms its natural counterparts and state-of-the-art synthetic liq.-repellent surfaces in its capability to repel various simple and complex liqs. (water, hydrocarbons, crude oil and blood), maintain low contact angle hysteresis ( < 2.5°), quickly restore liq.-repellency after phys. damage (within 0.1-1 s), resist ice adhesion, and function at high pressures (up to ∼680 atm). These properties are insensitive to the precise geometry of the underlying substrate, making the approach applicable to various inexpensive, low-surface-energy structured materials (such as porous Teflon membrane). The authors envision that these slippery surfaces will be useful in fluid handling and transportation, optical sensing, medicine, and as self-cleaning and anti-fouling materials operating in extreme environments.
- 37Avelelas, F.; Martins, R.; Oliveira, T.; Maia, F.; Malheiro, E.; Soares, A. M.; Loureiro, S.; Tedim, J. Efficacy and ecotoxicity of novel anti-fouling nanomaterials in target and non-target marine species. Mar. Biotechnol. 2017, 19, 164– 174, DOI: 10.1007/s10126-017-9740-1Google Scholar37https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXktVGlt74%253D&md5=15ac43018a209f5f5c044a89f47a2207Efficacy and Ecotoxicity of Novel Anti-Fouling Nanomaterials in Target and Non-Target Marine SpeciesAvelelas, Francisco; Martins, Roberto; Oliveira, Tania; Maia, Frederico; Malheiro, Eliana; Soares, Amadeu M. V. M.; Loureiro, Susana; Tedim, JoaoMarine Biotechnology (2017), 19 (2), 164-174CODEN: MABIFW; ISSN:1436-2228. (Springer)Biofouling is a global problem that affects virtually all the immersed structures. Currently, several novel environmentally friendly approaches are being tested worldwide to decrease the toxicity of biocides in non-fouling species, such as the encapsulation/immobilization of com. available biocides, in order to achieve control over the leaching rate. The present study addresses the toxicity of two widely used booster biocides, zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) and copper pyrithione (CuPT), in its free and incorporated forms in order to assess their toxicity and anti-fouling efficacy in target and non-target species. To achieve this goal, the following marine organisms were tested; the green microalgae Tetraselmis chuii (non-target species) and both target species, the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum and the mussel Mytilus edulis. Organisms were exposed to both biocides, two unloaded nanostructured materials and nanomaterials loaded with biocides, from 10μg/L to 100 mg/L total wt., following std. protocols. The most eco-friendly and simultaneously efficient anti-fouling soln. against the two photosynthetic species (nanoclays loaded with ZnPT) was then tested on mussels to assess its lethal efficacy (LC50 = 123μg/L) and compared with free biocide (LC50 = 211μg/L) and unloaded material (LC50 > 1000μg/L). A second exposure test with sub-lethal concns. (lower than 100μg/L), using mussels, was carried out to assess biochem. changes caused by the tested compds. Oxidative stress, detoxification and neurotransmission markers were not responsive; however, different antioxidant patterns were found with free ZnPT and loaded nanoclay exposures. Thus, the immobilization of the biocide ZnPT into nanoclays proved to be a promising efficient and eco-friendly anti-fouling strategy.
- 38Figueiredo, J.; Oliveira, T.; Ferreira, V.; Sushkova, A.; Silva, S.; Carneiro, D.; Cardoso, D. N.; Goncalves, S. F.; Maia, F.; Rocha, C.; Tedim, J.; Loureiro, S.; Martins, R. Toxicity of innovative anti-fouling nano-based solutions to marine species. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2019, 6, 1418– 1429, DOI: 10.1039/C9EN00011AGoogle Scholar38https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXks12nt74%253D&md5=f245a9e146e0dc9a5302add568e9e99fToxicity of innovative anti-fouling nano-based solutions to marine speciesFigueiredo, Joana; Oliveira, Tania; Ferreira, Violeta; Sushkova, Alesia; Silva, Sara; Carneiro, Diana; Cardoso, Diogo N.; Goncalves, Sandra F.; Maia, Frederico; Rocha, Claudia; Tedim, Joao; Loureiro, Susana; Martins, RobertoEnvironmental Science: Nano (2019), 6 (5), 1418-1429CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Biofouling is one of the most challenging problems for the maritime industry which has been minimized through the application of coatings contg. anti-fouling (AF) biocides (e.g.Cu-based compds.; DCOIT) in immersed structures. An innovative eco-friendly approach based on the encapsulation of AF biocides in engineered nanomaterials (e.g. mesoporous silica nanocapsules (SiNCs)) has recently been applied to control the leaching rate and the environmental impacts of AF biocides when used as additives in coatings. Thus, the present study aims to: (a) assess the toxicity toward marine species of three innovative AF nanomaterials: SiNCs loaded with DCOIT (SiNC-DCOIT), SiNCs coated with silver (SiNC-Ag), SiNCs loaded with DCOIT and coated with silver (SiNC-DCOIT-Ag), and free counterparts (DCOIT, ionic silver and empty SiNCs) and (b) test if encapsulation reduces the toxicity of biocides to non-target species maintaining the anti-fouling efficacy against target species. To achieve this goal, eleven marine species (three target and eight non-target) were exposed to the test compds., following std. protocols, with adaptations for some species. DCOIT and silver were found to be very to extremely toxic to the target and non-target species tested. Encapsulated biocides reduced their toxicity toward non-target species while showing good AF performance toward fouler species. The present study demonstrated that the encapsulation of DCOIT and silver in silica nanocapsules is a promising, efficient and more environmentally-friendly anti-fouling soln. compared to free com. biocides.
- 39Stanley, M. S.; Callow, J. A. Whole cell adhesion strength of morphotypes and isolates of Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bacillariophyceae). Eur. J. Phycol. 2007, 42, 191– 197, DOI: 10.1080/09670260701240863Google Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXlsVert7s%253D&md5=9730e688d93c0e9c3cd66d8526ee67d8Whole cell adhesion strength of morphotypes and isolates of Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bacillariophyceae)Stanley, Michele S.; Callow, James A.European Journal of Phycology (2007), 42 (2), 191-197CODEN: EJPHE5; ISSN:0967-0262. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)Adhesion of raphid diatoms to natural surfaces, which is mediated by the secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), is an important strategy for growth and survival and contributes to the economically important process of biofouling. An understanding of adhesion processes requires that the genes involved in the EPS biosynthetic pathways and their regulation be characterized. Phaeodactylum tricornutum provides a model system in which to do this but the quant. adhesion characteristics of the various morphotypes and isolates of this species are currently unknown. The present paper reports on the use of a calibrated fully turbulent flow cell to characterize the whole cell adhesion properties of morphotypes and strains of this species. It has been shown that only the oval cell morphotype adheres to a surface. There are strain/isolate differences in adhesion strength: some strains including strain Pt 1.8.6, the genome of which has been sequenced, show adhesion strengths comparable to other raphid diatoms. In common with some other raphid diatom species, adhesion strength of oval cells of some isolates of P. tricornutum was greater on a hydrophobic surface (Silastic T2 silicone elastomer), than on hydrophilic acid-washed glass. These studies provide a baseline for future mol. genetic and gene expression studies.
- 40Willis, A.; Chiovitti, A.; Dugdale, T. M.; Wetherbee, R. Characterization of the extracellular matrix of P (Bacillariophyceae): structure, composition, and adhesive characteristics. J. Phycol. 2013, 49, 937– 949, DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12103Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 41Eid, K.; Panth, M.; Sommers, A. The physics of water droplets on surfaces: exploring the effects of roughness and surface chemistry. Eur. J. Phys. 2018, 39, 025804, DOI: 10.1088/1361-6404/aa9cbaGoogle ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 42Sun, Q.; Wang, D.; Li, Y.; Zhang, J.; Ye, S.; Cui, J.; Chen, L.; Wang, Z.; Butt, H.-J.; Vollmer, D. Surface charge printing for programmed droplet transport. Nat. Mater. 2019, 18, 936– 941, DOI: 10.1038/s41563-019-0440-2Google Scholar42https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhsVWktbrI&md5=083863032caee7891ca45de4cb74b998Surface charge printing for programmed droplet transportSun, Qiangqiang; Wang, Dehui; Li, Yanan; Zhang, Jiahui; Ye, Shuji; Cui, Jiaxi; Chen, Longquan; Wang, Zuankai; Butt, Hans-Jurgen; Vollmer, Doris; Deng, XuNature Materials (2019), 18 (9), 936-941CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Research)The directed, long-range and self-propelled transport of droplets on solid surfaces is crucial for many applications from water harvesting to bio-anal.1-9. Typically, preferential transport is achieved by topog. or chem. modulation of surface wetting gradients that break the asym. contact line and overcome the resistance force to move droplets along a particular direction10-16. Nonetheless, despite extensive progress, directional droplet transport is limited to low transport velocity or short transport distance. Here we report the high-velocity and ultralong transport of droplets elicited by surface charge d. gradients printed on diverse substrates. We leverage the facile water droplet printing on superamphiphobic surfaces to create rewritable surface charge d. gradients that stimulate droplet propulsion under ambient conditions17 and without the need for addnl. energy input. Our strategy provides a platform for programming the transport of droplets on flat, flexible and vertical surfaces that may be valuable for applications requiring a controlled movement of droplets17-19.
- 43Xu, L.-C.; Siedlecki, C. A. Submicron-textured biomaterial surface reduces staphylococcal bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Acta Biomater. 2012, 8, 72– 81, DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2011.08.009Google Scholar43https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhsFGjtLzF&md5=40a1b152a405766e583c91c981c4dc0dSubmicron-textured biomaterial surface reduces staphylococcal bacterial adhesion and biofilm formationXu, Li-Chong; Siedlecki, Christopher A.Acta Biomaterialia (2012), 8 (1), 72-81CODEN: ABCICB; ISSN:1742-7061. (Elsevier Ltd.)Staphylococci are among the most important pathogens causing bloodstream infections assocd. with implanted medical devices. Control of bacterial adhesion to material surfaces is important for prevention of biofilm formation and biomaterial-assocd. infections. In this study, we hypothesized that submicron (staphylococcal bacterial dimension) surface textures may reduce the bacterial adhesion via a decrease in surface area that bacteria can contact, and subsequently inhibit biofilm formation. Poly(urethane urea) films were textured with two different sizes of submicron pillars via a two-stage replication process. Adhesion of two bacterial strains (Staphylococcus epidermidis RP62A and S. aureus Newman) was assessed over a shear stress range of 0-13.2 dyn cm-2 using a rotating disk system in physiol. buffer solns. Significant decreases in bacterial adhesion were obsd. on textured surfaces for both strains compared with smooth controls. Biofilm formation was further tested on surfaces incubated in soln. for either 2 or 5 days and it was found that biofilm formation was dramatically inhibited on textured surfaces. The results of the approaches used in this work demonstrate that patterned surface texturing of biomaterials provides an effective means to reduce staphylococcal adhesion and biofilm formation on biomaterial surfaces, and thus to prevent biomaterial-assocd. infections.
- 44Tuteja, A.; Choi, W.; Mabry, J. M.; McKinley, G. H.; Cohen, R. E. Robust omniphobic surfaces. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008, 105, 18200– 18205, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0804872105Google Scholar44https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhsVOmsb%252FE&md5=cecb1760a3620b2f7fd0d0c866492b5fRobust omniphobic surfacesTuteja, Anish; Choi, Wonjae; Mabry, Joseph M.; McKinely, Gareth H.; Cohen, Robert E.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2008), 105 (47), 18200-18205, S18200/1-S18200/29CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Superhydrophobic surfaces display H2O contact angles >150° in conjunction with low contact angle hysteresis. Microscopic pockets of air trapped beneath the H2O droplets placed on these surfaces lead to a composite solid-liq.-air interface in thermodn. equil. Previous exptl. and theor. studies suggest that it may not be possible to form similar fully-equilibrated, composite interfaces with drops of liqs., such as alkanes or alcs., that possess significantly lower surface tension than H2O (γlv = 72.1 mN/m). The authors develop surfaces possessing reentrant texture that can support strongly metastable composite solid-liq.-air interfaces, even with very low surface tension liqs. such as pentane (γlv = 15.7 mN/m). The authors propose 4 design parameters that predict the measured contact angles for a liq. droplet on a textured surface, as well as the robustness of the composite interface, based on the properties of the solid surface and the contacting liq. These design parameters allow one to produce 2 different families of reentrant surfaces - randomly-deposited electrospun fiber mats and precisely fabricated microhoodoo surfaces - that can each support a robust composite interface with essentially any liq. These omniphobic surfaces display contact angles >150° and low contact angle hysteresis with both polar and nonpolar liqs. possessing a wide range of surface tensions.
- 45Hwang, G. B.; Page, K.; Patir, A.; Nair, S. P.; Allan, E.; Parkin, I. P. The anti-biofouling properties of superhydrophobic surfaces are short-lived. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 6050– 6058, DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b02293Google Scholar45https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtVWnt7%252FF&md5=a2cec1e5f467dd1e86700d3ec6b3cfffThe Anti-Biofouling Properties of Superhydrophobic Surfaces are Short-LivedHwang, Gi Byoung; Page, Kristopher; Patir, Adnan; Nair, Sean P.; Allan, Elaine; Parkin, Ivan P.ACS Nano (2018), 12 (6), 6050-6058CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)Superhydrophobic surfaces are present in nature on the leaves of many plant species. Water rolls on these surfaces and the rolling motion picks up particles including bacteria and viruses. Man-made superhydrophobic surfaces were made in an effort to reduce biofouling. We show here that the anti-biofouling property of a superhydrophobic surface is due to an entrapped air-bubble layer that reduces contact between the bacteria and the surface. Further, we show that prolonged immersion of superhydrophobic surfaces in water led to loss of the bubble-layer and subsequent bacterial adhesion that unexpectedly, exceeded that of the control materials. This behavior was not restricted to one particular type of material but was evident on different types of superhydrophobic surfaces. This work is important in that it suggests that superhydrophobic surfaces may actually encourage bacterial adhesion during longer term exposure.
- 46Kang, H.; Shim, S.; Lee, S. J.; Yoon, J.; Ahn, K. H. Bacterial translational motion on the electrode surface under anodic electric field. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 5769– 5774, DOI: 10.1021/es200752hGoogle Scholar46https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXntF2jtLs%253D&md5=6a6abf7edb6ac4920cd2735c66769caaBacterial Translational Motion on the Electrode Surface under Anodic Electric FieldKang, Hee-Kyoung; Shim, Soo-Jin; Lee, Seung-J.; Yoon, Je-Yong; Ahn, Kyung-H.Environmental Science & Technology (2011), 45 (13), 5769-5774CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Application of an elec. field (alternating or cathodic polarization) has been suggested as a possible mean of controlling biofilm development. Bacteria on an anodically polarized surface were shown to be active and highly motile when compared with a nonpolarized condition, but no quant. information on bacterial motion has been reported. This study investigated the effects of environmental conditions (c.d. and ionic strength) on the translational motion of P. aeruginosa PAO1 cells under an anodic elec. field using a quant. tracking method. Bacterial displacement for 10 s was found to be approx. 1.2 μm, irresp. of wide-ranging current densities (7.5-30 μA/cm2). However, the local dynamics of bacterial communities differed under varied current densities. The distribution of bacterial displacement appeared to exhibit a more oscillating (subdiffusive) at high c.d. At the same time, the no. of bacteria with a circular trajectory (superdiffusive) decreased. Bacterial movement decreased with increased ionic strength of the media, because of strong electrostatic interactions. The motion of bacterial communities on an anodically polarized surface under various conditions is discussed, along with possible mechanisms. In addn., the control of biofilm growth was partly demonstrated by changing the motility of bacterial cells under anodic polarization.
- 47Rühs, P.; Böcker, L.; Inglis, R. F.; Fischer, P. Studying bacterial hydrophobicity and biofilm formation at liquid–liquid interfaces through interfacial rheology and pendant drop tensiometry. Colloids Surf., B 2014, 117, 174– 184, DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.02.023Google Scholar47https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXntFOqt7Y%253D&md5=fe5ccc042bb2e964803049dacc4eaee9Studying bacterial hydrophobicity and biofilm formation at liquid-liquid interfaces through interfacial rheology and pendant drop tensiometryRuhs, P. A.; Bocker, L.; Inglis, R. F.; Fischer, P.Colloids and Surfaces, B: Biointerfaces (2014), 117 (), 174-184CODEN: CSBBEQ; ISSN:0927-7765. (Elsevier B.V.)Bacterial adsorption to interfaces is a key factor in biofilm formation. One major limitation to understanding biofilm formation and development is the accurate measurement of bacterial cell adhesion to hydrophobic interfaces. With this study, bacterial attachment and biofilm growth over time at water-oil interface was monitored through interfacial rheol. and tensiometry. Five model bacteria (Pseudomonas putida KT2442, Pseudomonas putida W2, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, and Bacillus subtilis) were allowed to adsorb at the water-oil interface either in their non-growing or growing state. We found that we were able to observe the initial kinetics of bacterial attachment and the transient biofilm formation at the water-oil interface through interfacial rheol. and tensiometry. Electrophoretic mobility measurements and bacterial adhesion to hydrocarbons (BATH) tests were performed to characterize the selected bacteria. To validate interfacial rheol. and tensiometry measurements, we monitored biofilm formation utilizing both confocal laser scanning microscopy and light microscopy. Using this combination of techniques, we were able to observe the elasticity and tension development over time, from the first bacterial attachment up to biofilm formation.
- 48Ford, C.; Percival, E. 1298. The carbohydrates of phaeodactylum tricornutum. Part I. Preliminary examination of the organism, and characterisation of low molecular weight material and of a glucan. J. Chem. Soc. 1965, 7035– 7041, DOI: 10.1039/jr9650007035Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Abdullahi, A. S.; Underwood, G. J.; Gretz, M. R. Extracellular matrix assembly in diatoms (bacillariophyceae). v. environmental effects on polysaccharide synthesis in the model diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum 1. J. Phycol. 2006, 42, 363– 378, DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00193.xGoogle ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 50Prestegard, S. K.; Oftedal, L.; Coyne, R. T.; Nygaard, G.; Skjærven, K. H.; Knutsen, G.; Døskeland, S. O.; Herfindal, L. Marine benthic diatoms contain compounds able to induce leukemia cell death and modulate blood platelet activity. Mar. Drugs 2009, 7, 605– 623, DOI: 10.3390/md7040605Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 51de Vree, J. H.; Bosma, R.; Wieggers, R.; Gegic, S.; Janssen, M.; Barbosa, M. J.; Wijffels, R. H. Turbidostat operation of outdoor pilot-scale photobioreactors. Algal Res. 2016, 18, 198– 208, DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.06.006Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
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Abstract
Figure 1
Figure 1. Scanning electron microscopy image of diatom microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum from B58 strain in the fusiform. Cultured from NORCE, Bergen, Norway.
Figure 2
Figure 2. (A) Scanning electron microscopy image of the surface morphology of a nanostructured glass. (B) Optical images of a 10 μL super distilled water droplet on a reference glass (top) and nanostructured glass (bottom) and the corresponding optical contact angles.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Schematic of the antibiofouling experiment. The substrates (ref: reference substrate; nh: nanostructured substrate) are placed in a Petri dish filled with the microalgae stock and stored under UV growing lights for either 1 day, 7 days, 21 days or 180 days. (A) After a specific amount of time, the substrates are gently washed in freshly filtered seawater for 15 s by stirring so that the loose microalgae are removed, and only the sticking microalgae are left on the surface to evaluate further. (B) The substrates are placed on a microscope slide for optical analysis. (C) The images obtained are further used in statistical analysis using ImageJ software.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Reference substrate before (left) and after (right) washing for 15 s in 60 mL of freshly filtered seawater after submersion in the algal stock for 21 days.
Figure 5
Figure 5. Adhesion of microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum to the test substrates after the washing step. Top row: reference substrate. Bottom row: nanostructured substrate. Each column shows the corresponding substrates after a certain amount of time: (a,e) after 1 day, (b,f) after 7 days, (c,g) after 21 days and (d,h) after 180 days.
Figure 6
Figure 6. Percentage biofouled area for the different time intervals (1-180 days). Blue: reference substrate. Orange: nanostructured substrate. The error bars represent the mean ± standard error of three independent experiments’ mean (s.e.). No error bar is depicted for Day 1, as the s.e. is 0%. For 180 days, only one nanostructured and one reference substrate were tested. Detailed data can be found in the Supporting Information.
References
This article references 51 other publications.
- 1Akhtar, N.; Thomas, P. J.; Svardal, B.; Almenningen, S.; de Jong, E.; Magnussen, S.; Onck, P. R.; Fernø, M. A.; Holst, B. Pillars or pancakes? Self-cleaning surfaces without coating. Nano Lett. 2018, 18, 7509– 7514, DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b029821https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXitVartbbJ&md5=ec13aaa36f02812efd7dba79565d383ePillars or Pancakes? Self-Cleaning Surfaces without CoatingAkhtar, Naureen; Thomas, Peter J.; Svardal, Benny; Almenningen, Stian; de Jong, Edwin; Magnussen, Stian; Onck, Patrick R.; Fernoe, Martin A.; Holst, BodilNano Letters (2018), 18 (12), 7509-7514CODEN: NALEFD; ISSN:1530-6984. (American Chemical Society)Surfaces that stay clean when immersed in water are important for an enormous range of applications from ships and buildings to marine, medical, and other equipment. Up until now the main strategy for designing self-cleaning surfaces was to combine hydrophilic/hydrophobic coatings with a high aspect ratio structuring (typically micron scale pillars) to trap a (semi)static water/air layer for drag and adhesion redn. However, such coating and structuring can distort optical properties and get damaged in harsh environments, and contamination, i.e., particles, oil droplets, and biofouling, can get trapped and aggregate in the structure. Here we present a radically different strategy for self-cleaning surface design: We show that a surface can be made self-cleaning by structuring with a pattern of low aspect ratio pillars ("pancakes"). Now the water is not trapped. It can flow freely around the pancakes thus creating a dynamic water layer. We have applied the new pancake design to sapphire windows and made the first surfaces that are self-cleaning through structuring alone without the application of any coating. An offshore installation has now been running continuously with structured windows for more than one year. The previous uptime for unstructured windows was 7 days.
- 2Skålvik, A. M.; Saetre, C.; Frøysa, K.-E.; Bjørk, R. N.; Tengberg, A. Challenges, limitations, and measurement strategies to ensure data quality in deep-sea sensors. Front. mar. sci. 2023, 10, 1152236, DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2023.1152236There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 3Koren, K.; McGraw, C. M. Let’s Talk about Slime; or Why Biofouling Needs More Attention in Sensor Science. ACS sensors 2023, 8, 2432– 2439, DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c00961There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 4Skålvik, A. M.; Tengberg, A.; Frøysa, K.-E.; Bjørk, R. N.; Saetre, C. Automatic near real-time quality control tests for biofouling effect on measurement data; Oceans 2023-Limerick, 2023; pp 1– 8.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 5Bixler, G. D.; Bhushan, B. Biofouling: lessons from nature. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., A 2012, 370, 2381– 2417, DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2011.05025https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38Xpt1yqtb4%253D&md5=13b7cc8cb71313a77c7f7877124664b7Biofouling: lessons from natureBixler, Gregory D.; Bhushan, BharatPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, A: Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences (2012), 370 (1967), 2381-2417CODEN: PTRMAD; ISSN:1364-503X. (Royal Society)A review. Biofouling is generally undesirable for many applications. An overview of the medical, marine and industrial fields susceptible to fouling is presented. Two types of fouling include biofouling from organism colonization and inorg. fouling from non-living particles. Nature offers many solns. to control fouling through various phys. and chem. control mechanisms. Examples include low drag, low adhesion, wettability (water repellency and attraction), microtexture, grooming, sloughing, various misc. behaviors and chem. secretions. A survey of nature's flora and fauna was taken in order to discover new antifouling methods that could be mimicked for engineering applications. Antifouling methods currently employed, ranging from coatings to cleaning techniques, are described. New antifouling methods will presumably incorporate a combination of phys. and chem. controls.
- 6Flemming, H.-C.; Wingender, J. The biofilm matrix. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2010, 8, 623– 633, DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro24156https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXpsFWlur4%253D&md5=28ecf529c890b3eb5a906487b654c0e1The biofilm matrixFlemming, Hans-Curt; Wingender, JostNature Reviews Microbiology (2010), 8 (9), 623-633CODEN: NRMACK; ISSN:1740-1526. (Nature Publishing Group)A review. The microorganisms in biofilms live in a self-produced matrix of hydrated extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that form their immediate environment. EPS are mainly polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids; they provide the mech. stability of biofilms, mediate their adhesion to surfaces and form a cohesive, three-dimensional polymer network that interconnects and transiently immobilizes biofilm cells. In addn., the biofilm matrix acts as an external digestive system by keeping extracellular enzymes close to the cells, enabling them to metabolize dissolved, colloidal and solid biopolymers. Here we describe the functions, properties and constituents of the EPS matrix that make biofilms the most successful forms of life on earth.
- 7Achinas, S.; Charalampogiannis, N.; Euverink, G. J. W. A brief recap of microbial adhesion and biofilms. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2801, DOI: 10.3390/app91428017https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXisFCqtLs%253D&md5=f8a6f4500e61a7680ed857c87fa65329A brief recap of microbial adhesion and biofilmsAchinas, Spyridon; Charalampogiannis, Nikolaos; Euverink, Gerrit Jan WillemApplied Sciences (2019), 9 (14), 2801CODEN: ASPCC7; ISSN:2076-3417. (MDPI AG)Food and beverage industries operate their prodn. units under stringent hygiene stds. to verify high-quality products. However, the presence of biofilms can cause hygienic problems in the industries in the case of pathogenic organisms. Microorganisms can form biofilms, which are resistant to cleaning and disinfection. Microorganisms in biofilms are closely packed in a matrix that acts as a barrier to cleaning and disinfection. Biofilms are obsd. in processing equipment and open surfaces, resulting in food safety problems or weakening of prodn. efficiency. This review provides a recap of the biofouling process, including the prodn. mechanisms and control techniques of microbial adhesion. Microbial adhesion and colonization are the sine qua non of the establishment of bacterial pathogenesis and this report focuses on their prevention.
- 8Subbiahdoss, G.; Reimhult, E. Biofilm formation at oil-water interfaces is not a simple function of bacterial hydrophobicity. Colloids Surf., B 2020, 194, 111163, DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111163There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 9Yue, D.; Jiang, X.; Yu, H.; Sun, D. In-situ fabricated hierarchical nanostructure on titanium alloy as highly stable and durable super-lubricated surface for anti-biofouling in marine engineering. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 463, 142389, DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.1423899https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3sXlvFWmurw%253D&md5=a6695f3dee38fd513d875798737d0f59In-situ fabricated hierarchical nanostructure on titanium alloy as highly stable and durable super-lubricated surface for anti-biofouling in marine engineeringYue, Dizhu; Jiang, Xuzhou; Yu, Hongying; Sun, DongbaiChemical Engineering Journal (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2023), 463 (), 142389CODEN: CMEJAJ; ISSN:1385-8947. (Elsevier B.V.)Titanium alloys, with superior corrosion resistance, have been widely used in marine engineering. However, they are biocompatible and attractive to biofouling organisms. In this work, based on the micro-arc oxidn. and hydrothermal treatment, a Slippery Liq.-Infused Porous and Prickly Surface (SLIPPS) was in-situ fabricated on titanium alloy (TA2) via a cost-efficient and facile process. The hierarchical nanostructure consisting of micro/nano-pores and nano-prickles was infused by lubricant to form a super-lubricated surface. The micro/nano-pores can offer sufficient space to store the lubricant, and the tiny prickles on/inside the pores can provide the firm mech. interlock with the lubricant. These unique features can ensure the long-lasting storage and conservation of the lubricant, which endows the excellent stability and durability. The SLIPPS remains well lubricated after a series of tests with extreme conditions, such as the high-rate centrifugation, scouring test and long-time immersion. As an inert barrier, this stable and durable lubricant layer also significantly improves the corrosion resistance. Compared with pristine TA2 and super-hydrophobic samples, the SLIPPS possesses an impressive anti-biofouling performance. After being immersed for 31 days with two typical biofouling organisms (Chlorella and Phaeodactylum tricornutum), the coverage percentages are only 0.03% and 0.06% on SLIPPS, resp., while for the pristine TA2, the corresponding values are 53.3% and 23.2%, resp. Therefore, this in-situ fabricated, low-cost and super-lubricated coating on the titanium alloy surface can effectively, stably and durably prevent from biofouling and corrosion in seawater, which may pave the way for the large-scale applications of titanium alloys in marine engineering.
- 10Karygianni, L.; Ren, Z.; Koo, H.; Thurnheer, T. Biofilm matrixome: extracellular components in structured microbial communities. Trends Microbiol. 2020, 28, 668– 681, DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.03.01610https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXnt1Wjsbo%253D&md5=33a8d64b007a1be3d717a9d239181935Biofilm Matrixome: Extracellular Components in Structured Microbial CommunitiesKarygianni, L.; Ren, Z.; Koo, H.; Thurnheer, T.Trends in Microbiology (2020), 28 (8), 668-681CODEN: TRMIEA; ISSN:0966-842X. (Elsevier Ltd.)A review. Biofilms consist of microbial communities embedded in a 3D extracellular matrix. The matrix is composed of a complex array of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that contribute to the unique attributes of biofilm lifestyle and virulence. This ensemble of chem. and functionally diverse biomols. is termed the 'matrixome'. The compn. and mechanisms of EPS matrix formation, and its role in biofilm biol., function, and microenvironment are being revealed. This perspective article highlights recent advances about the multifaceted role of the 'matrixome' in the development, phys.-chem. properties, and virulence of biofilms. We emphasize that targeting biofilm-specific conditions such as the matrixome could lead to precise and effective antibiofilm approaches. We also discuss the limited knowledge in the context of polymicrobial biofilms, and the need for more in-depth analyses of the EPS matrix in mixed communities that are assocd. with many human infectious diseases.
- 11Védie, E.; Barry-Martinet, R.; Senez, V.; Berglin, M.; Stenlund, P.; Brisset, H.; Bressy, C.; Briand, J.-F. Influence of Sharklet-Inspired Micropatterned Polymers on Spatio-Temporal Variations of Marine Biofouling. Macromol. Biosci. 2022, 22, 2200304, DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202200304There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 12Guardiola, F. A.; Cuesta, A.; Meseguer, J.; Esteban, M. A. Risks of using antifouling biocides in aquaculture. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2012, 13, 1541– 1560, DOI: 10.3390/ijms1302154112https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XivVKhsLw%253D&md5=5e6e2dbbdb26c99b88d381067a44b6b4Risks of using antifouling biocides in aquacultureGuardiola, Francisco Antonio; Cuesta, Alberto; Meseguer, Jose; Esteban, Maria AngelesInternational Journal of Molecular Sciences (2012), 13 (), 1541-1560CODEN: IJMCFK; ISSN:1422-0067. (MDPI AG)A review. Biocides are chem. substances that can deter or kill the microorganisms responsible for biofouling. The rapid expansion of the aquaculture industry is having a significant impact on the marine ecosystems. As the industry expands, it requires the use of more drugs, disinfectants and antifoulant compds. (biocides) to eliminate the microorganisms in the aquaculture facilities. The use of biocides in the aquatic environment, however, has proved to be harmful as it has toxic effects on the marine environment. Org. booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to the organotin compds. found in antifouling products after restrictions were imposed on the use of tributyltin (TBT). The replacement products are generally based on copper metal oxides and org. biocides. The biocides that are most commonly used in antifouling paints include chlorothalonil, dichlofluanid, DCOIT (4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one, Sea-Nine 211), Diuron, Irgarol 1051, TCMS pyridine (2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl pyridine), zinc pyrithione and Zineb. There are two types of risks assocd. with the use of biocides in aquaculture: (i) predators and humans may ingest the fish and shellfish that have accumulated in these contaminants and (ii) the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This paper provides an overview of the effects of antifouling (AF) biocides on aquatic organisms. It also provides some insights into the effects and risks of these compds. on non-target organisms.
- 13Antizar-Ladislao, B. Environmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environment. A review. Environ. Int. 2008, 34, 292– 308, DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2007.09.00513https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhvFygu7Y%253D&md5=d6fb1090cc637333930d1b31096d23ecEnvironmental levels, toxicity and human exposure to tributyltin (TBT)-contaminated marine environmentAntizar-Ladislao, BlancaEnvironment International (2008), 34 (2), 292-308CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Tributyltin (TBT) is a toxic chem. used for various industrial purposes such as slime control in paper mills, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters, antifouling agents, and the preservation of wood. Due to its widespread use as an antifouling agent in boat paints, TBT is a common contaminant of marine and freshwater ecosystems exceeding acute and chronic toxicity levels. TBT is the most significant pesticide in marine and freshwaters in Europe and consequently its environmental level, fate, toxicity and human exposure are of current concern. Thus, the European Union has decided to specifically include TBT compds. in its list of priority compds. in water in order to control its fate in natural systems, due to their toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative and endocrine disruptive characteristics. Addnl., the International Maritime Organization has called for a global treaty that bans the application of TBT-based paints starting 1 of Jan. 2003, and total prohibition by 1 of Jan. 2008. This paper reviews the state of the science regarding TBT, with special attention paid to the environmental levels, toxicity, and human exposure. TBT compds. have been detected in a no. of environmental samples. In humans, organotin compds. have been detected in blood and in the liver. As for other persistent org. pollutants, dietary intake is most probably the main route of exposure to TBT compds. for the general population. However, data concerning TBT levels in foodstuffs are scarce. It is concluded that investigations on exptl. toxicity, dietary intake, potential human health effects and development of new sustainable technologies to remove TBT compds. are clearly necessary.
- 14Konstantinou, I.; Albanis, T. Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review. Environ. Int. 2004, 30, 235– 248, DOI: 10.1016/S0160-4120(03)00176-414https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXmvFGksw%253D%253D&md5=abef62a0a1642e2ba39b9a8d13a660e6Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a reviewKonstantinou, I. K.; Albanis, T. A.Environment International (2004), 30 (2), 235-248CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier)A review is given. Org. booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to organotin compds. in antifouling products, after restrictions imposed on the use of tributyltin (TBT) in 1987. Replacement products are generally based on copper metal oxides and org. biocides. This ban has led to an increase in alternative coating products contg. the above biocides. The most commonly used biocides in antifouling paints are: Irgarol 1051, diuron, Sea-nine 211, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil, zinc pyrithione, TCMS (2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl) pyridine, TCMTB [2-(thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole], and zineb. Since 1993, several studies have demonstrated the presence of these biocides in European coastal environment as a result of their increased use. More recently, the presence of these biocides was also revealed in waters from Japan, United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda. This paper reviews the currently available data on the occurrence of these biocides in the aquatic environment. Some data dealing with the environmental fate, partitioning, behavior and risk assessment of antifouling paint booster biocides are also reported in order to discuss the detected levels of contamination.
- 15Han, S.; Ji, S.; Abdullah, A.; Kim, D.; Lim, H.; Lee, D. Superhydrophilic nanopillar-structured quartz surfaces for the prevention of biofilm formation in optical devices. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 429, 244– 252, DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.07.16415https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXht1CksrfJ&md5=bfd4cd664699d473cd92a72fa44a92d3Superhydrophilic nanopillar-structured quartz surfaces for the prevention of biofilm formation in optical devicesHan, Soo; Ji, Seungmuk; Abdullah, Abdullah; Kim, Duckil; Lim, Hyuneui; Lee, DonghyunApplied Surface Science (2018), 429 (), 244-252CODEN: ASUSEE; ISSN:0169-4332. (Elsevier B.V.)Bacterial biofilm formation on optical devices such as contact lenses, optical glasses, endoscopic devices, and microscopic slides and lenses are major concerns in the field of medicine and biomedical engineering. To solve these problems, here we present the first report of superhydrophilic transparent nanopillar-structured surfaces with bactericidal properties. To construct bactericidal surfaces, we imitated a topol. mechanism found in nature in which nanopillar-structured surfaces cause a mech. disruption of the outer cell membranes of bacteria, resulting in bacterial cell death. We used nanosphere lithog. to fabricate nanopillars with various sharpnesses and heights on a quartz substrate. Water contact angle and light reflectance measurements revealed superhydrophilic, antifogging and antireflective properties, which are important for use in optical devices. To det. bactericidal efficiency, the fabricated surfaces were incubated and tested against two Gram-neg. bacteria assocd. with biofilm formation and various diseases in humans, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. The highest bactericidal activity was achieved with nanopillars that measured 300 nm in height and 10 nm in apex diam. Quartz substrates patterned with such nanopillars killed ∼38,000 P. aeruginosa and ∼27,000 E. coli cells cm-2 min-1, resp. Thus, the newly designed nanopillar-structured bactericidal surfaces are suitable for use in the development of superhydrophilic and transparent optical devices.
- 16Delgado, A.; Briciu-Burghina, C.; Regan, F. Antifouling strategies for sensors used in water monitoring: review and future perspectives. Sensors 2021, 21, 389, DOI: 10.3390/s2102038916https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXjs1Wqtb0%253D&md5=08e907ea8d23b0f6d93089a1c1d982faAntifouling strategies for sensors used in water monitoring: review and future perspectivesDelgado, Adrian; Briciu-Burghina, Ciprian; Regan, FionaSensors (2021), 21 (2), 389CODEN: SENSC9; ISSN:1424-8220. (MDPI AG)A review. Water monitoring sensors in industrial, municipal and environmental monitoring are advancing our understanding of science, aid developments in process automatization and control and support real-time decisions in emergency situations. Sensors are becoming smaller, smarter, increasingly specialized and diversified and cheaper. Advanced deployment platforms now exist to support various monitoring needs together with state-of-the-art power and communication capabilities. For a large percentage of submersed instrumentation, biofouling is the single biggest factor affecting the operation, maintenance and data quality. This increases the cost of ownership to the extent that it is prohibitive to maintain operational sensor networks and infrastructures. In this context, the paper provides a brief overview of biofouling, including the development and properties of biofilms. The state-of-the-art established and emerging antifouling strategies are reviewed and discussed. A summary of the currently implemented solns. in com. available sensors is provided and current trends are discussed. Finally, the limitations of the currently used solns. are reviewed, and future research and development directions are highlighted.
- 17Granhag, L.; Finlay, J.; Jonsson, P.; Callow, J.; Callow, M. Roughness-dependent removal of settled spores of the green alga Ulva (syn. Enteromorpha) exposed to hydrodynamic forces from a water jet. Biofouling 2004, 20, 117– 122, DOI: 10.1080/0892701041000171548217https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2czms1ynsQ%253D%253D&md5=11e6440c40f6f24ad1c9a66cc8d805a5Roughness-dependent removal of settled spores of the green alga Ulva (syn. Enteromorpha) exposed to hydrodynamic forces from a water jetGranhag L M; Finlay J A; Jonsson P R; Callow J A; Callow M EBiofouling (2004), 20 (2), 117-22 ISSN:0892-7014.Topographic features change the hydrodynamic regime over surfaces subjected to flow. Hydrodynamic microenvironments around topographic structures may have consequences for recruitment and removal of propagules of marine benthic organisms. The settlement and adhesion of zoospores from the green alga Ulva linza (syn. Enteromorpha linza) to defined topographies was investigated. A range of topographic size scales (Rz: 25-100 microm) was manufactured from plankton nets, creating patterns with ridges and depressions. The topographic scales span a roughness similar to that of natural substrata and antifouling coatings. Spores were removed from the surfaces by a calibrated water jet. Fewer spores were removed from the smallest topographic structure tested (Rz: 25 microm) compared to both the smooth (Rz: 1) and the roughest (Rz: 100 microm) structures. Zoospores that settled in depressions were less likely to be removed compared to spores on the ridges. The results in terms of the interaction between surface topography and hydrodynamic forces have implications for both natural substrata exposed to wave action and antifouling surfaces on ships' hulls. The possible effects of topography on increasing zoospore adhesion and offering a refuge from hydrodynamic forces are discussed.
- 18Naik, A.; Smithers, M.; Moisander, P. H. Impacts of UV-C irradiation on marine biofilm community succession. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2022, 88, 022988, DOI: 10.1128/aem.02298-21There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 19Titus, J. M.; Ryskiewich, B. S. Ultraviolet marine anti-biofouling systems. 1994; US Patent 5,322,569 A.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 20Graham, M. V.; Cady, N. C. Nano and Microscale Topographies for the Prevention of Bacterial Surface Fouling. Coatings 2014, 4, 37– 59, DOI: 10.3390/coatings401003720https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXlsVChu7o%253D&md5=4288172813de04a24d7fa3b0f2241550Nano and microscale topographies for the prevention of bacterial surface foulingGraham, Mary V.; Cady, Nathaniel C.Coatings (2014), 4 (1), 37-59, 23 pp.CODEN: COATED; ISSN:2079-6412. (MDPI AG)Bacterial surface fouling is problematic for a wide range of applications and industries, including, but not limited to medical devices (implants, replacement joints, stents, pacemakers), municipal infrastructure (pipes, wastewater treatment), food prodn. (food processing surfaces, processing equipment), and transportation (ship hulls, aircraft fuel tanks). One method to combat bacterial biofouling is to modify the topog. structure of the surface in question, thereby limiting the ability of individual cells to attach to the surface, colonize, and form biofilms. Multiple research groups have demonstrated that micro and nanoscale topogs. significantly reduce bacterial biofouling, for both individual cells and bacterial biofilms. Antifouling strategies that utilize engineered topog. surface features with well-defined dimensions and shapes have demonstrated a greater degree of controllable inhibition over initial cell attachment, in comparison to undefined, texturized, or porous surfaces. This review article will explore the various approaches and techniques used by researches, including work from our own group, and the underlying phys. properties of these highly structured, engineered micro/nanoscale topogs. that significantly impact bacterial surface attachment.
- 21Carman, M. L.; Estes, T. G.; Feinberg, A. W.; Schumacher, J. F.; Wilkerson, W.; Wilson, L. H.; Callow, M. E.; Callow, J. A.; Brennan, A. B. Engineered antifouling microtopographies–correlating wettability with cell attachment. Biofouling 2006, 22, 11– 21, DOI: 10.1080/0892701050048485421https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28Xis1CjtL8%253D&md5=e1f15054724992cfc9c944ad0add2977Engineered antifouling microtopographies - correlating wettability with cell attachmentCarman, Michelle; Estes, Thomas; Feinberg, Adam; Schumacher, James; Wilkerson, Wade; Wilson, Leslie; Callow, Maureen; Callow, James; Brennan, AnthonyBiofouling (2006), 22 (1/2), 11-21CODEN: BFOUEC; ISSN:0892-7014. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)Bioadhesion and surface wettability are influenced by microscale topog. Engineered pillars, ridges and biomimetic topog. inspired by the skin of fast moving sharks (Sharklet AF) were replicated in polydimethylsiloxane elastomer. Sessile drop contact angle changes on the surfaces correlated well (R2 = 0.89) with Wenzel and Cassie and Baxter's relationships for wettability. Two sep. biol. responses, i.e. settlement of Ulva linza zoospores and alignment of porcine cardiovascular endothelial cells, were inversely proportional to the width (between 5 and 20 μm) of the engineered channels. Zoospore settlement was reduced by ∼85% on the finer (ca 2 μm) and more complex Sharklet AF topogs. The response of both cell types suggests their responses are governed by the same underlying thermodn. principles as wettability.
- 22Nir, S.; Reches, M. Bio-inspired antifouling approaches: the quest towards non-toxic and non-biocidal materials. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2016, 39, 48– 55, DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.12.01222https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtlKgsA%253D%253D&md5=a8138669eb2cdedf0b9e770d523d2088Bio-inspired antifouling approaches: the quest towards non-toxic and non-biocidal materialsNir, Sivan; Reches, MeitalCurrent Opinion in Biotechnology (2016), 39 (), 48-55CODEN: CUOBE3; ISSN:0958-1669. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Biofouling is an undesirable process in which organisms and their byproducts encrust a surface. Antifouling solns. are of great importance since biofouling has neg. effects on numerous species, ecosystems, and areas including water treatment facilities, health-care systems, and marine devices. Many useful solns. have been developed in the last few decades. However, with the emergence of environmental issues, the search for new promising non-toxic materials has expanded. One approach tries to mimic natural antifouling surfaces and relies on mechanisms of action derived from nature. Since these materials are based on natural systems, they are mostly biocompatible and more efficient against complex fouling. In this review, we cover the latest advances in the field of antifouling materials. We specifically focus on biomaterials that are based on the chem. and phys. behavior of biol. systems.
- 23Chambers, L. D.; Stokes, K. R.; Walsh, F. C.; Wood, R. J. Modern approaches to marine antifouling coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2006, 201, 3642– 3652, DOI: 10.1016/j.surfcoat.2006.08.12923https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD28Xht1agsL%252FF&md5=391a0682badd428697d2ec2e7ff69c9eModern approaches to marine antifouling coatingsChambers, L. D.; Stokes, K. R.; Walsh, F. C.; Wood, R. J. K.Surface and Coatings Technology (2006), 201 (6), 3642-3652CODEN: SCTEEJ; ISSN:0257-8972. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. Marine structures such as platforms, jetties and ship hulls are subject to diverse and severe biofouling. Methods for inhibiting both org. and inorg. growth on wetted substrates are varied but most antifouling systems take the form of protective coatings. Biofouling can neg. affect the hydrodynamics of a hull by increasing the required propulsive power and the fuel consumption. This paper reviews the development of antifouling coatings for the prevention of marine biol. fouling. As a result of the 2001 International Maritime Organization (IMO) ban on tributyltin (TBT), replacement antifouling coatings have to be environmentally acceptable and maintain a long life. Tin-free self-polishing copolymer (SPC) and foul release technologies are current applications but many alternatives were suggested. Modern approaches to environmentally effective antifouling systems and their performance are highlighted.
- 24Li, J.; Wang, G.; Meng, Q.; Ding, C.; Jiang, H.; Fang, Y. A biomimetic nano hybrid coating based on the lotus effect and its anti-biofouling behaviors. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2014, 315, 407– 414, DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2014.07.14724https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhtlWru7rF&md5=4ec31eca09f0bcfbbb756487cf018a3eA biomimetic nano hybrid coating based on the lotus effect and its anti-biofouling behaviorsLi, Jiang; Wang, Guoqing; Meng, Qinghua; Ding, Chunhua; Jiang, Hong; Fang, YongzengApplied Surface Science (2014), 315 (), 407-414CODEN: ASUSEE; ISSN:0169-4332. (Elsevier B.V.)To develop an environmentally friendly anti-biofouling coating in virtue of bionics, a block copolymer contg. fluorine (Coplm_F) of low surface energy was prepd. by copolymn. The Ag-loaded mesoporous silica (Ag@SBA) acting as a controlled-release antifoulant was prepd. from the mesoporous silica (SBA-15). The nano hybrid coating (Ag@SBA/Coplm_F) composing of the Coplm_F and Ag@SBA was to biomimetically simulate the lotus microstructure. The concn. of fluorine element on surface was analyzed by the energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and found rising to 1.45% after hybridation, which could be explained by the driving effect of SBA-15 via the hydrogen bond. This nanoscale morphol. of the hybrid coating was measured and found highly semblable to the microstructure of the lotus surface. The contact angle was detd. as 151° which confirmed the superhydrophobicity and lotus effect. The adhesion behaviors of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Diatoms, and Chlorella on the surface of the nano hybrid coating (Ag@SBA/Coplm_F) were studied and good effects of anti-biofouling were obsd.
- 25Kirschner, C. M.; Brennan, A. B. Bio-inspired antifouling strategies. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2012, 42, 211– 229, DOI: 10.1146/annurev-matsci-070511-15501225https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhsFKmsbvI&md5=4c4f24992febf6ae64c1309b04f21ff1Bio-inspired antifouling strategiesKirschner, Chelsea M.; Brennan, Anthony B.Annual Review of Materials Research (2012), 42 (), 211-229CODEN: ARMRCU; ISSN:1531-7331. (Annual Reviews Inc.)A review. Biofouling is a complex, dynamic problem that globally impacts both the economy and environment. Interdisciplinary research in marine biol., polymer science, and engineering has led to the implementation of bio-inspired strategies for the development of the next generation of antifouling marine coatings. Natural fouling defense mechanisms have been mimicked through chem., phys., and/or stimuli-responsive strategies. This review outlines the detrimental effects assocd. with biofouling, describes the theor. basis for antifouling coating design, and highlights prominent advances in bio-inspired antifouling technologies.
- 26Rostami, S.; Garipcan, B. Evolution of antibacterial and antibiofouling properties of sharkskin-patterned surfaces. Surf. Innovations 2022, 10, 165– 190, DOI: 10.1680/jsuin.21.00055There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 27He, B.; Du, Y.; Wang, B.; Wang, X.; Ye, Q.; Liu, S. Grafting embedded poly (ionic liquid) brushes on biomimetic sharklet resin surface for anti-biofouling applications. Prog. Org. Coat. 2021, 157, 106298, DOI: 10.1016/j.porgcoat.2021.106298There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28Vellwock, A. E.; Su, P.; Zhang, Z.; Feng, D.; Yao, H. Reconciling the conflict between optical transparency and fouling resistance with a nanowrinkled surface inspired by zebrafish’s cornea. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2022, 14, 7617– 7625, DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c2220528https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB38XisVGisb4%253D&md5=f4476657746c9c9aa301ef364382bc1eReconciling the Conflict between Optical Transparency and Fouling Resistance with a Nanowrinkled Surface Inspired by Zebrafish's CorneaVellwock, Andre E.; Su, Pei; Zhang, Zijing; Feng, Danqing; Yao, HaiminACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2022), 14 (6), 7617-7625CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)Surface topog. was demonstrated as an effective nonchem. strategy for controlling the fouling resistance of a surface, but its impact on optical transparency remains a barrier to the application of this strategy in optical materials. To reconcile the conflicting effects of surface topog. on optical transparency and fouling resistance, here we study the optical properties and antifouling performance of nanowrinkled surfaces inspired by the corneal surface of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Exptl. and numerical analyses demonstrate that a good compromise between optical transparency and antifouling efficacy can be achieved by wavy nanowrinkles with a characteristic wavelength of 800 nm and an amplitude of 100 nm. In particular, the optimal wrinkled surface under study can reduce biofouling by up to 96% in a single-species (Pseudoalteromonas sp.) bacterial settlement assay in the lab. and 89% in a field test while keeping the total transmittance above 0.98 and haze below 0.04 underwater. Moreover, our nanowrinkled surface also exhibits excellent resistance against contamination by inorg. particles. This work provides a nonchem. strategy for achieving the coexistence of optical transparency and fouling resistance on one single material, which implies significant application potential in various optical devices and systems, such as antibacterial contact lenses and self-cleaning solar panels.
- 29Wang, P.; Zhang, D.; Sun, S.; Li, T.; Sun, Y. Fabrication of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface with high underwater transparency for the control of marine biofouling. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 972– 982, DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b0911729https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvFGgsb7L&md5=095850b9a7b2fbbed1cf1c5b7e2ca544Fabrication of Slippery Lubricant-Infused Porous Surface with High Underwater Transparency for the Control of Marine BiofoulingWang, Peng; Zhang, Dun; Sun, Shimei; Li, Tianping; Sun, YanACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2017), 9 (1), 972-982CODEN: AAMICK; ISSN:1944-8244. (American Chemical Society)Marine optical instruments are bearing serious biofouling problem, which affects the accuracy of data collected. To solve the biofouling problem of marine optical instruments, a novel instance of slippery lubricant-infused porous surface (SLIPS) with high underwater-transparency was designed over glass substrate via infusing lubricant into its porous micro-structure fabricated with hydrothermal method. The advantage of SLIPS as anti-biofouling strategy to marine optical instruments was proven by comparing its underwater optical and anti-biofouling performances with three kinds of samples (hydrophilic glass sample, textured hydrophilic glass sample, and super-hydrophobic glass sample). The modification of SLIPS enhances the underwater-transparency of glass sample within the wavelength of 500-800 nm, for the infusion of lubricant with lower refractive index than glass substrate. In contrast with hydrophilic surface, textured hydrophilic surface and super-hydrophobic surface, SLIPS can significantly inhibit bacterial and algal settlements, thereby maintaining high underwater-transparency in both dynamic and static seawater. The inhibition of bacterial and algal settlements over SLIPS results from its liq.-like property. The contact angle hysteresis of water over SLIPS increases with immersion time in seawater under different conditions (static, dynamic, and vibration conditions). Both dynamic and vibration conditions accelerate the failure of SLIPS exposed in seawater. This research provides valuable information for solving biofouling problem of marine optical instruments with SLIPS.
- 30Wang, J.; Lee, S.; Bielinski, A. R.; Meyer, K. A.; Dhyani, A.; Ortiz-Ortiz, A. M.; Tuteja, A.; Dasgupta, N. P. Rational design of transparent nanowire architectures with tunable geometries for preventing marine fouling. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 7, 2000672, DOI: 10.1002/admi.20200067230https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXhslygsrrK&md5=2b5a2891a54455aaec823cd8f9f1dd94Rational Design of Transparent Nanowire Architectures with Tunable Geometries for Preventing Marine FoulingWang, Jing; Lee, Sudarat; Bielinski, Ashley R.; Meyer, Kevin A.; Dhyani, Abhishek; Ortiz-Ortiz, Alondra M.; Tuteja, Anish; Dasgupta, Neil P.Advanced Materials Interfaces (2020), 7 (17), 2000672CODEN: AMIDD2; ISSN:2196-7350. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)Marine biofouling is a sticky global problem that hinders maritime industries. Various microscale surface structures inspired by marine biol. species have been explored for their anti-fouling properties. However, systematic studies of anti-marine-fouling performance on surface architectures with characteristic length-scales spanning from below 100 nm to greater than 10μm are generally lacking. Herein, a study on the rational design and fabrication of ZnO/Al2O3 core-shell nanowire architectures with tunable geometries (length, spacing, and branching) and surface chem. is presented. The ability of the nanowires to significantly delay or prevent marine biofouling is demonstrated. Compared to planar surfaces, hydrophilic nanowires can reduce fouling coverage by up to ≈60% after 20 days. The fouling redn. mechanism is mainly due to two geometric effects: reduced effective settlement area and mech. cell penetration. Addnl., superhydrophobic nanowires can completely prevent marine biofouling for up to 22 days. The nanowire surfaces are transparent across the visible spectrum, making them applicable to windows and oceanog. sensors. Through the rational control of surface nano-architectures, the coupled relationships between wettability, transparency, and anti-biofouling performance are identified. It is envisioned that the insights gained from the work can be used to systematically design surfaces that reduce marine biofouling in various industrial settings.
- 31Zhang, M.; Cabane, E.; Claverie, J. Transparent antifouling coatings via nanoencapsulation of a biocide. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2007, 105, 3826– 3833, DOI: 10.1002/app.26659There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 32Diao, Z.; Hirte, J.; Chen, W.; Spatz, J. P. Inverse moth eye nanostructures with enhanced antireflection and contamination resistance. ACS omega 2017, 2, 5012– 5018, DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b0100132https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtlymsrjM&md5=5662f2dfdc031a4b023036da80d4928dInverse Moth Eye Nanostructures with Enhanced Antireflection and Contamination ResistanceDiao, Zhaolu; Hirte, Johannes; Chen, Wenwen; Spatz, Joachim P.ACS Omega (2017), 2 (8), 5012-5018CODEN: ACSODF; ISSN:2470-1343. (American Chemical Society)Moth eye-inspired nanostructures are highly useful for antireflection applications. However, block copolymer micelle lithog., an effective method to prep. moth eye nanopillars, can only be used on a limited choice of substrates. Another drawback of nanopillar substrates is that contamination is easily absorbed, thereby reducing transmittance. The prodn. of antireflective surfaces that are contamination-resistant or that can be cleaned easily without the loss of optical properties remains challenging. Here, we describe an approach for creating inverse moth eye nanostructures on other optical substrates than the most commonly used fused silica. We demonstrate its feasibility by fabricating a borosilicate substrate with inverse nanostructures on both sides. The etching of nanoholes on both sides of the substrate improves its transmittance by 8%, thereby surpassing the highest increase of transmittance yet to be obtained with nanopillars on fused silica. More importantly, the substrate with inverse moth eye nanostructures is more robust against contaminations than substrates with nanopillars. No significant decrease in performance is obsd. after five cycles of repeated contamination and cleaning. Our approach is transferable to a variety of optical materials, rendering our antireflection nanostructures ideal for applications in touch devices like touch screens and display panels.
- 33Mirotznik, M. S.; Good, B. L.; Ransom, P.; Wikner, D.; Mait, J. N. Broadband antireflective properties of inverse motheye surfaces. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 2010, 58, 2969– 2980, DOI: 10.1109/TAP.2010.2052575There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 34Nosonovsky, M.; Bhushan, B. Why re-entrant surface topography is needed for robust oleophobicity. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., A 2016, 374, 20160185, DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0185There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 35Zhang, M.; Li, C.; Yang, S.; Hirte, J.; Zhao, W.; Wei, Q.; Diao, Z.; Spatz, J. P.; Zhao, C. Ultra-transparent slippery surface. Smart Mater. Med 2021, 2, 38– 45, DOI: 10.1016/j.smaim.2020.10.001There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 36Wong, T.-S.; Kang, S. H.; Tang, S. K.; Smythe, E. J.; Hatton, B. D.; Grinthal, A.; Aizenberg, J. Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicity. Nature 2011, 477, 443– 447, DOI: 10.1038/nature1044736https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXht1WltLnO&md5=6e87e0847466d77ecdc599cf1ff0f231Bioinspired self-repairing slippery surfaces with pressure-stable omniphobicityWong, Tak-Sing; Kang, Sung Hoon; Tang, Sindy K. Y.; Smythe, Elizabeth J.; Hatton, Benjamin D.; Grinthal, Alison; Aizenberg, JoannaNature (London, United Kingdom) (2011), 477 (7365), 443-447CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)Creating a robust synthetic surface that repels various liqs. would have broad technol. implications for areas ranging from biomedical devices and fuel transport to architecture but proved extremely challenging. Inspirations from natural nonwetting structures, particularly the leaves of the lotus, led to the development of liq.-repellent microtextured surfaces that rely on the formation of a stable air-liq. interface. Despite over a decade of intense research, these surfaces are, however, still plagued with problems that restrict their practical applications: limited oleophobicity with high contact angle hysteresis, failure under pressure and upon phys. damage, inability to self-heal and high prodn. cost. To address these challenges, here the authors report a strategy to create self-healing, slippery liq.-infused porous surface(s) (SLIPS) with exceptional liq.- and ice-repellency, pressure stability and enhanced optical transparency. The approach-inspired by Nepenthes pitcher plants-is conceptually different from the lotus effect, because the authors use nano/microstructured substrates to lock in place the infused lubricating fluid. The authors define the requirements for which the lubricant forms a stable, defect-free and inert slippery' interface. This surface outperforms its natural counterparts and state-of-the-art synthetic liq.-repellent surfaces in its capability to repel various simple and complex liqs. (water, hydrocarbons, crude oil and blood), maintain low contact angle hysteresis ( < 2.5°), quickly restore liq.-repellency after phys. damage (within 0.1-1 s), resist ice adhesion, and function at high pressures (up to ∼680 atm). These properties are insensitive to the precise geometry of the underlying substrate, making the approach applicable to various inexpensive, low-surface-energy structured materials (such as porous Teflon membrane). The authors envision that these slippery surfaces will be useful in fluid handling and transportation, optical sensing, medicine, and as self-cleaning and anti-fouling materials operating in extreme environments.
- 37Avelelas, F.; Martins, R.; Oliveira, T.; Maia, F.; Malheiro, E.; Soares, A. M.; Loureiro, S.; Tedim, J. Efficacy and ecotoxicity of novel anti-fouling nanomaterials in target and non-target marine species. Mar. Biotechnol. 2017, 19, 164– 174, DOI: 10.1007/s10126-017-9740-137https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXktVGlt74%253D&md5=15ac43018a209f5f5c044a89f47a2207Efficacy and Ecotoxicity of Novel Anti-Fouling Nanomaterials in Target and Non-Target Marine SpeciesAvelelas, Francisco; Martins, Roberto; Oliveira, Tania; Maia, Frederico; Malheiro, Eliana; Soares, Amadeu M. V. M.; Loureiro, Susana; Tedim, JoaoMarine Biotechnology (2017), 19 (2), 164-174CODEN: MABIFW; ISSN:1436-2228. (Springer)Biofouling is a global problem that affects virtually all the immersed structures. Currently, several novel environmentally friendly approaches are being tested worldwide to decrease the toxicity of biocides in non-fouling species, such as the encapsulation/immobilization of com. available biocides, in order to achieve control over the leaching rate. The present study addresses the toxicity of two widely used booster biocides, zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) and copper pyrithione (CuPT), in its free and incorporated forms in order to assess their toxicity and anti-fouling efficacy in target and non-target species. To achieve this goal, the following marine organisms were tested; the green microalgae Tetraselmis chuii (non-target species) and both target species, the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum and the mussel Mytilus edulis. Organisms were exposed to both biocides, two unloaded nanostructured materials and nanomaterials loaded with biocides, from 10μg/L to 100 mg/L total wt., following std. protocols. The most eco-friendly and simultaneously efficient anti-fouling soln. against the two photosynthetic species (nanoclays loaded with ZnPT) was then tested on mussels to assess its lethal efficacy (LC50 = 123μg/L) and compared with free biocide (LC50 = 211μg/L) and unloaded material (LC50 > 1000μg/L). A second exposure test with sub-lethal concns. (lower than 100μg/L), using mussels, was carried out to assess biochem. changes caused by the tested compds. Oxidative stress, detoxification and neurotransmission markers were not responsive; however, different antioxidant patterns were found with free ZnPT and loaded nanoclay exposures. Thus, the immobilization of the biocide ZnPT into nanoclays proved to be a promising efficient and eco-friendly anti-fouling strategy.
- 38Figueiredo, J.; Oliveira, T.; Ferreira, V.; Sushkova, A.; Silva, S.; Carneiro, D.; Cardoso, D. N.; Goncalves, S. F.; Maia, F.; Rocha, C.; Tedim, J.; Loureiro, S.; Martins, R. Toxicity of innovative anti-fouling nano-based solutions to marine species. Environ. Sci.: Nano 2019, 6, 1418– 1429, DOI: 10.1039/C9EN00011A38https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXks12nt74%253D&md5=f245a9e146e0dc9a5302add568e9e99fToxicity of innovative anti-fouling nano-based solutions to marine speciesFigueiredo, Joana; Oliveira, Tania; Ferreira, Violeta; Sushkova, Alesia; Silva, Sara; Carneiro, Diana; Cardoso, Diogo N.; Goncalves, Sandra F.; Maia, Frederico; Rocha, Claudia; Tedim, Joao; Loureiro, Susana; Martins, RobertoEnvironmental Science: Nano (2019), 6 (5), 1418-1429CODEN: ESNNA4; ISSN:2051-8161. (Royal Society of Chemistry)Biofouling is one of the most challenging problems for the maritime industry which has been minimized through the application of coatings contg. anti-fouling (AF) biocides (e.g.Cu-based compds.; DCOIT) in immersed structures. An innovative eco-friendly approach based on the encapsulation of AF biocides in engineered nanomaterials (e.g. mesoporous silica nanocapsules (SiNCs)) has recently been applied to control the leaching rate and the environmental impacts of AF biocides when used as additives in coatings. Thus, the present study aims to: (a) assess the toxicity toward marine species of three innovative AF nanomaterials: SiNCs loaded with DCOIT (SiNC-DCOIT), SiNCs coated with silver (SiNC-Ag), SiNCs loaded with DCOIT and coated with silver (SiNC-DCOIT-Ag), and free counterparts (DCOIT, ionic silver and empty SiNCs) and (b) test if encapsulation reduces the toxicity of biocides to non-target species maintaining the anti-fouling efficacy against target species. To achieve this goal, eleven marine species (three target and eight non-target) were exposed to the test compds., following std. protocols, with adaptations for some species. DCOIT and silver were found to be very to extremely toxic to the target and non-target species tested. Encapsulated biocides reduced their toxicity toward non-target species while showing good AF performance toward fouler species. The present study demonstrated that the encapsulation of DCOIT and silver in silica nanocapsules is a promising, efficient and more environmentally-friendly anti-fouling soln. compared to free com. biocides.
- 39Stanley, M. S.; Callow, J. A. Whole cell adhesion strength of morphotypes and isolates of Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bacillariophyceae). Eur. J. Phycol. 2007, 42, 191– 197, DOI: 10.1080/0967026070124086339https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXlsVert7s%253D&md5=9730e688d93c0e9c3cd66d8526ee67d8Whole cell adhesion strength of morphotypes and isolates of Phaeodactylum tricornutum (Bacillariophyceae)Stanley, Michele S.; Callow, James A.European Journal of Phycology (2007), 42 (2), 191-197CODEN: EJPHE5; ISSN:0967-0262. (Taylor & Francis Ltd.)Adhesion of raphid diatoms to natural surfaces, which is mediated by the secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), is an important strategy for growth and survival and contributes to the economically important process of biofouling. An understanding of adhesion processes requires that the genes involved in the EPS biosynthetic pathways and their regulation be characterized. Phaeodactylum tricornutum provides a model system in which to do this but the quant. adhesion characteristics of the various morphotypes and isolates of this species are currently unknown. The present paper reports on the use of a calibrated fully turbulent flow cell to characterize the whole cell adhesion properties of morphotypes and strains of this species. It has been shown that only the oval cell morphotype adheres to a surface. There are strain/isolate differences in adhesion strength: some strains including strain Pt 1.8.6, the genome of which has been sequenced, show adhesion strengths comparable to other raphid diatoms. In common with some other raphid diatom species, adhesion strength of oval cells of some isolates of P. tricornutum was greater on a hydrophobic surface (Silastic T2 silicone elastomer), than on hydrophilic acid-washed glass. These studies provide a baseline for future mol. genetic and gene expression studies.
- 40Willis, A.; Chiovitti, A.; Dugdale, T. M.; Wetherbee, R. Characterization of the extracellular matrix of P (Bacillariophyceae): structure, composition, and adhesive characteristics. J. Phycol. 2013, 49, 937– 949, DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12103There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 41Eid, K.; Panth, M.; Sommers, A. The physics of water droplets on surfaces: exploring the effects of roughness and surface chemistry. Eur. J. Phys. 2018, 39, 025804, DOI: 10.1088/1361-6404/aa9cbaThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 42Sun, Q.; Wang, D.; Li, Y.; Zhang, J.; Ye, S.; Cui, J.; Chen, L.; Wang, Z.; Butt, H.-J.; Vollmer, D. Surface charge printing for programmed droplet transport. Nat. Mater. 2019, 18, 936– 941, DOI: 10.1038/s41563-019-0440-242https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXhsVWktbrI&md5=083863032caee7891ca45de4cb74b998Surface charge printing for programmed droplet transportSun, Qiangqiang; Wang, Dehui; Li, Yanan; Zhang, Jiahui; Ye, Shuji; Cui, Jiaxi; Chen, Longquan; Wang, Zuankai; Butt, Hans-Jurgen; Vollmer, Doris; Deng, XuNature Materials (2019), 18 (9), 936-941CODEN: NMAACR; ISSN:1476-1122. (Nature Research)The directed, long-range and self-propelled transport of droplets on solid surfaces is crucial for many applications from water harvesting to bio-anal.1-9. Typically, preferential transport is achieved by topog. or chem. modulation of surface wetting gradients that break the asym. contact line and overcome the resistance force to move droplets along a particular direction10-16. Nonetheless, despite extensive progress, directional droplet transport is limited to low transport velocity or short transport distance. Here we report the high-velocity and ultralong transport of droplets elicited by surface charge d. gradients printed on diverse substrates. We leverage the facile water droplet printing on superamphiphobic surfaces to create rewritable surface charge d. gradients that stimulate droplet propulsion under ambient conditions17 and without the need for addnl. energy input. Our strategy provides a platform for programming the transport of droplets on flat, flexible and vertical surfaces that may be valuable for applications requiring a controlled movement of droplets17-19.
- 43Xu, L.-C.; Siedlecki, C. A. Submicron-textured biomaterial surface reduces staphylococcal bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Acta Biomater. 2012, 8, 72– 81, DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2011.08.00943https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhsFGjtLzF&md5=40a1b152a405766e583c91c981c4dc0dSubmicron-textured biomaterial surface reduces staphylococcal bacterial adhesion and biofilm formationXu, Li-Chong; Siedlecki, Christopher A.Acta Biomaterialia (2012), 8 (1), 72-81CODEN: ABCICB; ISSN:1742-7061. (Elsevier Ltd.)Staphylococci are among the most important pathogens causing bloodstream infections assocd. with implanted medical devices. Control of bacterial adhesion to material surfaces is important for prevention of biofilm formation and biomaterial-assocd. infections. In this study, we hypothesized that submicron (staphylococcal bacterial dimension) surface textures may reduce the bacterial adhesion via a decrease in surface area that bacteria can contact, and subsequently inhibit biofilm formation. Poly(urethane urea) films were textured with two different sizes of submicron pillars via a two-stage replication process. Adhesion of two bacterial strains (Staphylococcus epidermidis RP62A and S. aureus Newman) was assessed over a shear stress range of 0-13.2 dyn cm-2 using a rotating disk system in physiol. buffer solns. Significant decreases in bacterial adhesion were obsd. on textured surfaces for both strains compared with smooth controls. Biofilm formation was further tested on surfaces incubated in soln. for either 2 or 5 days and it was found that biofilm formation was dramatically inhibited on textured surfaces. The results of the approaches used in this work demonstrate that patterned surface texturing of biomaterials provides an effective means to reduce staphylococcal adhesion and biofilm formation on biomaterial surfaces, and thus to prevent biomaterial-assocd. infections.
- 44Tuteja, A.; Choi, W.; Mabry, J. M.; McKinley, G. H.; Cohen, R. E. Robust omniphobic surfaces. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008, 105, 18200– 18205, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.080487210544https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1cXhsVOmsb%252FE&md5=cecb1760a3620b2f7fd0d0c866492b5fRobust omniphobic surfacesTuteja, Anish; Choi, Wonjae; Mabry, Joseph M.; McKinely, Gareth H.; Cohen, Robert E.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2008), 105 (47), 18200-18205, S18200/1-S18200/29CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)Superhydrophobic surfaces display H2O contact angles >150° in conjunction with low contact angle hysteresis. Microscopic pockets of air trapped beneath the H2O droplets placed on these surfaces lead to a composite solid-liq.-air interface in thermodn. equil. Previous exptl. and theor. studies suggest that it may not be possible to form similar fully-equilibrated, composite interfaces with drops of liqs., such as alkanes or alcs., that possess significantly lower surface tension than H2O (γlv = 72.1 mN/m). The authors develop surfaces possessing reentrant texture that can support strongly metastable composite solid-liq.-air interfaces, even with very low surface tension liqs. such as pentane (γlv = 15.7 mN/m). The authors propose 4 design parameters that predict the measured contact angles for a liq. droplet on a textured surface, as well as the robustness of the composite interface, based on the properties of the solid surface and the contacting liq. These design parameters allow one to produce 2 different families of reentrant surfaces - randomly-deposited electrospun fiber mats and precisely fabricated microhoodoo surfaces - that can each support a robust composite interface with essentially any liq. These omniphobic surfaces display contact angles >150° and low contact angle hysteresis with both polar and nonpolar liqs. possessing a wide range of surface tensions.
- 45Hwang, G. B.; Page, K.; Patir, A.; Nair, S. P.; Allan, E.; Parkin, I. P. The anti-biofouling properties of superhydrophobic surfaces are short-lived. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 6050– 6058, DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b0229345https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXhtVWnt7%252FF&md5=a2cec1e5f467dd1e86700d3ec6b3cfffThe Anti-Biofouling Properties of Superhydrophobic Surfaces are Short-LivedHwang, Gi Byoung; Page, Kristopher; Patir, Adnan; Nair, Sean P.; Allan, Elaine; Parkin, Ivan P.ACS Nano (2018), 12 (6), 6050-6058CODEN: ANCAC3; ISSN:1936-0851. (American Chemical Society)Superhydrophobic surfaces are present in nature on the leaves of many plant species. Water rolls on these surfaces and the rolling motion picks up particles including bacteria and viruses. Man-made superhydrophobic surfaces were made in an effort to reduce biofouling. We show here that the anti-biofouling property of a superhydrophobic surface is due to an entrapped air-bubble layer that reduces contact between the bacteria and the surface. Further, we show that prolonged immersion of superhydrophobic surfaces in water led to loss of the bubble-layer and subsequent bacterial adhesion that unexpectedly, exceeded that of the control materials. This behavior was not restricted to one particular type of material but was evident on different types of superhydrophobic surfaces. This work is important in that it suggests that superhydrophobic surfaces may actually encourage bacterial adhesion during longer term exposure.
- 46Kang, H.; Shim, S.; Lee, S. J.; Yoon, J.; Ahn, K. H. Bacterial translational motion on the electrode surface under anodic electric field. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 5769– 5774, DOI: 10.1021/es200752h46https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXntF2jtLs%253D&md5=6a6abf7edb6ac4920cd2735c66769caaBacterial Translational Motion on the Electrode Surface under Anodic Electric FieldKang, Hee-Kyoung; Shim, Soo-Jin; Lee, Seung-J.; Yoon, Je-Yong; Ahn, Kyung-H.Environmental Science & Technology (2011), 45 (13), 5769-5774CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)Application of an elec. field (alternating or cathodic polarization) has been suggested as a possible mean of controlling biofilm development. Bacteria on an anodically polarized surface were shown to be active and highly motile when compared with a nonpolarized condition, but no quant. information on bacterial motion has been reported. This study investigated the effects of environmental conditions (c.d. and ionic strength) on the translational motion of P. aeruginosa PAO1 cells under an anodic elec. field using a quant. tracking method. Bacterial displacement for 10 s was found to be approx. 1.2 μm, irresp. of wide-ranging current densities (7.5-30 μA/cm2). However, the local dynamics of bacterial communities differed under varied current densities. The distribution of bacterial displacement appeared to exhibit a more oscillating (subdiffusive) at high c.d. At the same time, the no. of bacteria with a circular trajectory (superdiffusive) decreased. Bacterial movement decreased with increased ionic strength of the media, because of strong electrostatic interactions. The motion of bacterial communities on an anodically polarized surface under various conditions is discussed, along with possible mechanisms. In addn., the control of biofilm growth was partly demonstrated by changing the motility of bacterial cells under anodic polarization.
- 47Rühs, P.; Böcker, L.; Inglis, R. F.; Fischer, P. Studying bacterial hydrophobicity and biofilm formation at liquid–liquid interfaces through interfacial rheology and pendant drop tensiometry. Colloids Surf., B 2014, 117, 174– 184, DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.02.02347https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXntFOqt7Y%253D&md5=fe5ccc042bb2e964803049dacc4eaee9Studying bacterial hydrophobicity and biofilm formation at liquid-liquid interfaces through interfacial rheology and pendant drop tensiometryRuhs, P. A.; Bocker, L.; Inglis, R. F.; Fischer, P.Colloids and Surfaces, B: Biointerfaces (2014), 117 (), 174-184CODEN: CSBBEQ; ISSN:0927-7765. (Elsevier B.V.)Bacterial adsorption to interfaces is a key factor in biofilm formation. One major limitation to understanding biofilm formation and development is the accurate measurement of bacterial cell adhesion to hydrophobic interfaces. With this study, bacterial attachment and biofilm growth over time at water-oil interface was monitored through interfacial rheol. and tensiometry. Five model bacteria (Pseudomonas putida KT2442, Pseudomonas putida W2, Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, and Bacillus subtilis) were allowed to adsorb at the water-oil interface either in their non-growing or growing state. We found that we were able to observe the initial kinetics of bacterial attachment and the transient biofilm formation at the water-oil interface through interfacial rheol. and tensiometry. Electrophoretic mobility measurements and bacterial adhesion to hydrocarbons (BATH) tests were performed to characterize the selected bacteria. To validate interfacial rheol. and tensiometry measurements, we monitored biofilm formation utilizing both confocal laser scanning microscopy and light microscopy. Using this combination of techniques, we were able to observe the elasticity and tension development over time, from the first bacterial attachment up to biofilm formation.
- 48Ford, C.; Percival, E. 1298. The carbohydrates of phaeodactylum tricornutum. Part I. Preliminary examination of the organism, and characterisation of low molecular weight material and of a glucan. J. Chem. Soc. 1965, 7035– 7041, DOI: 10.1039/jr9650007035There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Abdullahi, A. S.; Underwood, G. J.; Gretz, M. R. Extracellular matrix assembly in diatoms (bacillariophyceae). v. environmental effects on polysaccharide synthesis in the model diatom, Phaeodactylum tricornutum 1. J. Phycol. 2006, 42, 363– 378, DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00193.xThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 50Prestegard, S. K.; Oftedal, L.; Coyne, R. T.; Nygaard, G.; Skjærven, K. H.; Knutsen, G.; Døskeland, S. O.; Herfindal, L. Marine benthic diatoms contain compounds able to induce leukemia cell death and modulate blood platelet activity. Mar. Drugs 2009, 7, 605– 623, DOI: 10.3390/md7040605There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 51de Vree, J. H.; Bosma, R.; Wieggers, R.; Gegic, S.; Janssen, M.; Barbosa, M. J.; Wijffels, R. H. Turbidostat operation of outdoor pilot-scale photobioreactors. Algal Res. 2016, 18, 198– 208, DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.06.006There is no corresponding record for this reference.
Supporting Information
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.4c03030.
Supporting Information OCA measurements; the adapted seawater medium recipe; two tables containing biofouled areas by percentage of reference and nanostructured substrates; fluorescence microscopy images of the reference and nanostructured substartes after 7 and 21 days; images of the fluorinated and lubricated substrates and their corresponding biofouled areas in percentage; Cassie–Baxter equations (PDF). The following files are available free of charge. (PDF)
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