Fucoxanthin-Loaded Oil-in-Water Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems: Effects of Natural Emulsifiers on the Formulation, Stability, and Bioaccessibility
- Zhaoxiang MaZhaoxiang MaGraduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577, JapanMore by Zhaoxiang Ma,
- Nauman KhalidNauman KhalidSchool of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore 54000, PakistanMore by Nauman Khalid,
- Gaofeng ShuGaofeng ShuLishui Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Lishui 323000, PR ChinaMore by Gaofeng Shu,
- Yiguo ZhaoYiguo ZhaoSchool of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, ChinaMore by Yiguo Zhao,
- Isao KobayashiIsao KobayashiFood Research Institute, NARO, 2-1-12 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, JapanMore by Isao Kobayashi,
- Marcos A. NevesMarcos A. NevesGraduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577, JapanMore by Marcos A. Neves,
- Ambo TuwoAmbo TuwoFaculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, Hassanuddin University, Makassar 90245, IndonesiaMore by Ambo Tuwo, and
- Mitsutoshi Nakajima*Mitsutoshi Nakajima*E-mail: [email protected]. Phone: +81 29 853 4703. Fax: +81 29 853 4703.Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577, JapanMore by Mitsutoshi Nakajima
Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society
Abstract
The effect of natural emulsifiers (whey protein isolate, WPI; modified lecithin, ML; and gum arabic, GA) on the formulation, stability, and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin-loaded oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions was determined in this study. The fine emulsions were prepared under high-pressure homogenization at 100 MPa for 4 passes, using 2 wt % WPI, ML, and GA, resulting in emulsions with the droplet sizes of 136, 140, and 897 nm, respectively. The chemical stability of fucoxanthin in the emulsions after long-term storage at ambient temperature decreased in the following order: WPI > GA > ML. The release of free fatty acids of fucoxanthin, studied by in vitro digestion, decreased in the following order: WPI > ML > GA > bulk oil. The bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin in emulsions stabilized by WPI, ML, and GA after in vitro digestion were 92.5 ± 6.8%, 44.6 ± 0.4, and 36.8 ± 2.5, respectively. These results indicate that natural emulsifier type and concentration used significantly affects the formulation, stability, lipid digestion, and fucoxanthin bioaccessibility, which may be ascribed to the different properties of each emulsifier. The bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin was improved by using emulsion-based delivery systems.
1. Introduction
ARTICLE SECTIONS
With the constant pursuit of better life quality and healthier lifestyle, consumers are increasingly concerned about their health, and paying more attention to nutraceutical ingredients, such as vitamins and carotenoids. Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid found in brown seaweed, with a distinctive allenic bond in the 5,6-monoepoxide and hydroxyl groups, is an accessory pigment in the chloroplasts and is involved in photosynthesis.(1) Fucoxanthin is known to possess many beneficial properties, including antioxidant,(2,3) anticancer,(4,5) anti-inflammatory,(6) anti-obesity, and antidiabetic effects.(7,8) A previous study investigated the effect of fucoxanthin supplementation, using ThinOgen, on body fat in overweight humans.(9) The results revealed that subjects in the treatment group (fucoxanthin 2–4 mg/day intake) showed a significant reduction in weight, compared to that by subjects in the placebo group. Moreover, another research illustrated that consumption of fucoxanthin-fortified milk leads to enhanced bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin in in vitro and in vivo models.(10) Therefore, fucoxanthin can be considered as a nutraceutical ingredient and can be utilized in the food industry and other fields to design new and improved nutraceuticals. However, as with other carotenoids, fucoxanthin is affected by light, oxygen, heat, and pH.(11,12) Owing to its many limitations, such as its poor water-solubility (0.5 ppm), high melting point (166–168 °C), chemical variability, and low bioaccessibility,(13,14) there are many challenges to its incorporation into nutraceutical products.
Food-grade emulsions are widely used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, foods, and beverages.(15) Various studies have indicated that emulsions could improve the stability and the bioavailability of nutraceutical ingredients when incorporated into dispersed phase droplets. O/W emulsion-based delivery systems are quite suited to encapsulate lipophilic bioactive ingredients due to the dispersion of small lipid droplets in the continuous phase. These droplets can efficiently pass through the skin and enhance the penetration of the components.(16,17)
Previous studies have demonstrated successful encapsulation of highly purified fucoxanthin into nanoemulsions, nanoparticles, and other spray-dried powders.(10,18−21) Most of them focused on the stability and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin, which were affected by carrier oils (corn oil, medium chain triacylglycerol oil, orange flavor oil, and restructured lipids) and dispersions (whole milk and skimmed milk). Meanwhile, there is limited information about the comparison of various types of emulsifiers. For instance, fucoxanthin-loaded nanoemulsions were successfully prepared and characterized with Tween 80. Fucoxanthin-loaded nanoparticles of casein and chitosan showed improved bioavailability due to high absorption and entry into the blood.(18) There are no reports about using crude fucoxanthin extract and different naturally occurring emulsifiers for the formulation of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions.
This study aimed to utilize natural emulsifiers instead of synthetic surfactants to formulate emulsions, which are sustainable and label friendly. Natural emulsifiers are mainly classified into protein-based emulsifiers, phospholipid-based emulsifiers, and polysaccharide-based emulsifiers. It is an established fact that emulsifiers are crucial to the formulation and stability of emulsion-based systems and that they protect emulsions against destabilizing processes. In this study, we utilized three natural emulsifiers: whey protein isolate (WPI), modified lecithin (ML) and gum arabic (GA) to formulate emulsions. We also evaluated the effects of the emulsifier type and concentration on the physicochemical stability of emulsions encapsulating fucoxanthin. WPI (mainly consisting of β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin) is widely used as a food-grade emulsifier in food and beverage products.(16) Hydrophilically modified phospholipid, which is hydrolyzed by soy lecithin, was used in this study. ML has a low molecular weight (about 650 g/mol), and because of its zwitterionic nature, it can stabilize emulsions by electrostatic repulsions during processing and storage. In addition, GA is generally utilized as an amphiphilic polysaccharide in the food industry (in juices and candies). It is a soluble dietary fiber, with specific properties due to a complex mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins. In this study, we evaluated the effects of the emulsifier type and concentration, apart from homogenization parameters, on the formulation and stabilization of fucoxanthin-loaded O/W emulsions. Subsequently, the characteristics of the emulsions, including the volume mean diameter, droplet size distribution, physicochemical stability, and fucoxanthin retention, were investigated. Moreover, we also investigated the effects of different emulsifiers on the in vitro digestion behavior and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin by evaluating the amount of free fatty acids (FFAs) released and fucoxanthin concentration in the micellar phase.
2. Results and Discussion
ARTICLE SECTIONS
2.1. Influence of Emulsifier Type and Concentration on the Formulation of Fucoxanthin-Loaded O/W Emulsions
The influence of the type of emulsifier and their concentration on the formulation of fucoxanthin-loaded O/W emulsions, using standard homogenization conditions (100 MPa, 4 passes), was investigated. The droplet size and size distribution are presented in Figure 1a. The freshly prepared-emulsions stabilized by 2 wt % WPI, ML, and GA exhibited narrow droplet size distribution with small droplet sizes (d4,3) of = 136, 140, and 897 nm, respectively. The d4,3 of emulsions decreased with increasing concentration of the respective emulsifier. The decrease in d4,3 at low emulsifier concentrations (Figure 1b) can be attributed to the fact that there was not sufficient emulsifier available to adsorb at oil/water interface during homogenization.(22) At high emulsifier concentrations, the d4,3 values remained constant because the disruptive energy of the homogenizer was not enough for further size reduction.(23) Fine droplets with the minimum droplet diameters (d4,3) of ≈128 nm (WPI), ≈137 nm (ML), and ≈611 nm (GA), respectively, were obtained at high emulsifier concentrations (4 wt %). The difference in droplet size was likely due to the contribution of the different emulsifiers to the interfacial behavior. ML dissolved in Milli-Q water had smaller interfacial tension than Milli-Q water, which was favorable for formulating small droplets. In contrast, the higher interfacial tension for WPI and GA can be ascribed to their large-molecular structures, which prevent close packing of the points of contact at the interface.(24) The coalescence of droplets occurred due to the splitting of droplets in a short period of time, in the homogenizer, which could not be fleetly stabilized by the large-molecule emulsifiers due to their low adsorption kinetics.(25) For WPI and GA, a smaller droplet size of emulsions formulated was observed. This could be explained based on the structural change in WPI during homogenization. There might be more hydrophobic groups exposed by the protein chain due to unfolding during adsorption. GA has a 21–28 nm gyration radius of globular configuration, and it is not as good a protein in reducing interfacial tension.(26) Therefore, under the same conditions, WPI may be faster and more efficient in covering the droplet surface than GA, thus resulting in the formulation of smaller droplets.
Figure 1
Figure 1. Effect of different types of emulsifiers and their concentrations on the formulation of emulsions, encapsulating fucoxanthin, prepared by using high-pressure homogenization at 100 MPa for 4 passes. (a) Droplet size distribution of emulsions stabilized by ML (d4,3 = 140 nm), WPI (d4,3 = 136 nm), and GA (d4,3 = 897 nm). (b) d4,3 of emulsions stabilized by different concentrations of emulsifiers.
2.2. Influence of Homogenization Pressures and Number of Passes on the Formulation of Fucoxanthin-Loaded O/W Emulsions
Homogenization parameters, such as pressure and the number of passes, are very crucial for the size of droplets generated using high-pressure homogenization. In our study, the effect of different homogenization pressures (20–140 MPa, Figure 2a) and the number of passes (0–10 passes, Figure 2b) on the droplet size were evaluated by monitoring the d4,3 of the emulsions stabilized by 2 wt % of emulsifiers. Pass 0 refers to the use of only the rotor-stator homogenizer without high-pressure homogenizing. With increasing homogenization pressure and pass, the disruption energy increased together with a decrease in the d4,3.(27) However, the d4,3 of GA-stabilized emulsions slightly increased from 760 to 904 nm. This phenomenon could be interpreted by the interdigitation of carbohydrates and protein denaturation in GA during the high-pressure process, which hindered the emulsifying capacity of GA.(25) Meanwhile, after 80 MPa and 3 passes, there was no distinct change in d4,3. The d4,3 of WPI- or ML- stabilized emulsions decreased from 389 to 134 and 275 to 137 nm, respectively. Importantly, the chemical stability of fucoxanthin during the homogenization of emulsions, homogenized by different number of passes was also investigated. After the homogenization by using a rotor-stator homogenizer (pass 0, Figure 2b), the chemical stability of fucoxanthin during homogenization fell to nearly 65–80% which meant around 20–35% of fucoxanthin degraded in this process. Therefore, the first step in the homogenization process has a crucial effect on the degradation of fucoxanthin. On the other hand, there was a gradual decrease in the chemical stability of fucoxanthin during homogenization with increasing number of passes during the high-pressure homogenization process. Although the changes were minimal, the impact of this aspect should not be ignored. The chemical stability of fucoxanthin during homogenization in WPI-, ML-, or GA-stabilized fresh O/W emulsions were 72.7, 65.6, and 56.0%, respectively. This phenomenon can be explained by the following three factors: (i) during high-speed homogenization, the coarse emulsions were exposed to the atmosphere, and oxygen might be entrapped in the emulsions. (ii) After preparing the coarse emulsions, the dispersed phase was separated from the continuous phase rapidly. Even if high-speed homogenization can provide strong shear force, it is still a failure to make the emulsifiers to fully adsorb on the surface of droplets and formulate a better droplet form. (iii) During the high-pressure homogenization, because of the high energy input, free radicals may have been formed as fucoxanthin is sensitive to thermal energy.(28)
Figure 2
Figure 2. Effect of homogenization pressure and number of passes on the formulation of emulsions. The d4,3 of emulsions formulated using different (a) pressure and (b) number of passes. The chemical stability during homogenization was also determined on emulsions homogenized by different number of passes. Pass 0 refers to the results of rotor-stator homogenization.
2.3. Storage Stability of Fucoxanthin in O/W Emulsions
The stability of the emulsion is a critical factor to determine the shelf-life of foods and beverages. Storage stability of fucoxanthin in emulsions stabilized by different types of emulsifiers (WPI, ML, or GA) was investigated during storage at 25 °C, up to 15 days. Because of the unsaturated structure, fucoxanthin is sensitive to heat, light, and oxidative degradation during processing and storage. Therefore, all samples were covered by aluminum foil and stored in the dark.
2.4. Physical Stability of Long-Term Storage
Figure 3 illustrates the results of d4,3 of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions stabilized by different emulsifiers (WPI, ML, or GA) during storage up to 15 days, at 25 °C. During storage, emulsions showed excellent physical stability and there was no prominent broadening in d4,3, when stabilized by WPI or ML. WPI can form physically strong layers, which could avoid the coalescence of droplets by steric hindrance on the interface between oil and water.(29) ML-stabilized emulsions contained tiny particles which could counter the gravitational force with Brownian motion. Furthermore, the droplets carry a negative charge, which might inhibit flocculation.(30) Meanwhile, visible creaming occurred on top of the emulsion stabilized by GA. GA is an emulsifier with a large molecular structure and a high interfacial tension, which might result in relatively large droplets leading to a higher buoyancy force.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Effect of different types of emulsifiers on the physical stability of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions during 15 days of storage at 25 °C.
2.5. Chemical Stability of Fucoxanthin during Storage
The chemical stability of fucoxanthin during storage was measured by using eq 2. As shown in Figure 4, the chemical stability of fucoxanthin at day 0 was deemed as 100%, which decreased in all emulsions during storage. The chemical stability of fucoxanthin during storage of emulsions stabilized by ML or GA was lower than the detection limit at day 3 and day 10, respectively. After storage at 25 °C for 15 days, the chemical stability of fucoxanthin during storage decreased from 100 to 59.5% in WPI-stabilized emulsions and 55.5% in the case of bulk oil. The main factors that cause the degradation of fucoxanthin during storage are emulsifier type, surface area of the droplets, and the formation of free radicals during the high-pressure process.(31) According to a previous study, the degradation of the carotenoid may be due to a chemical reaction on the surface, at the interface of oil and water, which may be slower in rate due to the smaller surface area.(32) Although WPI- and ML-stabilized emulsions had larger surface area, the latter was easier to be oxidized and decomposed, owing to more contact between oil and water, resulting in fucoxanthin exposure to oxygen. ML is the small molecular emulsifier, whose molecular weight is around 650 g/mol. It can be closely contacted and adsorbed on the surface of oil drop with a thin layer. WPI contains cysteyl residues, thiol functional groups, and disulfide bonds, which might inhibit lipid oxidation by scavenging free radicals in emulsion systems.(33) Additionally, the layer of adsorbed WPI might be considered as a thicker physical barrier than ML at the interface of oil and water and prevent fucoxanthin degradation.(34) Therefore, WPI can alleviate the degradation of fucoxanthin because of its good antioxidant activity, as well as excellent emulsifying properties. Moreover, as a large molecular emulsifier, GA has higher interfacial tension. The droplet size was extremely larger in the GA-stabilized emulsion than in others. Although the surface area of droplets in GA-stabilized emulsion was smaller, it is not as good as WPI to prevent the degradation of fucoxanthin.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Effect of the type of emulsifiers on the chemical stability of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions as compared to bulk oil, during 15 days of storage at 25 °C.
2.6. Lipid Digestion
The particle size drastically increased after the exposure of emulsions to the small intestinal phase, regardless of the emulsifier type. The initial d4,3 of emulsions stabilized by WPI, ML, or GA were around 136, 140, and 897 nm, which increased to 123, 108, and 121 μm, respectively, after digestion in the small intestinal phase (Figure 5). Other studies also suggest that the droplets in emulsions aggregate and are resistant to in vitro digestion.(20,35,36) This phenomenon might be due to the lipid digestion products, such as colloidal particles, micelles, bilayers, liquid crystals, or vesicles, that are generated due to the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol molecules by lipases in the small intestinal phase.(35,37) Notably, fatty acids, monoacylglycerols, and bile salts can produce mixed micelles in the small intestinal fluid.(38,39) Moreover, the insoluble calcium-fatty acid soaps may be formulated during digestion.(20) On the other hand, the interfacial and core characteristics may change and lead to droplet aggregation.
Figure 5
Figure 5. The d4,3 of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions formulated with different types of emulsifiers during in vitro digestion (initial and small intestine).
In the in vitro digestion study, the emulsifier type has an important influence on the lipid digestion rate and level.(40) Lipid digestion was defined as FFA (%) values throughout digestion time (min) and monitored by a pH-stat method. Moreover, we compared the FFAs released in bulk oil and emulsions (Figure 6). For the bulk oil, we observed very little amount of initial FFAs being released (about 5.9%), which can be explained by the fact that most of the bulk oil cannot be digested. The release of FFAs in emulsions was quite faster and higher than that in the bulk oil because the surface area of emulsion droplets was larger than the one of bulk oil. The larger surface area can promote the interaction of oil droplets with the lipase to enhance rapid FFAs release.(41) This also explained the reason why FFAs released in GA-stabilized emulsions were lower than those in emulsions formed by other emulsifiers. In previous studies, the FFAs in Tween 20- or Tween 80-stabilized emulsions were rapidly released. However, in our study, the FFAs release was slow during the digestion. The possible mechanism can be explained by the shielding effects of Ca2+, which were added in the digestion phase. Tween 20 and Tween 80 are nonionic emulsifiers, whereas WPI, ML, and GA are anionic emulsifiers. The anionic charged droplets can be aggregated or flocculated by the screening effect with the cationic Ca2+. Therefore, the rate of FFAs release observed in this study was much slower than previous studies.
Figure 6
Figure 6. Effect of the types of emulsifiers on the FFAs released during in vitro small intestine digestion.
2.7. Chemical Stability and Bioaccessibility of Fucoxanthin during Digestion
In our study, the chemical stability of fucoxanthin during the digestion in WPI-stabilized emulsion was almost 100%, whereas the one in ML-stabilized emulsions was only 53.6% (Table 1). However, previous studies suggested no significant degradation of astaxanthin and β-carotene before and after digestion.(40,42) This result has shown that the oxidation and degradation of the bioactive compound during digestion is highly dependent on the sample and emulsifier types. The chemical structure of fucoxanthin contains an allenic bond and conjugated carbonyl group, which provide the unique features of fucoxanthin. The chemical stability of astaxanthin and β-carotene was not as active as fucoxanthin. Moreover, WPI can act as an excellent emulsifier which alleviates the degradation of fucoxanthin. GA-stabilized emulsions had the large volume mean diameter and low FFAs released related to a large amount of oil floated on the digestive fluid, hence, it was difficult to detect the chemical stability of fucoxanthin after digestion. The same situation also occurred with the bulk oil.
Table 1. Effect of the Types of Emulsifiers on the Fucoxanthin Retention (Rf) in Every Step and the Bioaccessibility and Chemical Stability of Fucoxanthin-Loaded Emulsions during the Digestion Process as Compared with Bulk Oil
| type | Rf in emulsion (%) | Rf in raw digesta (%) | Rf in micelles phase (%) | bioaccessibility (%) | chemical stability (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WPI | 72.7 ± 2.6a | 72.9 ± 0.1a | 68.4 ± 5.0a | 92.5 ± 6.8a | 100.3 ± 0.2a |
| ML | 65.6 ± 1.5b | 35.1 ± 5.7b | 29.3 ± 0.3b | 44.6 ± 0.4b | 53.6 ± 8.7b |
| GA | 56.0 ± 6.4c | 20.6 ± 1.4c | 36.8 ± 2.5c | ||
| bulk oil | 100 ± 1.3a | ND | ND |
a
All data are mean ± standard deviations.
b
a–e values with a different letter in the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05).
c
ND: not detected under this analysis condition.
The bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin was highly dependent on the type of emulsifier in the emulsions and was determined as the fraction of fucoxanthin merged with the mixed micelles in the micellar phase after digestion by using in vitro gastrointestinal digestion model. It is noticeable that the bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin was drastically improved by using emulsion-based delivery systems. The bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin in samples followed the order: WPI (92.5%) >ML (44.6%) > GA (36.8%) > bulk oil (ND), and correlated inversely with the order of the initial droplet size. Especially, the retention of fucoxanthin in the micelles of WPI-stabilized emulsions rose up to 68.4% which was drastically higher than those in the bulk oil. For emulsions, lipolysis was more rapid and sufficient with smaller initial droplets. Different studies also indicated that the initial droplet size of dispersion has a significant influence on the generation of micelles and the lower bioaccessibility of β-carotene with increasing initial droplet size.(42,43)
Although the high-pressure homogenization method can improve the bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin, its drawbacks should not be neglected. Table 1 shows that with further processing and digestion, the proportion of fucoxanthin retention decreased in every step. The reasons for the decrease of Rf, such as high energy input, exposure to oxygen, and some other reasons, have been discussed above. Therefore, further studies are needed to solve the issues of reducing the degradation of fucoxanthin during processing and digestion.
In the present study, fucoxanthin could be successfully incorporated into O/W emulsions which were stabilized by WPI, ML, or GA. WPI and ML were able to formulate emulsions with smaller droplets. In contrast, GA-stabilized emulsions resulted in larger droplets. The long-term storage experiments showed that all emulsions exhibited good physical stability during storage for 15 days at 25 °C. The Rf in emulsions was highly dependent on the natural emulsifier type. Emulsions stabilized by WPI had the highest retention of fucoxanthin, probably due to the antioxidant properties of WPI. The in vitro digestion experiments indicated that emulsion-based delivery systems could notably enhance the bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin compared to that by bulk oil. Moreover, the type of natural emulsifier has a major effect on the lipid digestion and bioaccessibility. The release of FFAs and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin in WPI- or ML-stabilized emulsions were higher than in the case of GA-stabilized emulsions. This was attributed to the lipid digestion and highly relied on the initial droplet size along with the larger surface area which could increase the lipolysis rate and FFAs release. The findings reported herein can provide valuable information about the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic bioactive compounds, such as fucoxanthin, which can be improved by using emulsion-based delivery systems formulated through high-pressure homogenization method.
3. Materials and Methods
ARTICLE SECTIONS
3.1. Materials
Fucoxanthin extract samples (ThinOgen fucoxanthin oil 5%, fucoxanthin purity 5% by HPLC) were kindly donated by BGG-Japan Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). The source of fucoxanthin extract was Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lamouroux (Alga Kombu)-Syn:Laminaria japonicaor Undaria pinnatifida, Harvey (Wakame Algae). Medium-chain triacylglycerol (MCT-7) oil was purchased from Taiyo Kagaku Co., Ltd. (Mie, Japan). The triacylglycerol in MCT was reported to contain around 25% capric acid and 75% caprylic acid and polyglyceryl-5-laurate. WPI was procured from Nichiga, Japan Garlic Co., Ltd. (Gunma, Japan). ML (SLP whitelyso) was purchased from Tsuji Oil Mills Co., Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). ML is a mixture of different phospholipids and contains lysophosphatidylcholine (18–30%), phosphatidylinositol (10–20%), phosphatidylcholine (2–8%), phosphatidylethanolamine (1–7%), and phosphatidic acid (0–5%). GA was purchased from Fujifilm Wako Pure Chem., Co. (Osaka, Japan). All other chemicals used were of analytical grade. Double distilled water (Milli-Q water) was used for the preparation of all solutions and emulsions.
3.2. Formulation of Fucoxanthin-Loaded O/W Emulsions
The dispersed phase was prepared by dispersing 4 wt % fucoxanthin extract in MCT oil and stirred at ambient temperature, overnight, to ensure that fucoxanthin completely dissolved. The samples were refined by passing through a poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) syringe filter (0.45 μm) to eliminate undissolved particles. The continuous phases were prepared by dissolving 0.01–4 wt % emulsifiers (WPI, ML, or GA) in Milli-Q water and 0.02 wt % antimicrobial agent (sodium azide) was added. The fucoxanthin-loaded O/W emulsions were prepared by homogenizing the 10 wt % dispersed phase and the 90 wt % continuous phase at ambient temperature. Initially, coarse emulsions were homogenized by using a rotor–stator homogenizer (polytron, PT-3000 Kinematica-AG, Littace, Switzerland) at 10 000 rpm for 5 min and then passed through a high-pressure homogenizer (NanoVater, NV200, Yoshida Kikai, Japan) at a pressure range of 20–140 MPa for 0–10 passes to obtain the fine emulsions.
3.3. Characterization of Fucoxanthin-Loaded O/W Emulsions
A laser diffraction particle size analyzer (LS 13 320, Beckman Coulter, Brea, USA) was used to determine the droplet size and size distribution of the freshly prepared emulsions. This device works on the principle of laser diffraction to calculate the particle size distribution via the pattern of light scattered by the particles in the samples. It can measure particle size within the range of 0.04–2000 μm. The refractive indices for water and MCT oil were set at 1.333 and 1.450, respectively. The volume mean diameter (d4,3) was obtained for the average droplet size. All samples were measured in triplicate. The chemical stability of fucoxanthin during homogenization was calculated using eq 1, as follows
(1)where C0 is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in freshly prepared emulsions, and CInitial is the fucoxanthin concentration calculated from the initial amount added.
(1)where C0 is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in freshly prepared emulsions, and CInitial is the fucoxanthin concentration calculated from the initial amount added.3.4. Storage Stability of Fucoxanthin-Loaded Emulsions
The emulsion samples were stored in glass test tubes with screw caps after preparation and incubated in dark at 25 °C, for up to 15 days for observation. The d4,3 and chemical stability of fucoxanthin during storage, in the emulsions, were measured throughout the storage time. The chemical stability of fucoxanthin during storage in the emulsion samples was determined using eq 2, as follows
(2)where Ct is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in the emulsions at a specific time during the storage, and C0 is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in freshly prepared emulsions.
(2)where Ct is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in the emulsions at a specific time during the storage, and C0 is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in freshly prepared emulsions.3.5. Measurement of Fucoxanthin Concentration in Emulsions
The concentrations of fucoxanthin in the emulsions and bulk oil were quantified using HPLC (JASCO International Co., Tokyo, Japan) equipped with an AS-2055 autosampler, a PU-980 pump system, and a UV-970 UV–vis spectrophotometric detector. A C-18 reversed phase column (as stationary phase, 4.6 × 250 mm; Shimpack VP-ODS, Japan) was used with the temperature set at 25 °C. Fucoxanthin was extracted from emulsions and the dispersed phase prior to the HPLC analysis using a solvent extraction method: 200 μL of emulsion or a drop of dispersed phase (mass was analyzed) from the middle of the glass test tube was diluted to 10 mL with methanol in a volumetric flask to extract fucoxanthin and then ultrasonicated for 5 min. The samples were filtered using PTFE syringe filters (0.45 μm) and transferred to 2 mL HPLC vials; 20 μL of the filtered samples from HPLC vials were injected into the HPLC system. The mobile phase consisted of 10 wt % of Milli-Q water and 90 wt % of methanol. The mobile phase flow rate was set at 1 mL/min. UV detection of fucoxanthin was monitored at 450 nm. Fucoxanthin concentration in samples was calculated using a standard curve (R2 = 0.9995) and all of the analyses were repeated three times.
3.6. In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion
An in vitro gastrointestinal tract (GIT) model composed of gastric and intestinal phases was used in this study. There was a slight modification in the methodology, from previous studies, to simulate the biological fate of ingested samples.(20,44−46) The samples were diluted two times with Milli-Q water in order to have 5 wt % oil before passing through the GIT model.
3.7. Gastric Phase
The simulated gastric fluid (SGF) was prepared by dissolving 7 mL of HCl (35–37%) and 2 g of sodium chloride in 1 L of Milli-Q water, and then 3.2 g of pepsin was added. HCl (1 mol/L) was used to adjust the pH of SGF to 1.2. The diluted emulsions (15 g) were mixed with SGF (15 g), and the obtained mixture contained 2.5 wt % oil. NaOH (1 mol/L) was used to adjust the pH of the samples to 2.5. The samples were maintained under continuous agitation at 250 rpm for 2 h at 37 °C.
3.8. Small Intestinal Phase
After the gastric digestion step, 30 g of the sample was adjusted to pH 7.0 immediately by using NaOH solution (1 mol/L). The simulated small intestinal fluid (SSIF) contained 1 mL of calcium chloride (110 mg/mL) dissolved in Milli-Q water and 4 mL of freshly prepared bile extract (46.87 mg/mL) dissolved in phosphate buffer (5 mM, pH 7.0). The SSIF was added into the samples and the pH was adjusted to 7.0. Subsequently, 2.5 mL of freshly prepared lipase suspension (24 mg/mL) dissolved in phosphate buffer (5 mM, pH 7.0) was incorporated into the mixture. The samples were transferred to clean beakers and incubated in a water bath with controlled temperature (37 °C) and continuous agitation at 250 rpm. During 2 h of the small intestinal digestion process, NaOH solution (1 mol/L) was manually titrated into the mixture to maintain a pH of 7.0. The pH of the samples was monitored and NaOH solution was titrated to neutralize the FFAs released during the lipid digestion.(47) The volume of NaOH solution (L) was recorded throughout the digestion. The amount of FFAs released was calculated using eq 3, as follows
(3)where VNaOH(t) is the volume (L) of NaOH solution (1 mol/L) titrated into the samples to neutralize the FFAs released at a certain digestion time (min), MNaOH is the molarity of NaOH solution used (mol), Moil is the molecular weight of the MCT oil (490 g/mol), and Woil is the initial mass (g) of the oil present in the reaction system.
(3)where VNaOH(t) is the volume (L) of NaOH solution (1 mol/L) titrated into the samples to neutralize the FFAs released at a certain digestion time (min), MNaOH is the molarity of NaOH solution used (mol), Moil is the molecular weight of the MCT oil (490 g/mol), and Woil is the initial mass (g) of the oil present in the reaction system.3.9. Determination of Chemical Stability and Bioaccessibility of Fucoxanthin during Digestion
After the in vitro digestion, 10 mL of raw digesta was immediately collected and centrifuged (10 000g, MX-307 centrifuge, Tomy Digital Biology Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) at an ambient temperature for 60 min. After centrifugation, samples were separated into three phases: a thin oil phase on top, a transparent micellar phase in the middle, and a sediment phase at the bottom.(40,46) Fucoxanthin was assumed to be solubilized in the micellar phase. The extracted fucoxanthin from the raw digesta phase and micellar phase was collected and passed through a PTFE syringe filter (0.45 μm). Samples were added into an organic solvent (methanol) to extract fucoxanthin and, then, ultrasonicated for 5 min. The transparent phase was quantified using HPLC as described in Section 2.5. The chemical stability and bioaccessibility of fucoxanthin during digestion, and fucoxanthin retention (Rf) were calculated using eqs 4–6, respectively, as indicated below
(4)
(5)
(6)where fucoxanthin concentration in the raw digesta and micellar phase are CDigesta and CMicellar, respectively. C0 is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in freshly prepared emulsions. CStep is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in the samples at every step (homogenization, storage, digestion, and bioaccessibility), and CInitial is the fucoxanthin concentration, which is calculated from the initial amount added.
(4)(5)(6)where fucoxanthin concentration in the raw digesta and micellar phase are CDigesta and CMicellar, respectively. C0 is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in freshly prepared emulsions. CStep is the actual fucoxanthin concentration in the samples at every step (homogenization, storage, digestion, and bioaccessibility), and CInitial is the fucoxanthin concentration, which is calculated from the initial amount added.3.10. Statistical Analysis
Each experiment was performed at least twice. Statistical analysis was performed using analysis of variance at a confidence level of 95%. Statistix 8.1 software (Tallahassee, USA) was used to calculate the least significant difference based on the method described in a previous report.(48)
This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant number JP17H01625.
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
Author Information
ARTICLE SECTIONS
- Mitsutoshi Nakajima - Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8577, Japan;
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3453-2481;
This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant number JP17H01625.
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
Acknowledgments
ARTICLE SECTIONS
The authors are thankful to BGG-Japan Co., Ltd., for kindly donating the fucoxanthin extract samples.
References
ARTICLE SECTIONS
This article references 48 other publications.
- 1Kotake-Nara, E.; Kushiro, M.; Zhang, H.; Sugawara, T.; Miyashita, K.; Nagao, A. Carotenoids affect proliferation of human prostate cancer cells. J. Nutr. 2001, 131, 3303– 3306, DOI: 10.1093/jn/131.12.3303[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar1https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXpt1Gjurg%253D&md5=990659194d5a881026862be512f99a1dCarotenoids affect proliferation of human prostate cancer cellsKotake-Nara, Eiichi; Kushiro, Masayo; Zhang, Hong; Sugawara, Tatsuya; Miyashita, Kazuo; Nagao, AkihikoJournal of Nutrition (2001), 131 (12), 3303-3306CODEN: JONUAI; ISSN:0022-3166. (American Society for Nutritional Sciences)The authors investigated whether various carotenoids present in foodstuffs were potentially involved in cancer-preventing action on human prostate cancer. The effects of 15 kinds of carotenoids on the viability of three lines of human prostate cancer cells, PC-3, DU 145 and LNCaP, were evaluated. When the prostate cancer cells were cultured in a carotenoid-supplemented medium for 72 h at 20 μmol/L, 5,6-monoepoxy carotenoids, namely, neoxanthin from spinach and fucoxanthin from brown algae, significantly reduced cell viability to 10.9 and 14.9% for PC-3, 15.0 and 5.0% for DU 145, and nearly zero and 9.8% for LNCaP, resp. Acyclic carotenoids such as phytofluene, ζ-carotene and lycopene, all of which are present in tomato, also significantly reduced cell viability. On the other hand, phytoene, canthaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin did not affect the growth of the prostate cancer cells. DNA fragmentation of nuclei in neoxanthin- and fucoxanthin-treated cells was detected by in situ TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. Neoxanthin and fucoxanthin were found to reduce cell viability through apoptosis induction in the human prostate cancer cells. These results suggest that ingestion of leafy green vegetables and edible brown algae rich in neoxanthin and fucoxanthin might have the potential to reduce the risk of prostate cancer.
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- 3Peng, J.; Yuan, J.-P.; Wu, C.-F.; Wang, J.-H. Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human health. Mar. Drugs 2011, 9, 1806– 1828, DOI: 10.3390/md9101806[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar3https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhtl2mu7jF&md5=53b7b656ffbfb5d19dacb7dde2841f78Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human healthPeng, Juan; Yuan, Jian-Ping; Wu, Chou-Fei; Wang, Jiang-HaiMarine Drugs (2011), 9 (), 1806-1828CODEN: MDARE6; ISSN:1660-3397. (MDPI Center)A review. The marine carotenoid fucoxanthin can be found in marine brown seaweeds, the macroalgae, and diatoms, the microalgae, and has remarkable biol. properties. Numerous studies have shown that fucoxanthin has considerable potential and promising applications in human health. In this article, we review the current available scientific literature regarding the metab., safety, and bioactivities of fucoxanthin, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-obese, antidiabetic, antiangiogenic and antimalarial activities, and its protective effects on the liver, blood vessels of the brain, bones, skin, and eyes. Although some studies have shown the bioavailability of fucoxanthin in brown seaweeds to be low in humans, many studies have suggested that a dietary combination of fucoxanthin and edible oil or lipid could increase the absorption rate of fucoxanthin, and thus it might be a promising marine drug.
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- 11Dai, J.; Kim, S. M.; Shin, I.-S.; Kim, J. D.; Lee, H. Y.; Shin, W. C.; Kim, J.-C. Preparation and stability of fucoxanthin-loaded microemulsions. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2014, 20, 2103– 2110, DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2013.09.039[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1yqsb3J&md5=3f16afda9ce104527c31aae65b79a448Preparation and stability of fucoxanthin-loaded microemulsionsDai, Jing; Kim, Sang Moo; Shin, Il-Shik; Kim, Jong Dai; Lee, Hyeon Yong; Shin, Won Cheol; Kim, Jin-ChulJournal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2014), 20 (4), 2103-2110CODEN: JIECFI; ISSN:1226-086X. (Elsevier B.V.)Oil-in-water microemulsions (MEs) contg. fucoxanthin were prepd. The stability of MEs stored at 4 °C was investigated for 4 wk in terms of droplet size change and phase sepn. The ME having the oil content of 2% was stable throughout the expt. As the oil content increased to 3% and 4%, the sizes increased with time for the last 3 wk. Further increase to 5% led to the phase sepn. at the 4th week. About 95% of fucoxanthin was maintained for 4 wk once no phase sepn. took place soon after the prepn.
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- 13Hii, S.; Choong, P.; Woo, K.; Wong, C. Stability studies of fucoxanthin from Sargassum binderi. Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2010, 4, 4580– 4584[CAS], Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhsVenurzO&md5=1e2741cfbd24e6533a9563b08dbae552Stability studies of fucoxanthin from Sargassum binderiHii, Siew-Ling; Choong, Pooi-Yi; Woo, Kwan-Kit; Wong, Ching-LeeAustralian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences (2010), 4 (10), 4580-4584CODEN: AJBAB3; ISSN:1991-8178. (INSInet Publications)Fucoxanthin is an important carotenoid component available in all brown algae. Sargassum binderi was used as the source of fucoxanthin and the main purpose of the study was to evaluate the stability of fucoxanthin ext. against the different storage conditions. Stabilities of the extd. fucoxanthin were tested with different pH and with supplementation of antioxidant (i.e., ascorbic acid) in light and dark condition over a storage period of 4 wk. Color changes of the fucoxanthin ext. were monitored using color software CIE LAB system. Fucoxanthin pigment exhibited the greatest stability when stored in dark condition. The pigments were more stable at alk. pH region as compared to neutral and acidic condition. In dark condition, the addn. of ascorbic acid greatly delayed fucoxanthin degrdn. and concn. ascorbic acid at 1.0% wt./vol. displayed greatest pigment retention. In conclusion, fucoxanthin pigments were sensitive to light exposure and acidic pH condition and could be stabilized by higher concn. of ascorbic acid.
- 14Muthuirulappan, S.; Francis, S. P. Anti-cancer mechanism and possibility of nano-suspension formulation for a marine algae product fucoxanthin. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2013, 14, 2213– 2216, DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.4.2213[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar14https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3snovVWrtg%253D%253D&md5=10e242513a391f4804ef7356577dc6c3Anti-cancer mechanism and possibility of nano-suspension formulations for a marine algae product fucoxanthinMuthuirulappan Srinivasan; Francis Steffi PulikodanAsian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP (2013), 14 (4), 2213-6 ISSN:.Recently, use of natural products available from marine sources, and especially algae products, are receiving more attention. Scientific evidence for claimed nutraceutical and therapeutical effects of one such marine algae product, fucoxanthin, is discussed in this paper with a summary of the currently available literature regarding its antioxidant, anti-obesity and anticancer activities. It is safe for use in humans, but as it has poor solubility a nano-suspension mode of delivery may be adopted to improve efficacy of supplements. We conclude from our literature review that the marine algae product fucoxanthin has significant antioxidant, anti-obesity and anticancer activity with established mechanisms of action.
- 15McClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A.; Weiss, J. Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems for Lipophilic Bioactive Components. J. Food Sci. 2007, 72, R109– R124, DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00507.x[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXht1KqsrjI&md5=a371321716809692890d59111f625d1aEmulsion-based delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive componentsMcClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A.; Weiss, J.Journal of Food Science (2007), 72 (8), R109-R124CODEN: JFDSAZ; ISSN:0022-1147. (Blackwell Publishing, Inc.)A review. There is a pressing need for edible delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and release bioactive lipids within the food, medical, and pharmaceutical industries. The fact that these delivery systems must be edible puts constraints on the type of ingredients and processing operations that can be used to create them. Emulsion technol. is particularly suited for the design and fabrication of delivery systems for encapsulating bioactive lipids. This review provides a brief overview of the major bioactive lipids that need to be delivered within the food industry (for example, ω-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, and phytosterols), highlighting the main challenges to their current incorporation into foods. The authors then provide an overview of a no. of emulsion-based technologies that could be used as edible delivery systems by the food and other industries, including conventional emulsions, multiple emulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Each of these delivery systems could be produced from food-grade (GRAS) ingredients (for example, lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals) using simple processing operations (for example, mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). For each type of delivery system, we describe its structure, prepn., advantages, limitations, and potential applications. This knowledge can be used to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate emulsion-based delivery system for specific applications.
- 16McClements, D. J. Food Emulsions: Principles, Practices, and Techniques, 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2015.
- 17Tadros, T.; Izquierdo, P.; Esquena, J.; Solans, C. Formation and stability of nano-emulsions. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2004, 108–109, 303– 318, DOI: 10.1016/s0001-8686(03)00157-x[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXivFGmsbw%253D&md5=6ba669d47a247af5f9ec43b213c04c80Formation and stability of nano-emulsionsTadros, Tharwat; Izquierdo, P.; Esquena, J.; Solans, C.Advances in Colloid and Interface Science (2004), 108-109 (), 303-318CODEN: ACISB9; ISSN:0001-8686. (Elsevier Science B.V.)A review. This review describes the principles of formation and stability of nano-emulsions. It starts with an introduction highlighting the main advantages of nano-emulsions over macroemulsions for personal care and cosmetic formulations. It also describes the main problems with lack of progress on nano-emulsions. The 2nd section deals with the mechanism of emulsification and the dynamic light scattering technique for measurement of the droplet size of nano-emulsions. This is followed by a section on methods of emulsification and the role of surfactants. Three methods are described for nano-emulsion prepn., high energy emulsification (using homogenizers), low energy emulsification whereby H2O is added to an oil soln. of the surfactant and the principle of the phase inversion temp. (PIT). A section is devoted to steric stabilization and the role of the adsorbed layer thickness. The problem of Ostwald ripening (which is the main instability process of nano-emulsions) is described. The methods that can be applied to reduce Ostwald ripening are briefly described. This involves the addn. of a 2nd less sol. oil phase such as squalene and/or addn. of a strongly adsorbed and H2O insol. polymeric surfactant. The last part of the review gives some examples of nano-emulsions that are prepd. by the PIT method as well as using high pressure homogenizer. A comparison of the 2 methods is given and the rate of Ostwald ripening is measured in both cases. The effect of changing the alkyl chain length and branching of the oil was studied using decane, dodecane, tetradecane, hexadecane and isohexadecane. The branched oil isohexadcecane showed higher Ostwald ripening rate when compared with a linear chain oil with the same C no.
- 18Koo, S. Y.; Mok, I.-K.; Pan, C.-H.; Kim, S. M. Preparation of fucoxanthin-loaded nanoparticles composed of casein and chitosan with improved fucoxanthin bioavailability. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 9428– 9435, DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04376[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvFCgs7zK&md5=28564ad6f52fbf1d6b7fe67ea0fd4b97Preparation of Fucoxanthin-Loaded Nanoparticles Composed of Casein and Chitosan with Improved Fucoxanthin BioavailabilityKoo, Song Yi; Mok, Il-Kyoon; Pan, Cheol-Ho; Kim, Sang MinJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2016), 64 (49), 9428-9435CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)To facilitate the utilization of fucoxanthin (FX), a valuable marine carotenoid, in the food industry, FX-loaded casein nanoparticles (FX-CN) and chitosan-coated FX-CN (FX-CS-CN) were developed using the FX-enriched fraction from Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Two nanoscale particles (237 ± 13 nm for FX-CN and 277 ± 26 nm for FX-CN-CN) with spherical and smooth surfaces showed over 71% encapsulation efficiency and polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.31-0.39 in water. Owing to the chitosan coating, FX-CS-CN showed a pos. zeta potential (24.00 mV), whereas that of FX-CN was neg. (-12.87 mV). In vitro simulated digestion demonstrated better FX bioaccessibility from the nanoparticles vs. P. tricornutum powder (Pt-powder) and from FX-CN vs. FX-CS-CN. However, in C57BL/6 mice, fucoxanthinol absorption to the blood circulation was two times higher for FX-CS-CN vs. FX-CN, possibly due to increased retention or adsorption to mucin by the cationic biopolymer in the chitosan-coated particles. These results demonstrate that FX-CS-CN can enable the application of FX, with improved bioavailability and water dispersibility, in the food industry.
- 19Mok, I.-K.; Yoon, J.-R.; Pan, C.-H.; Kim, S. M. Development, quantification, method validation, and stability study of a novel fucoxanthin-fortified milk. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 6196– 6202, DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02206[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar19https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xht1ahurrK&md5=274362ab6000ce7618aadc6ae840f0ecDevelopment, Quantification, Method Validation, and Stability Study of a Novel Fucoxanthin-Fortified MilkMok, Il-Kyoon; Yoon, Jung-Ro; Pan, Cheol-Ho; Kim, Sang MinJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2016), 64 (31), 6196-6202CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)To extend the scope of application of fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid, whole milk (WM) and skimmed milk (SM) were fortified with fucoxanthin isolated from the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum to a final 8 μg/mL milk soln. concn. Using these liq. systems, a fucoxanthin anal. method implementing extn. and HPLC-DAD was developed and validated by accuracy, precision, system suitability, and robustness tests. The current method demonstrated good linearity over the range of 0.125-100 μg/mL fucoxanthin with R2 = 1.0000, and all validation data supported its adequacy for use in fucoxanthin anal. from milk soln. To investigate fucoxanthin stability during milk prodn. and distribution, fucoxanthin content was examd. during storage, pasteurization, and drying processes under various conditions. Fucoxanthin in milk solns. showed better stabilizing effect in 1 mo of storage period. Degrdn. rate const. (k) on fucoxanthin during this storage period suggested that fucoxanthin stability might be neg. correlated with decrease of temp. and increase of protein content such as casein and whey protein in milk matrix. In a comparison between SM and WM, fucoxantin in SM always showed better stability than that in WM during storage and three kinds of drying processes. This effect was also deduced to relate with protein content. In the pasteurization step, >91% of fucoxanthin was retained after three pasteurization processes even though the above trend was not found. This study demonstrated for the first time that milk products can be used as a basic food matrix for fucoxanthin application and that protein content in milk is an important factor for fucoxanthin stability.
- 20Salvia-Trujillo, L.; Sun, Q.; Um, B. H.; Park, Y.; McClements, D. J. In vitro and in vivo study of fucoxanthin bioavailability from nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: Impact of lipid carrier type. J. Funct. Foods 2015, 17, 293– 304, DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.035[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar20https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVeksb%252FK&md5=983ff45e7229dda835853506d9a9fb2cIn vitro and in vivo study of fucoxanthin bioavailability from nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: Impact of lipid carrier typeSalvia-Trujillo, L.; Sun, Q.; Um, B. H.; Park, Y.; McClements, D. J.Journal of Functional Foods (2015), 17 (), 293-304CODEN: JFFOAX; ISSN:1756-4646. (Elsevier Ltd.)The impact of carrier oil type on the functionality of a lipophilic nutraceutical (fucoxanthin) encapsulated within nanoemulsions was investigated. Three carrier oils were investigated: long chain triacylglycerols (LCT); medium chain triacylglycerols (MCT); and indigestible oil (orange/mineral oil). Nanoemulsions contg. LCT and MCT were completely digested under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, whereas those contg. indigestible oil were not digested. Fucoxanthin soly. in mixed micelles formed by in vitro digestion decreased in the following order: LCT > MCT > indigestible oil. Animal feeding studies revealed that fucoxanthin was absorbed into the intestinal epithelial cells in the same order as obsd. for the in vitro soly. However, the concn. of fucoxanthin in the serum of the rats was similar for all carrier oils. The present work highlights the importance of contrasting in vitro and in vivo expts. to assess the biol. fate of functional ingredients incorporated in emulsion-based delivery systems.
- 21Huang, Z.; Xu, L.; Zhu, X.; Hu, J.; Peng, H.; Zeng, Z.; Xiong, H. Stability and Bioaccessibility of Fucoxanthin in Nanoemulsions Prepared from Pinolenic Acid-contained Structured Lipid. Int. J. Food Eng. 2017, 13, 2194, DOI: 10.1515/ijfe-2016-0273
- 22Zhao, Y.; Khalid, N.; Shu, G.; Neves, M. A.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M. Formulation and characterization of O/W emulsions stabilized using octenyl succinic anhydride modified kudzu starch. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 176, 91– 98, DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.08.064[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtl2ku7bP&md5=4ae260b8025650862ce2e929dbaae122Formulation and characterization of O/W emulsions stabilized using octenyl succinic anhydride modified kudzu starchZhao, Yiguo; Khalid, Nauman; Shu, Gaofeng; Neves, Marcos A.; Kobayashi, Isao; Nakajima, MitsutoshiCarbohydrate Polymers (2017), 176 (), 91-98CODEN: CAPOD8; ISSN:0144-8617. (Elsevier Ltd.)Kudzu starch esterified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) was used as a food-grade emulsifier to formulate O/W emulsions. In addn., the difference between the physicochem. properties and emulsifying ability of native kudzu starch and those of OSA-modified kudzu starch was investigated. Granules of the OSA-modified kudzu starches increased in size after gelatinization. The interfacial tension between soybean oil and gelatinized OSA-modified kudzu starch was lower than that of kudzu starch. The droplet size of O/W emulsions decreased to 186 nm at 100 MPa after three passes. The emulsions stabilized using gelatinized OSA-modified kudzu starch were less stable when exposed to different ionic strengths (100 mM to 500 mM NaCl), than when exposed to different pH levels (2-8). The results of oil droplet size and confocal laser scanning microscopy anal. indicated that emulsions contg. 2-5% OSA-modified kudzu starch remained stable at room temp. for 30 days.
- 23Bai, L.; McClements, D. J. Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsions using biosurfactants: Rhamnolipids. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2016, 479, 71– 79, DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2016.06.047[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtFamtLjL&md5=535798e6d3d006c294bd377a5948a5b0Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsions using biosurfactants: RhamnolipidsBai, Long; McClements, David JulianJournal of Colloid and Interface Science (2016), 479 (), 71-79CODEN: JCISA5; ISSN:0021-9797. (Elsevier B.V.)Nanoemulsions are used in the food, cosmetics, personal care and pharmaceutical industries to provide desirable optical, textural, stability, and delivery characteristics. In many industrial applications, it is desirable to formulate nanoemulsions using natural ingredients so as to develop label-friendly products. Rhamnolipids are biosurfactants isolated from certain microorganisms using fermn. processes. They are glycolipids that have a polar head consisting of rhamnose units and a non-polar tail consisting of a hydrocarbon chain. In this study, the interfacial characteristics of this natural surfactant at medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil-water interfaces were characterized, and its ability to form nanoemulsions was compared to that of another natural surfactant (quillaja saponins). The influence of rhamnolipid concn., homogenization pressure, and oil type on the mean droplet diam. of emulsions produced by microfluidization was detd. Rhamnolipids were highly effective at forming small droplets (d32 < 0.15 μm) at low surfactant-to-oil ratios (SOR < 1:10) for MCT oil. Rhamnolipids could also be used to form small droplets using long chain triglyceride oils, such as corn and fish oil. Rhamnolipid-coated droplets were stable to aggregation over a range of pH values (5-9), salt concns. ( < 100 mM NaCl) and temps. (20-90 °C). However, droplet aggregation was obsd. at highly acidic (pH 2-4) and high ionic strength (200-500 mM NaCl) conditions. These effects were attributed to a redn. in electrostatic repulsion at low pH and high salt levels. Rhamnolipid-coated droplets had a high neg. charge at neutral pH that decreased in magnitude with decreasing pH. These results indicate that rhamnolipids are effective natural surfactants that may be able to replace synthetic surfactants in certain com. applications.
- 24Krog, N. J.; Sparso, F. V. Food Emulsifiers and Their Chemical and Physical Properties. Food emulsions, 4th ed.; Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, USA, 2004; Vol. 12.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 25Tesch, S.; Gerhards, C.; Schubert, H. Stabilization of emulsions by OSA starches. J. Food Eng. 2002, 54, 167– 174, DOI: 10.1016/s0260-8774(01)00206-0
- 26Castellani, O.; Al-Assaf, S.; Axelos, M.; Phillips, G. O.; Anton, M. Hydrocolloids with emulsifying capacity. Part 2 - Adsorption properties at the n-hexadecane-Water interface. Food Hydrocolloids 2010, 24, 121– 130, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.07.006[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar26https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXhsVyisbzL&md5=afe71d4f909b5e63801dbf3e2217a8e2Hydrocolloids with emulsifying capacity. Part 2: Adsorption properties at the n-hexadecane-Water interfaceCastellani, Oscar; Al-Assaf, Saphwan; Axelos, Monique; Phillips, Glyn O.; Anton, MarcFood Hydrocolloids (2009), 24 (2-3), 121-130CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The ability to adsorb at n-hexadecane-water interface of natural hydrocolloids was quantified by dynamic drop tensiometry. Conventional and matured hydrocolloids samples from Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal (AcSey), Sugar Beet Pectin (SBP) and natural untreated Gum Ghatti (GG), were studied in aq. solns. at pH 4.5. Maturation of A. senegal gum (Acacia (sen) SUPERGUM EM2, designated as EM2) increased its ability to lower interfacial tension and the elastic characteristics of the interfacial film. This change in properties can be attributed to the increase in mol. wt. and in arabino-galactan-protein (AGP) content. EM2 exhibited the best interfacial properties. Conventional and matured AcSey presented interfacial properties that were similar to conventional A. senegal (GAc), correlating with minimal changes obsd. in their structural features after maturation. Gum ghatti reacted similarly to EM2 and presented relatively fast kinetic profiles, revealing the good qualities of this gum. The kinetics assocd. with all the hydrocolloids at pH 4.5 have been described using a math. model, from which quant. parameters as onset time or half-time of interfacial-tension-decrease were detd. Compared to the other hydrocolloids, SBP adsorbs by a different mechanism. However, pectin presented the lowest final interfacial tension and gave the more elastic interfacial film. Acidification of hydrocolloid solns. to pH 3.1 increased both the ability to lower the interfacial tension and the elastic characteristics of interfacial film. The effect of structural modifications on interfacial properties was demonstrated, and clarifies further the already obsd. emulsification behavior of the studied hydrocolloid.
- 27Schultz, S.; Wagner, G.; Urban, K.; Ulrich, J. High-Pressure Homogenization as a Process for Emulsion Formation. Chem. Eng. Technol. 2004, 27, 361– 368, DOI: 10.1002/ceat.200406111[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar27https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXjsVyqsLs%253D&md5=b501a5a2e8cbb90c5576b7ae96c0006aHigh-pressure homogenization as a process for emulsion formationSchultz, Stefan; Wagner, Gerhard; Urban, Kai; Ulrich, JoachimChemical Engineering & Technology (2004), 27 (4), 361-368CODEN: CETEER; ISSN:0930-7516. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)Emulsions find a wide range of application in industry and daily life. In the pharmaceutical industry lipophilic active ingredients are often formulated in the disperse phase of oil-in-water emulsions. Milk, butter, and margarine are examples of emulsions in daily life. In the metal processing industry emulsions are used in the form of coolants. Emulsions can be produced with different systems. In the following, the process of high-pressure homogenization is briefly compared to other common mech. emulsification systems. To facilitate the selection of an emulsification system, the influence of the most important parameters of the emulsion formulation on the resulting mean droplet diam. in the most prevalent continuous emulsification systems is outlined. Subsequently, the most common high-pressure homogenization systems are discussed in detail. On the basis of data from the literature and own exptl. results the described high-pressure homogenization systems will be compared regarding their attainable mean droplet diam. It shows that homogenizers with a relatively simple geometry like the patented "combined orifice valve" (Kombi-Blende) attain the smallest mean droplet diams. The advantage of the "combined orifice valve" compared to other high-pressure homogenization systems is not more efficient droplet disruption but rather more efficient droplet stabilization against coalescence immediately after the droplet breakup. The greatest research potential concerning the development of new high-pressure homogenization systems is still to be seen in improvements of droplet stabilization, i.e., the redn. of coalescence.
- 28Anarjan, N.; Tan, C. P.; Nehdi, I. A.; Ling, T. C. Colloidal astaxanthin: preparation, characterisation and bioavailability evaluation. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1303– 1309, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.091[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar28https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtlSmurjE&md5=1b8dec0a8cdb93329fbe65c0360004b6Colloidal astaxanthin: Preparation, characterisation and bioavailability evaluationAnarjan, Navideh; Tan, Chin Ping; Nehdi, Imededdine Arbi; Ling, Tau ChuanFood Chemistry (2012), 135 (3), 1303-1309CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)Astaxanthin colloidal particles were produced using solvent-diffusion technique in the presence of different food grade surface active compds., namely, Polysorbate 20 (PS20), sodium caseinate (SC), gum Arabic (GA) and the optimum combination of them (OPT). Particle size and surface charge characteristics, rheol. behavior, chem. stability, color, in vitro cellular uptake, in vitro antioxidant activity and residual solvent concn. of prepd. colloidal particles were evaluated. The results indicated that in most cases the mixt. of surface active compds. lead to prodn. of colloidal particles with more desirable physicochem. and biol. properties, as compared to using them individually. The optimum combination of PS20, SC and GA could produce the astaxanthin colloidal particles with small particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), cond. and higher zeta potential, mobility, cellular uptake, color intensity and in vitro antioxidant activity. In addn., all prepd. astaxanthin colloidal particles had significantly (p < 0.05) higher cellular uptake than pure astaxanthin powder.
- 29Mao, L.; Xu, D.; Yang, J.; Yuan, F.; Gao, Y.; Zhao, J. Effects of small and large molecule emulsifiers on the characteristics of β-carotene nanoemulsions prepared by high pressure homogenization. Food Technol. Biotechnol. 2009, 47, 336– 342[CAS], Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXht1Wht73K&md5=a7160dc8a2b470af1f4be7f64c2e3b3fEffects of small and large molecule emulsifiers on the characteristics of β-carotene nanoemulsions prepared by high pressure homogenizationMao, Like; Xu, Duoxia; Yang, Jia; Yuan, Fang; Gao, Yanxiang; Zhao, JianFood Technology and Biotechnology (2009), 47 (3), 336-342CODEN: FTBRFD; ISSN:1330-9862. (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology)Oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion allows the prepn. of lipophilic nutrients such as carotenoids in liq. form, which may improve their bioavailability and broaden applications. In the present study, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20, TW-20), decaglycerol monolaurate (DML), octenyl succinate starch (OSS), whey protein isolate (WPI), and finally a blend of TW-20 and WPI (1 % by mass) have been tested for the prepn. of β-carotene nanoemulsions. Interfacial tension, droplet size, zeta potential, microstructures obsd. by at. force microscopy (AFM), stability of the emulsion and β-carotene have been compared. Results show that nanoemulsions stabilized with TW-20 and DML had smaller droplet size, but relatively poorer stability, compared with the ones stabilized with OSS and WPI (p<0.05). WPI was able to protect β-carotene effectively from degrdn., whereas OSS was not when emulsions were stored at 55° for 12 days. When a blend of TW-20 and WPI was used, the stability of nanoemulsions was significantly improved (p<0.05). However, no significant effect of the mixed emulsifiers was found on the stability of β-carotene in the emulsions (p>0.05).
- 30Shu, G.; Khalid, N.; Tan, T. B.; Zhao, Y.; Neves, M. A.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M. Comparison of ergocalciferol nanodispersions prepared using modified lecithin and sodium caseinate: Insights of formulation, stability and bioaccessibility. J. Funct. Foods 2017, 38, 28– 35, DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2017.08.047[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFSms7fN&md5=ba9a68549aa7c32e63d03b50c55971f5Comparison of ergocalciferol nanodispersions prepared using modified lecithin and sodium caseinate: Insights of formulation, stability and bioaccessibilityShu, Gaofeng; Khalid, Nauman; Tan, Tai Boon; Zhao, Yiguo; Neves, Marcos A.; Kobayashi, Isao; Nakajima, MitsutoshiJournal of Functional Foods (2017), 38 (Part_A), 28-35CODEN: JFFOAX; ISSN:1756-4646. (Elsevier Ltd.)In this work, we compared the formulation, stability and bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol nanodispersions using modified lecithin (ML) and sodium caseinate (SC) as natural emulsifiers. The mean particle size of nanodispersions stabilized by ML (56 nm) was much smaller than those stabilized by SC (112 nm). The ML-stabilized nanodispersions were stable over a wide range of pH, NaCl concns. and heating, but became unstable with slight increase in particle size when exposed to CaCl2 soln. In comparison, SC-stabilized nanodispersions were relatively unstable to particles aggregation at pH 4 and 5, CaCl2 addn. and heating. Long-term stability for ergocalciferol were obsd. in both ML- and SC-stabilized nanodispersions. In the absence of milk, the ergocalciferol bioaccessibility was strongly dependent on the emulsifier type, with ML providing much higher bioaccessibility than SC. During in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, the incorporation of milk into nanodispersions could increase the bioaccessibility and stability for ergocalciferol.
- 31Tan, C.; Nakajima, M. β-Carotene nanodispersions: preparation, characterization and stability evaluation. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 661– 671, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.08.044[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXjt1yiur8%253D&md5=9fc626100a42a00ef0a66db958f74c32β-Carotene nanodispersions: preparation, characterization and stability evaluationTan, C. P.; Nakajima, M.Food Chemistry (2005), 92 (4), 661-671CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier B.V.)The aim of the present study was to investigate the prepn. of β-carotene nanodispersions as potential active ingredients for food formulations. Nanodispersions contg. β-carotene were obtained by a process based on an emulsification-evapn. technique. The prepn. method consisted of emulsifying an org. soln. of β-carotene in an aq. soln. contg. emulsifier using two different homogenizers (a conventional homogenizer and a microfluidizer), followed by direct solvent evapn. under reduced pressure. The influence of different homogenizing conditions (pressure and cycle) and two org./aq. phase ratios on particle size parameters and content of β-carotene was investigated. In addn., the stability of β-carotene nanodispersions was carried out at a storage temp. of 4°. The particle size distribution of β-carotene in nanodispersions was demonstrated with a laser diffraction particle size analyzer and the retention of β-carotene in the prepd. nanodispersions was studied by high-pressure liq. chromatog. In general, homogenization pressure and cycle had significant (P < 0.05) effects on various particle size parameters. A vol.-weighted mean diam. (D4,3) of β-carotene nanoparticles, ranging from 60 to 140 nm, was obsd. in this study.
- 32Ma, F.; Bell, A. E.; Davis, F. J. Effects of high-hydrostatic pressure and pH treatments on the emulsification properties of gum arabic. Food Chem. 2015, 184, 114– 121, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.075[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXlsVOlur8%253D&md5=b6342c295d91cbf1a07aff15976ed65cEffects of high-hydrostatic pressure and pH treatments on the emulsification properties of gum arabicMa, Fanyi; Bell, Alan E.; Davis, Fred J.Food Chemistry (2015), 184 (), 114-121CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)This study investigated the emulsification properties of the native gums and those treated at high pressure (800 MPa) both at their "natural" pH (4.49 and 4.58, resp.) and under "acidic and basic" pH (2.8 and 8.0) conditions. The emulsification behavior of KLTA gum was found to be superior to that of the GCA gum. High pressure and pH treatment changed the emulsification properties of both gums. The acidic amino acids in gum arabic were shown to play an important role in their emulsification behavior, and mechanisms of emulsification for the two gums were suggested to be different. The highly "branched" nature of the carbohydrate in GCA gum was also thought to be responsible for the "spreading" of droplet size distributions obsd. Coomassie brilliant blue binding was used to indicate conformational changes in protein structure and Ellman's assay was used to est. any changes in levels of free thiols present.
- 33Sun, C.; Gunasekaran, S.; Richards, M. P. Effect of xanthan gum on physicochemical properties of whey protein isolate stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 2007, 21, 555– 564, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.06.003[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXntFylug%253D%253D&md5=0d058946e3084e2f452635def394ebefEffect of xanthan gum on physicochemical properties of whey protein isolate stabilized oil-in-water emulsionsSun, Changhui; Gunasekaran, Sundaram; Richards, Mark P.Food Hydrocolloids (2007), 21 (4), 555-564CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The effect of xanthan gum (XG) addn. on physicochem. properties of 2 wt% whey protein isolate (WPI) stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions contg. 20% vol./vol. menhaden oil was investigated by measuring droplet size, viscosity, microstructure, creaming profile and oxidative stability. In fresh emulsions, addn. of XG at different concns. did not show any significant effect on the surface-area-av. droplet size (d32). However, emulsion microstructure and creaming profile indicated that the degree of flocculation is a function of XG concn.: when XG = 0%, there was no flocculation; when XG = 0.02-0.15 wt%, there was limited flocculation; when XG = 0.2 wt%, there was extensive flocculation leading to the formation of an emulsion gel; and when XG = 0.5 wt%, there was little or no flocculation. Lipid oxidn. of the emulsions was inhibited by the addn. of 0.15 or 0.2 wt% XG. In the presence of 0.5 wt% XG, the emulsion exhibited a high yield stress, which appreciably inhibited creaming. Nevertheless, addn. of 0.5 wt% XG was believed to have interacted with unadsorbed WPI in the aq. phase, which inhibited the antioxidant property of WPI. Thus, addn. of 0.5 wt% XG had a net prooxidant effect in the 2 wt% WPI stabilized emulsions contg. 20% vol./vol. menhaden oil.
- 34McClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A. Lipid Oxidation in Oil-in-Water Emulsions: Impact of Molecular Environment on Chemical Reactions in Heterogeneous Food Systems. J. Food Sci. 2000, 65, 1270– 1282, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10596.x[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar34https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXktlOnsrk%253D&md5=925cfc39fd0452bc43ce7384edb3f28bLipid oxidation in oil-in-water emulsions: impact of molecular environment on chemical reactions in heterogeneous food systemsMcClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A.Journal of Food Science (2000), 65 (8), 1270-1282CODEN: JFDSAZ; ISSN:0022-1147. (Institute of Food Technologists)A review with ∼115 refs. The susceptibility of lipids to oxidn. is a major cause of quality deterioration in food emulsions. The reaction mechanism and factors that influence oxidn. are appreciably different for emulsified lipids than for bulk lipids. This article reviews the current understanding of the lipid oxidn. mechanism in oil-in-water emulsions. It also discusses the major factors that influence the rate of lipid oxidn. in emulsions, such as antioxidants, chelating agents, ingredient purity, ingredient partitioning, interfacial characteristics, droplet characteristics, and ingredient interactions. This knowledge is then used to define effective strategies for controlling lipid oxidn. in food emulsions.
- 35Ozturk, B.; Argin, S.; Ozilgen, M.; McClements, D. J. Nanoemulsion delivery systems for oil-soluble vitamins: Influence of carrier oil type on lipid digestion and vitamin D3 bioaccessibility. Food Chem. 2015, 187, 499– 506, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.04.065[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar35https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXntFClt7w%253D&md5=312f878b7178327b39b82342ecc51cceNanoemulsion delivery systems for oil-soluble vitamins: Influence of carrier oil type on lipid digestion and vitamin D3 bioaccessibilityOzturk, Bengu; Argin, Sanem; Ozilgen, Mustafa; McClements, David JulianFood Chemistry (2015), 187 (), 499-506CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)The influence of carrier oil type on the bioaccessibility of vitamin D3 encapsulated within oil-in-water nanoemulsions prepd. using a natural surfactant (quillaja saponin) was studied using a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) model: mouth; stomach; small intestine. The rate of free fatty acid release during lipid digestion decreased in the following order: medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) > corn oil ≈ fish oil > orange oil > mineral oil. Conversely, the measured bioaccessibility of vitamin D3 decreased in the following order: corn oil ≈ fish oil > orange oil > mineral oil > MCT. These results show that carrier oil type has a considerable impact on lipid digestion and vitamin bioaccessibility, which was attributed to differences in the release of bioactives from lipid droplets, and their solubilization in mixed micelles. Nanoemulsions prepd. using long-chain triglycerides (corn or fish oil) were most effective at increasing vitamin bioaccessibility.
- 36Qian, C.; Decker, E. A.; Xiao, H.; McClements, D. J. Nanoemulsion delivery systems: Influence of carrier oil on β-carotene bioaccessibility. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1440– 1447, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.06.047[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar36https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtlSmu7%252FM&md5=2bc09ac740b18148d87eb4c90fdf055aNanoemulsion delivery systems: Influence of carrier oil on β-carotene bioaccessibilityQian, Cheng; Decker, Eric Andrew; Xiao, Hang; McClements, David JulianFood Chemistry (2012), 135 (3), 1440-1447CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)Carotenoid use in foods is currently limited because of their poor water-soly., low bioavailability and chem. instability. The authors examd. the impact of carrier oil type on the bioaccessibility of β-carotene encapsulated within nanoemulsion-based delivery systems. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions (d < 200 nm) were formed using a non-ionic surfactant (Tween 20) as emulsifier and long-chain triglycerides (LCT), medium-chain triglycerides (MCT), or orange oil as carrier oils. The influence of carrier oil type on β-carotene bioaccessibility was established using an in vitro model to simulate the oral, gastric and small intestinal phases of the gastrointestinal tract. The rate and extent of free fatty acid prodn. in the intestine decreased in the order LCT ≈ MCT » orange oil; whereas β-carotene bioaccessibility decreased in the order LCT » MCT > orange oil. The bioaccessibility of β-carotene was negligible (≈0%) in orange oil nanoemulsions because no mixed micelles were formed to solubilize β-carotene, and was relatively low (≈2%) in MCT nanoemulsions because the mixed micelles formed were too small to solubilize β-carotene. In contrast, β-carotene bioaccessibility was relatively high (≈66%) in LCT nanoemulsions. The data have implications for the design of effective delivery systems for encapsulation of carotenoids and other lipophilic bioactive components.
- 37Mu, H.; Høy, C.-E. The digestion of dietary triacylglycerols. Prog. Lipid Res. 2004, 43, 105– 133, DOI: 10.1016/s0163-7827(03)00050-x[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar37https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXptlyhtbo%253D&md5=581d5f53f2e8beb5f10f0c7834666542The digestion of dietary triacylglycerolsMu, Huiling; Hoy, Carl-ErikProgress in Lipid Research (2004), 43 (2), 105-133CODEN: PLIRDW; ISSN:0163-7827. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)A review. Dietary triacylglycerols (TAGs) are the major lipid components in the human diet and they are carriers of energy as well as important fatty acids. Many factors affect the digestion and absorption of TAGs. Evidence is accumulating that, in addn. to the overall fatty acid profile, the TAG structure and the species compn. are of importance when considering the nutritional effects of a dietary fat. There is good evidence that in addn. to its short-term effects in the intestine on absorption of fatty acids the TAG structure also has long-term effects resulting from differences in the profile of absorbed fatty acids. Observations on the different atherogenic potential of dietary fats have given us a clear indication of the importance of the TAG structure for absorption of satd. fatty acids. In this context, one may focus on the effects of the structure of dietary fats as such, or one may speculate addnl. on the possibilities of modifying the structure of fats to affect their absorption and the distribution of the fatty acids in the body after digestion and uptake. In this review we will summarize diverse aspects of TAG digestion and absorption, as well as the influences of the fatty acid compn. and the intramol. structure of dietary TAGs on their digestion and absorption.
- 38Mun, S.; Kim, Y.-R.; Shin, M.; McClements, D. J. Control of lipid digestion and nutraceutical bioaccessibility using starch-based filled hydrogels: influence of starch and surfactant type. Food Hydrocolloids 2015, 44, 380– 389, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.10.013[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar38https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhvVCms77E&md5=8341350ae4975b76b1739c9dcbf2adc2Control of lipid digestion and nutraceutical bioaccessibility using starch-based filled hydrogels: Influence of starch and surfactant typeMun, Saehun; Kim, Yong-Ro; Shin, Malshick; McClements, David JulianFood Hydrocolloids (2015), 44 (), 380-389CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The aim of this study was to prep. starch-based filled hydrogels fortified with a model lipophilic nutraceutical (β-carotene) and det. the influence of starch type (mung bean or rice starch) and surfactant type (whey protein isolate (WPI) or Tween 20 (T20)) on lipid digestibility and β-carotene bioaccessibility. Microstructure, lipid digestion, and β-carotene bioaccessibility were measured as the emulsions and filled hydrogels were passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract that included oral, gastric, and intestinal phases. The bioaccessibility was defined as the fraction of β-carotene solubilized within the mixed micelle phase after lipid digestion. Non-encapsulated T20-stabilized emulsions had better aggregation stability than WPI-stabilized emulsions under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, which led to a higher β-carotene bioaccessibility. Both Tween 20- and WPI-stabilized emulsions incorporated in starch-based filled hydrogels led to high lipid digestion and β-carotene bioaccessibility. The release behavior of free fatty acids during lipase digestion depended on the type of starch used as a hydrogel matrix, which was attributed to differences in starch structure. The information obtained in this study may be useful for the fortification of starch-based gelled products with lipophilic nutraceuticals.
- 39Zou, L.; Zheng, B.; Zhang, R.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, W.; Liu, C.; Xiao, H.; McClements, D. J. Enhancing the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic bioactive agents using mixed colloidal dispersions: Curcumin-loaded zein nanoparticles plus digestible lipid nanoparticles. Food Res. Int. 2016, 81, 74– 82, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2015.12.035[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XmtFCntA%253D%253D&md5=8a6007a0030d2b4e11e2aed3ceb8ce4fEnhancing the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic bioactive agents using mixed colloidal dispersions: Curcumin-loaded zein nanoparticles plus digestible lipid nanoparticlesZou, Liqiang; Zheng, Bingjing; Zhang, Ruojie; Zhang, Zipei; Liu, Wei; Liu, Chengmei; Xiao, Hang; McClements, David JulianFood Research International (2016), 81 (), 74-82CODEN: FORIEU; ISSN:0963-9969. (Elsevier B.V.)The potential of mixed colloidal dispersions for increasing the bioaccessibility of a hydrophobic bioactive agent (curcumin) was examd. Curcumin was encapsulated within zein nanoparticles (fabricated by antisolvent pptn.) to obtain a high loading capacity and good chem. stability. These protein nanoparticles were then mixed with digestible lipid nanoparticles (fabricated by microfluidization) designed to increase curcumin bioaccessibility by forming mixed micelles in the small intestine. Changes in particle properties (size, charge, and organization) were measured as the mixed colloidal dispersions were passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract: mouth; stomach; and small intestine. Curcumin bioaccessibility increased with increasing lipid nanoparticle concn. in the mixed colloidal dispersions, which was attributed to an increase in the solubilization capacity of the mixed micelle phase. This study suggests that delivery systems contg. mixed colloidal particles (protein and lipid nanoparticles) may be designed to increase the bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactive agents.
- 40Chen, Z.; Shu, G.; Taarji, N.; Barrow, C. J.; Nakajima, M.; Khalid, N.; Neves, M. A. Gypenosides as natural emulsifiers for oil-in-water nanoemulsions loaded with astaxanthin: Insights of formulation, stability and release properties. Food Chem. 2018, 261, 322– 328, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.04.054[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXotFOis78%253D&md5=facf34f9498df3f3b597d5cd749c83a6Gypenosides as natural emulsifiers for oil-in-water nanoemulsions loaded with astaxanthin: Insights of formulation, stability and release propertiesChen, Zhang; Shu, Gaofeng; Taarji, Noamane; Barrow, Colin J.; Nakajima, Mitsutoshi; Khalid, Nauman; Neves, Marcos A.Food Chemistry (2018), 261 (), 322-328CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)The formulation, physicochem. stability and bioaccessibility of astaxanthin (AST) loaded oil-in-water nanoemulsions fabricated using gypenosides (GPs) as natural emulsifiers was investigated and compared with a synthetic emulsifier (Tween 20) that is commonly applied in food industry. GPs were capable of producing nanoemulsions with a small vol. mean diam. (d4,3=125±2 nm), which was similar to those prepd. using Tween 20 (d4,3=145±6 nm) under the same high-pressure homogenization conditions. GPs-stabilized nanoemulsions were stable against droplet growth over a range of pH (6-8) and thermal treatments (60-120 °C). Conversely, instability occurred under acidic (pH 3-5) and high ionic strength (25-100 mM CaCl2) conditions. In comparison with Tween 20, GPs were more effective at inhibiting AST from degrdn. during 30 days of storage at both 5 and 25 °C. However, GPs led to lower lipid digestion and AST bioaccessibility from nanoemulsions than did Tween 20.
- 41Zou, L.; Liu, W.; Liu, C.; Xiao, H.; McClements, D. J. Utilizing food matrix effects to enhance nutraceutical bioavailability: increase of curcumin bioaccessibility using excipient emulsions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 2052– 2062, DOI: 10.1021/jf506149f[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar41https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhvFGns74%253D&md5=655f3cf2300333370e27ac2f1697870fUtilizing Food Matrix Effects To Enhance Nutraceutical Bioavailability: Increase of Curcumin Bioaccessibility Using Excipient EmulsionsZou, Liqiang; Liu, Wei; Liu, Chengmei; Xiao, Hang; McClements, David JulianJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2015), 63 (7), 2052-2062CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)Excipient foods have compns. and structures specifically designed to improve the bioaccessibility of bioactive agents present in other foods coingested with them. In this study, an excipient emulsion was shown to improve the soly. and bioaccessibility of curcumin from powd. rhizome turmeric (Curcuma longa). Corn oil-in-water emulsions were mixed with curcumin powder, and the resulting mixts. were incubated at either 30 °C (to simulate a salad dressing) or 100 °C (to simulate a cooking sauce). There was an appreciable transfer of curcumin into the excipient emulsions at both incubation temps., but this effect was much more pronounced at 100 °C. The bioaccessibility of curcumin measured using a simulated gastrointestinal tract model was greatly improved in the presence of the excipient emulsion, particularly in the system held at 100 °C. This effect was attributed to the higher initial amt. of curcumin solubilized within the oil droplets, as well as that solubilized in the mixed micelles formed by lipid digestion. This study highlights the potential of designing excipient food emulsions that increase the oral bioavailability of lipophilic nutraceuticals, such as curcumin.
- 42Yi, J.; Li, Y.; Zhong, F.; Yokoyama, W. The physicochemical stability and in vitro bioaccessibility of beta-carotene in oil-in-water sodium caseinate emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 2014, 35, 19– 27, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.07.025[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar42https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1eqsb7M&md5=67463c09ccbc77e57cbcf17a28377f2bThe physicochemical stability and in vitro bioaccessibility of beta-carotene in oil-in-water sodium caseinate emulsionsYi, Jiang; Li, Yue; Zhong, Fang; Yokoyama, WallaceFood Hydrocolloids (2014), 35 (), 19-27CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)Beta-carotene (BC), the most important dietary source of provitamin A, is necessary for optimum human health. BC is insol. or only slightly sol. in most liqs. but its bioavailability improves when ingested with fat. Therefore lipid emulsions are ideal matrixes for BC delivery. BC (0.1̂) in corn oil, the dispersed phase (5 or 10̂), was homogenized with 2̂ sodium caseinate soln. in a microfluidizer. Homogenization at different pressures produced droplet diams. (Dz = 368-124 nm) that were linear and inversely related to homogenization pressures in the pressure range 10-100 MPa. Nanoemulsions (r < 200 nm) were prepd. at 100 MPa. The sodium caseinate emulsions were generally very stable to coalescence or flocculation over 30 days and the slow rate of vol. increase was found to be related to the square of the initial droplet radius following Stokes velocity of settling equation. BC stability towards oxidn. was lower as droplet diam. decreased. The extent of lipolysis in an in vitro system was higher and linearly related to the inverse of droplet diam. Bioaccessibility, as defined by the amt. of BC recovered in the aq. phase after ultracentrifugation, was linearly related to smaller emulsion droplet diam. These results show that sodium caseinate, a food grade emulsifier, can be used to prep. stable emulsions of food oils carrying beta-carotene. Since food oils facilitate the uptake of beta-carotene this may be a preferred system to deliver beta-carotene.
- 43Wang, P.; Liu, H.-J.; Mei, X.-Y.; Nakajima, M.; Yin, L.-J. Preliminary study into the factors modulating β-carotene micelle formation in dispersions using an in vitro digestion model. Food Hydrocolloids 2012, 26, 427– 433, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.11.018[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar43https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhtFOmtb3F&md5=8911bdbdc7dab14c20bc5048380100e0Preliminary study into the factors modulating β-carotene micelle formation in dispersions using an in vitro digestion modelWang, Pan; Liu, Hai-Jie; Mei, Xue-Ying; Nakajima, Mitsutoshi; Yin, Li-JunFood Hydrocolloids (2012), 26 (2), 427-433CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)β-Carotene is an active compd. assocd. with prevention of heart disease, cancer and cataracts. For absorption in vivo, β-carotene must be incorporated in mixed micelles. Micelle formulation varies widely and depends on various factors. The aim of this study was to identify and study the main factors governing the bioaccessibility of β-carotene incorporated into dispersions, using an in vitro digestion model. β-Carotene dispersions were prepd. by high-pressure homogenization or by combining emulsification and evapn. The av. particle sizes of the dispersions obtained ranged from 45 to 18315 nm. Results show that the concn. of β-carotene, bile ext. and pancreatic lipase, pH, and the particle size of the dispersions significantly affected the transfer of β-carotene from dispersions into micelles. The transfer of β-carotene was inversely related to the particle size and the concn. of bile ext. and was highest at pH 6 and 0.4 mg/mL pancreatic lipase. Bile salt played different roles depending on the particle sizes of the dispersion. When the mean diam. of β-carotene particle was below 100 nm, the addn. of bile ext. and pancreatic lipase did not significantly affect bioaccessibility of β-carotene passing through in vitro digestion model. At larger particle sizes, the transfer efficiency of β-carotene increased with bile ext. concn. The outcomes suggest that there is potential to improve the bioavailability of β-carotene by micronizing lipid droplets.
- 44McClements, D. J.; Li, Y. Structured emulsion-based delivery systems: controlling the digestion and release of lipophilic food components. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2010, 159, 213– 228, DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2010.06.010[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar44https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhtVGit7zK&md5=ed76ca469700f9c0244143ff441e7a02Structured emulsion-based delivery systems: Controlling the digestion and release of lipophilic food componentsMcClements, David Julian; Li, YanAdvances in Colloid and Interface Science (2010), 159 (2), 213-228CODEN: ACISB9; ISSN:0001-8686. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. There is a need for edible delivery systems to encapsulate, protect and release bioactive and functional lipophilic constituents within the food and pharmaceutical industries. These delivery systems could be used for a no. of purposes: controlling lipid bioavailability; targeting the delivery of bioactive components within the gastrointestinal tract; and designing food matrixes that delay lipid digestion and induce satiety. Emulsion technol. is particularly suited for the design and fabrication of delivery systems for lipids. In this article we provide an overview of a no. of emulsion-based technologies that can be used as edible delivery systems by the food and other industries, including conventional emulsions, nanoemulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Each of these delivery systems can be produced from food-grade (GRAS) ingredients (e.g., lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals) using relatively simple processing operations (e.g., mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). The structure, prepn., and utilization of each type of delivery system for controlling lipid digestion are discussed. This knowledge can be used to select the most appropriate emulsion-based delivery system for specific applications, such as encapsulation, controlled digestion, and targeted release.
- 45Sarkar, A.; Goh, K. K. T.; Singh, R. P.; Singh, H. Behaviour of an oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by β-lactoglobulin in an in vitro gastric model. Food Hydrocolloids 2009, 23, 1563– 1569, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.10.014[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar45https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXjtFanur8%253D&md5=f614837cdcb9a325faab753038d40fedBehaviour of an oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by β-lactoglobulin in an in vitro gastric modelSarkar, Anwesha; Goh, Kelvin K. T.; Singh, R. Paul; Singh, HarjinderFood Hydrocolloids (2009), 23 (6), 1563-1569CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The behavior of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg)-stabilized emulsions (1.0 wt% protein and 20.0 wt% soy oil) using pepsin digestion under simulated gastric conditions (37 °C, pH 1.2 and 34 mM NaCl ionic strength, with continuous shaking at approx. 95 rev/min for 2 h) was investigated. Changes in particle size, ζ-potential and microstructure were monitored as a function of incubation time in the gastric fluid. Initially, β-lg formed a stable anionic emulsion at pH 7, but the emulsion underwent extensive droplet flocculation, with some coalescence, on mixing with the simulated gastric fluid. The ζ-potential values gradually changed from -57.1 ± 0.5 mV to +17.6 ± 1.2 mV because of pH change and peptic hydrolysis of the interfacial layer. Native β-lg was largely resistant to pepsin attack but, when β-lg was present at the interfacial layer of the oil-in-water emulsion, it was rapidly hydrolyzed by pepsin, as shown by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The droplet flocculation and the coalescence obsd. during hydrolysis were markedly dependent on the digestion time.
- 46Shu, G.; Khalid, N.; Tan, T. B.; Zhao, Y.; Neves, M. A.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M. In vitro bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol in nanoemulsion-based delivery system: the influence of food-grade emulsifiers with different stabilising mechanisms. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 53, 430– 440, DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.13601[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar46https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhslSkt7jE&md5=17b378f85a16a4b6bde5fc34d25de692In vitro bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol in nanoemulsion-based delivery system: the influence of food-grade emulsifiers with different stabilising mechanismsShu, Gaofeng; Khalid, Nauman; Tan, Tai Boon; Zhao, Yiguo; Neves, Marcos A.; Kobayashi, Isao; Nakajima, MitsutoshiInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology (2018), 53 (2), 430-440CODEN: IJFTEZ; ISSN:0950-5423. (Wiley-Blackwell)Summary : The effect of emulsifier type on the in vitro bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol-loaded nanoemulsions was examd. (mouth, stomach and small intestinal phases). Oil-in-water nanoemulsions were prepd. using emulsifiers with different stabilizing mechanisms: decaglycerol monooleate (MO7S; steric), modified lecithin (ML; electrostatic), sodium caseinate (SC; electrosteric) and ML-MO7S (combined electrostatic and steric). The droplet size, size distribution, ζ-potential and microstructure of nanoemulsions during digestion depended on the emulsifier type. The fate of lipid in the small intestinal phase also relied on the emulsifier type, with the free fatty acids release rate decreasing in the following order: MO7S > ML-MO7S > ML > SC. The ergocalciferol bioaccessibilities in nanoemulsions prepd. using MO7S (62%), ML (64%) and ML-MO7S (65%) were similar and significantly higher than that stabilized by SC (12%). No significant loss of ergocalciferol was obsd. in all nanoemulsions after full digestion; they were chem. stable against digestion conditions, regardless of the emulsifier type.
- 47Li, Y.; McClements, D. J. New mathematical model for interpreting pH-stat digestion profiles: Impact of lipid droplet characteristics on in vitro digestibility. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 8085– 8092, DOI: 10.1021/jf101325m[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar47https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXnsFSqtr4%253D&md5=81e9463cfbe5a5e05cdbe67d94384ff4New Mathematical Model for Interpreting pH-Stat Digestion Profiles: Impact of Lipid Droplet Characteristics on in Vitro DigestibilityLi, Yan; McClements, David JulianJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2010), 58 (13), 8085-8092CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)The pH-stat method is commonly used to characterize the in vitro digestibility of lipids under simulated small intestine conditions. This method measures the fraction of free fatty acids (FFA) released from triacylglycerols over time. A new math. model has been developed to characterize the FFA vs. time profiles generated by the pH-stat method, which can be used to quantify the influence of physicochem. parameters on the rate (k) and extent (.vphi.max) of lipid digestion. In this model, k is the amt. of FFA produced per unit time per unit surface area, whereas .vphi.max is the max. fraction of digestible FFAs released. This model is used to quantify the influence of lipid droplet characteristics (size, concn., compn., and emulsifier type) on the digestion of emulsified lipids. The rate (k) of lipid digestion increased with decreasing lipid content (from 2.5 to 0.5 wt %), increasing droplet diam. (from d = 200-15000 nm), and decreasing fatty acid mol. wt. (MCT vs. corn oil). The extent (.vphi.max) of lipid digestion was also considerably less for corn oil than for MCT. The rate and extent of lipid digestion did not depend strongly on initial emulsifier type: β-lactoglobulin, Tween 20, lecithin, or lyso-lecithin. These results are interpreted in terms of differences in the concns. of reactants, products, catalysts and cofactors at the lipid droplet surfaces during digestion, for example, triacylglycerols, emulsifiers, FFA, lipase, and bile salts. This model provides a useful means of quantifying the influence of specific parameters on lipid digestion using the pH-stat method.
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Abstract
Figure 1
Figure 1. Effect of different types of emulsifiers and their concentrations on the formulation of emulsions, encapsulating fucoxanthin, prepared by using high-pressure homogenization at 100 MPa for 4 passes. (a) Droplet size distribution of emulsions stabilized by ML (d4,3 = 140 nm), WPI (d4,3 = 136 nm), and GA (d4,3 = 897 nm). (b) d4,3 of emulsions stabilized by different concentrations of emulsifiers.
Figure 2
Figure 2. Effect of homogenization pressure and number of passes on the formulation of emulsions. The d4,3 of emulsions formulated using different (a) pressure and (b) number of passes. The chemical stability during homogenization was also determined on emulsions homogenized by different number of passes. Pass 0 refers to the results of rotor-stator homogenization.
Figure 3
Figure 3. Effect of different types of emulsifiers on the physical stability of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions during 15 days of storage at 25 °C.
Figure 4
Figure 4. Effect of the type of emulsifiers on the chemical stability of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions as compared to bulk oil, during 15 days of storage at 25 °C.
Figure 5
Figure 5. The d4,3 of fucoxanthin-loaded emulsions formulated with different types of emulsifiers during in vitro digestion (initial and small intestine).
Figure 6
Figure 6. Effect of the types of emulsifiers on the FFAs released during in vitro small intestine digestion.
References
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- 3Peng, J.; Yuan, J.-P.; Wu, C.-F.; Wang, J.-H. Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human health. Mar. Drugs 2011, 9, 1806– 1828, DOI: 10.3390/md9101806[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar3https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhtl2mu7jF&md5=53b7b656ffbfb5d19dacb7dde2841f78Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human healthPeng, Juan; Yuan, Jian-Ping; Wu, Chou-Fei; Wang, Jiang-HaiMarine Drugs (2011), 9 (), 1806-1828CODEN: MDARE6; ISSN:1660-3397. (MDPI Center)A review. The marine carotenoid fucoxanthin can be found in marine brown seaweeds, the macroalgae, and diatoms, the microalgae, and has remarkable biol. properties. Numerous studies have shown that fucoxanthin has considerable potential and promising applications in human health. In this article, we review the current available scientific literature regarding the metab., safety, and bioactivities of fucoxanthin, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-obese, antidiabetic, antiangiogenic and antimalarial activities, and its protective effects on the liver, blood vessels of the brain, bones, skin, and eyes. Although some studies have shown the bioavailability of fucoxanthin in brown seaweeds to be low in humans, many studies have suggested that a dietary combination of fucoxanthin and edible oil or lipid could increase the absorption rate of fucoxanthin, and thus it might be a promising marine drug.
- 4Kumar, S.; Hosokawa, M.; Miyashita, K. Fucoxanthin: A marine carotenoid exerting anti-cancer effects by affecting multiple mechanisms. Mar. Drugs 2013, 11, 5130– 5147, DOI: 10.3390/md11125130[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar4https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXntVyjurk%253D&md5=b39219423e5ea1c63685a887eb4d7c49Fucoxanthin: a marine carotenoid exerting anti-cancer effects by affecting multiple mechanismsKumar, Sangeetha Ravi; Hosokawa, Masashi; Miyashita, KazuoMarine Drugs (2013), 11 (12), 5130-5147CODEN: MDARE6; ISSN:1660-3397. (MDPI AG)A review. Fucoxanthin is a marine carotenoid exhibiting several health benefits. The anti-cancer effect of fucoxanthin and its deacetylated metabolite, fucoxanthinol, is well documented. In view of its potent anti-carcinogenic activity, the need to understand the underlying mechanisms has gained prominence. Towards achieving this goal, several researchers have carried out studies in various cell lines and in vivo and have deciphered that fucoxanthin exerts its anti-proliferative and cancer preventing influence via different mols. and pathways including the Bcl-2 proteins, MAPK, NFB, Caspases, GADD45, and several other mols. that are involved in either cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, or metastasis. Thus, in addn. to decreasing the frequency of occurrence and growth of tumors, fucoxanthin has a cytotoxic effect on cancer cells. Some studies show that this effect is selective, i.e., fucoxanthin has the capability to target cancer cells only, leaving normal physiol. cells unaffected/less affected. Hence, fucoxanthin and its metabolites show great promise as chemotherapeutic agents in cancer.
- 5Zorofchian Moghadamtousi, S.; Karimian, H.; Khanabdali, R.; Razavi, M.; Firoozinia, M.; Zandi, K.; Abdul Kadir, H. Anticancer and antitumor potential of fucoidan and fucoxanthin, two main metabolites isolated from brown algae. Sci. World J. 2014, 2014, 1, DOI: 10.1155/2014/768323
- 6Sachindra, N. M.; Sato, E.; Maeda, H.; Hosokawa, M.; Niwano, Y.; Kohno, M.; Miyashita, K. Radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching activity of marine carotenoid fucoxanthin and its metabolites. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 8516– 8522, DOI: 10.1021/jf071848a[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar6https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXhtVyms73F&md5=258104805e8272ced6875b83dc676acaRadical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching activity of marine carotenoid fucoxanthin and its metabolitesSachindra, Nakkarike M.; Sato, Emiko; Maeda, Hayato; Hosokawa, Masashi; Niwano, Yoshimi; Kohno, Masahiro; Miyashita, KazuoJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2007), 55 (21), 8516-8522CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)Antioxidant activity of carotenoids is suggested to be one of the factors for their disease preventing effects. Marine carotenoids fucoxanthin and its two metabolites, fucoxanthinol and halocynthiaxanthin, have been shown to exhibit several biol. effects. The antioxidant activities of these three carotenoids were assessed in vitro with respect to radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching abilities. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity of fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol was higher than that of halocynthiaxanthin, with the effective concn. for 50% scavenging (EC50) being 164.60, 153.78, and 826.39 μM, resp. 2,2'-Azinobis-3-ethylbenzo thizoline-6-sulfonate radical scavenging activity of fucoxanthinol (EC50, 2.49 μM) was stronger than that of fucoxanthin (EC50, 8.94 μM). Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity as measured by the chemiluminescence technique showed that the scavenging activity of fucoxanthin was 7.9 times higher than that by fucoxanthinol, 16.3 times higher than that by halocynthiaxanthin, and 13.5 times higher than that by α-tocopherol. A similar trend was obsd. when the hydroxyl radical scavenging was assessed by the ESR technique. ESR anal. of the superoxide radical scavenging activity also showed the superiority of fucoxanthin over the other two carotenoids tested. Singlet oxygen quenching ability of the three carotenoids was lower than that of β-carotene, with quenching rate consts. (kq, × 1010 M-1 s-1) being 1.19, 1.81, 0.80, and 12.78 for fucoxanthin, fucoxanthinol, halocynthiaxanthin, and β-carotene, resp. The higher radical scavenging activity of fucoxanthin and fucoxanthinol compared with halocynthiaxanthin is assumed to be due to presence of the allenic bond.
- 7Awang, A. N.; Ng, J. L.; Matanjun, P.; Sulaiman, M. R.; Tan, T. S.; Ooi, Y. B. H. Anti-obesity property of the brown seaweed, Sargassum polycystum using an in vivo animal model. J. Appl. Phycol. 2014, 26, 1043– 1048, DOI: 10.1007/s10811-013-0149-6[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar7https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXmsFaqtbY%253D&md5=50cf9a8a4e84802d9b909186c6d8c629Anti-obesity property of the brown seaweed, Sargassum polycystum using an in vivo animal modelAwang, Afzan Naquiah; Ng, Ju Lynn; Matanjun, Patricia; Sulaiman, Mohd Rosni; Tan, Tek Song; Ooi, Yasmin Beng HouiJournal of Applied Phycology (2014), 26 (2), 1043-1048CODEN: JAPPEL; ISSN:0921-8971. (Springer)Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in many countries around the world. Preventing and treating obesity is becoming an increasing priority due to dissatisfaction with high costs and hazardous side effects of anti-obesity drugs. This study was designed to investigate the anti-obesity properties of the Sabah brown seaweed, Sargassum polycystum, on body wt. and blood plasma levels of rats fed a high-fat diet supplemented with different doses of the seaweed powder. Male Sprague Dawley rats were divided into five groups, representing control neg. (CN) group, control pos. (CP) group, low dosage group (LDG), medium dosage group (MDG) and high dosage group (HDG). The study duration was 8 wk. All groups were fed high-fat diet throughout the study except for CN group, which was fed normal rat chow. LDG, MDG and HDG were supplemented high-fat diet with 2.5, 5.0 and 10.0 % seaweed powder, resp. By comparing with the CP group, it was found that the HDG (10.0 % seaweed treatment diet) showed the greatest effect in suppressing wt. gain, followed by the MDG (5.0 % seaweed treatment diet) and LDG (2.5 % seaweed treatment diet). The HDG decreased the levels of plasma total cholesterol and triglycerides. This finding shows that S. polycystum powder treatment had a pos. effect on the inhibition of wt. gain and has a promising value in preventing obesity.
- 8Maeda, H.; Hosokawa, M.; Sashima, T.; Murakami-Funayama, K.; Miyashita, K. Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of fucoxanthin on diet-induced obesity conditions in a murine model. Mol. Med. Rep. 2009, 2, 897– 902, DOI: 10.3892/mmr_00000189[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar8https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXht12qsrzN&md5=0977a2b95331c9080b4e697ce15af796Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of fucoxanthin on diet-induced obesity conditions in a murine modelMaeda, Hayato; Hosokawa, Masashi; Sashima, Tokutake; Murakami-Funayama, Katsura; Miyashita, KazuoMolecular Medicine Reports (2009), 2 (6), 897-902CODEN: MMROA5; ISSN:1791-2997. (Spandidos Publications Ltd.)Fucoxanthin, a characteristic carotenoid of brown algae, has been reported to exert an anti-diabetic effect in an obese murine model. Wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), an edible seaweed, is rich in fucoxanthin. This study examd. the anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects of fucoxanthin-rich wakame lipids (WLs) on high fat (HF) diet-induced obesity in mice. Mice were fed a high fat control (HFC) or normal fat control (NFC) diet for 10 wk. The HF diet-fed group was administered a HF diet contg. WLs for a further 5 wk. Parameters related to diabetes and obesity conditions were evaluated and compared. The HF-WL diet, which was rich in fucoxanthin, significantly suppressed body wt. and white adipose tissue (WAT) wt. gain induced by the HF diet. Dietary administration of the HF diet resulted in hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and hyperleptinemia in the mouse model. These perturbations were completely normalized in the HF-WL diet-fed group. Increased expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) mRNA expression was obsd. in HFC mice, but was normalized in the HF-WL groups. Moreover, the HF-WL diet promoted mRNA expression of β3-adrenergic receptor (Adrb3) in WAT and glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) mRNA in skeletal muscle tissues. These results suggest that dietary WLs may ameliorate alterations in lipid metab. and insulin resistance induced by a HF diet. There is therefore a biochem. and nutritional basis for the application of fucoxanthin-rich WLs as a functional food to prevent obesity and diabetes-related disorders.
- 9Li, Y.; Iwata, K.; Sonoda, K.; Shengquan, M. Focoxanthin supplementation reduces body fat in over weight humans—A randomized, placebo controlled study—. Jpn. Pharmacol. Ther 2015, 9, 1317– 1322Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 10Mok, I.-K.; Lee, J. K.; Kim, J. H.; Pan, C.-H.; Kim, S. M. Fucoxanthin bioavailability from fucoxanthin-fortified milk: In vivo and in vitro study. Food Chem. 2018, 258, 79– 86, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.03.047[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar10https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXltVKlu70%253D&md5=8d9b8ce6b7099388d3827b5ec3faf7a4Fucoxanthin bioavailability from fucoxanthin-fortified milk: In vivo and in vitro studyMok, Il-Kyoon; Lee, Jae Kwon; Kim, Jeong Hwa; Pan, Cheol-Ho; Kim, Sang MinFood Chemistry (2018), 258 (), 79-86CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)Our previous study reported the improved stability of fucoxanthin (FX) fortified in whole milk (WM) and skimmed milk (SM). In this study, in vivo and in vitro FX bioavailability were investigated using FX-fortified milk (FX-SM and FX-WM) and microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum biomass (Pt-powder). Organ tissue accumulation of FX and its metabolites (FXOH: fucoxanthinol, AXA: amarouciaxanthin A) after repeated oral administration was in the following order: FX-SM>FX-WM>Pt-powder. In vivo pharmacokinetic study with a single oral administration also demonstrated that the absorption of FXOH and AXA was the highest for FX-SM. To reinforce the in vivo results, in vitro-simulated digestion and Caco-2 cell uptake assays were performed, which revealed that FX-SM showed the highest FX bioaccessibility (release from food matrixes) and cellular uptake efficiency of FX and FXOH. In conclusion, skimmed milk was validated as an excellent food matrix for FX application in terms of stability and bioavailability.
- 11Dai, J.; Kim, S. M.; Shin, I.-S.; Kim, J. D.; Lee, H. Y.; Shin, W. C.; Kim, J.-C. Preparation and stability of fucoxanthin-loaded microemulsions. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2014, 20, 2103– 2110, DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2013.09.039[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar11https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1yqsb3J&md5=3f16afda9ce104527c31aae65b79a448Preparation and stability of fucoxanthin-loaded microemulsionsDai, Jing; Kim, Sang Moo; Shin, Il-Shik; Kim, Jong Dai; Lee, Hyeon Yong; Shin, Won Cheol; Kim, Jin-ChulJournal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2014), 20 (4), 2103-2110CODEN: JIECFI; ISSN:1226-086X. (Elsevier B.V.)Oil-in-water microemulsions (MEs) contg. fucoxanthin were prepd. The stability of MEs stored at 4 °C was investigated for 4 wk in terms of droplet size change and phase sepn. The ME having the oil content of 2% was stable throughout the expt. As the oil content increased to 3% and 4%, the sizes increased with time for the last 3 wk. Further increase to 5% led to the phase sepn. at the 4th week. About 95% of fucoxanthin was maintained for 4 wk once no phase sepn. took place soon after the prepn.
- 12Zhao, D.; Kim, S.-M.; Pan, C.-H.; Chung, D. Effects of heating, aerial exposure and illumination on stability of fucoxanthin in canola oil. Food Chem. 2014, 145, 505– 513, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.08.045[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar12https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1WiurrL&md5=4cf187c5bf29ca4e9ff9abe5b87a3e28Effects of heating, aerial exposure and illumination on stability of fucoxanthin in canola oilZhao, Dong; Kim, Sang-Min; Pan, Cheol-Ho; Chung, DonghwaFood Chemistry (2014), 145 (), 505-513CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)The effects of heating, aerial exposure and illumination on the stability of fucoxanthin was investigated in canola oil. In the absence of air and light, the heating caused the degrdn. of total and all-trans fucoxanthin at all tested temps. between 25 and 100°. The increase of heating temp. promoted the formation of 13-cis and 13'-cis and the degrdn. of 9'-cis. The degrdn. and formation reactions were found to follow simple first-order kinetics and to be energetically unfavorable, non-spontaneous processes. Arrhenius-type temp. dependence was obsd. for the degrdn. of total and all-trans fucoxanthin but not for the reactions of cis isomers. The aerial exposure promoted oxidative fucoxanthin degrdn. at 25°, while illumination caused the initial formation of all-trans, with concurrent sudden degrdn. of 13-cis and 13'-cis, and considerable formation of 9'-cis. The fucoxanthin degrdn. was synergistically promoted when exposed to both air and light.
- 13Hii, S.; Choong, P.; Woo, K.; Wong, C. Stability studies of fucoxanthin from Sargassum binderi. Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2010, 4, 4580– 4584[CAS], Google Scholar13https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhsVenurzO&md5=1e2741cfbd24e6533a9563b08dbae552Stability studies of fucoxanthin from Sargassum binderiHii, Siew-Ling; Choong, Pooi-Yi; Woo, Kwan-Kit; Wong, Ching-LeeAustralian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences (2010), 4 (10), 4580-4584CODEN: AJBAB3; ISSN:1991-8178. (INSInet Publications)Fucoxanthin is an important carotenoid component available in all brown algae. Sargassum binderi was used as the source of fucoxanthin and the main purpose of the study was to evaluate the stability of fucoxanthin ext. against the different storage conditions. Stabilities of the extd. fucoxanthin were tested with different pH and with supplementation of antioxidant (i.e., ascorbic acid) in light and dark condition over a storage period of 4 wk. Color changes of the fucoxanthin ext. were monitored using color software CIE LAB system. Fucoxanthin pigment exhibited the greatest stability when stored in dark condition. The pigments were more stable at alk. pH region as compared to neutral and acidic condition. In dark condition, the addn. of ascorbic acid greatly delayed fucoxanthin degrdn. and concn. ascorbic acid at 1.0% wt./vol. displayed greatest pigment retention. In conclusion, fucoxanthin pigments were sensitive to light exposure and acidic pH condition and could be stabilized by higher concn. of ascorbic acid.
- 14Muthuirulappan, S.; Francis, S. P. Anti-cancer mechanism and possibility of nano-suspension formulation for a marine algae product fucoxanthin. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2013, 14, 2213– 2216, DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.4.2213[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar14https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3snovVWrtg%253D%253D&md5=10e242513a391f4804ef7356577dc6c3Anti-cancer mechanism and possibility of nano-suspension formulations for a marine algae product fucoxanthinMuthuirulappan Srinivasan; Francis Steffi PulikodanAsian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP (2013), 14 (4), 2213-6 ISSN:.Recently, use of natural products available from marine sources, and especially algae products, are receiving more attention. Scientific evidence for claimed nutraceutical and therapeutical effects of one such marine algae product, fucoxanthin, is discussed in this paper with a summary of the currently available literature regarding its antioxidant, anti-obesity and anticancer activities. It is safe for use in humans, but as it has poor solubility a nano-suspension mode of delivery may be adopted to improve efficacy of supplements. We conclude from our literature review that the marine algae product fucoxanthin has significant antioxidant, anti-obesity and anticancer activity with established mechanisms of action.
- 15McClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A.; Weiss, J. Emulsion-Based Delivery Systems for Lipophilic Bioactive Components. J. Food Sci. 2007, 72, R109– R124, DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00507.x[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar15https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXht1KqsrjI&md5=a371321716809692890d59111f625d1aEmulsion-based delivery systems for lipophilic bioactive componentsMcClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A.; Weiss, J.Journal of Food Science (2007), 72 (8), R109-R124CODEN: JFDSAZ; ISSN:0022-1147. (Blackwell Publishing, Inc.)A review. There is a pressing need for edible delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and release bioactive lipids within the food, medical, and pharmaceutical industries. The fact that these delivery systems must be edible puts constraints on the type of ingredients and processing operations that can be used to create them. Emulsion technol. is particularly suited for the design and fabrication of delivery systems for encapsulating bioactive lipids. This review provides a brief overview of the major bioactive lipids that need to be delivered within the food industry (for example, ω-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, and phytosterols), highlighting the main challenges to their current incorporation into foods. The authors then provide an overview of a no. of emulsion-based technologies that could be used as edible delivery systems by the food and other industries, including conventional emulsions, multiple emulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Each of these delivery systems could be produced from food-grade (GRAS) ingredients (for example, lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals) using simple processing operations (for example, mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). For each type of delivery system, we describe its structure, prepn., advantages, limitations, and potential applications. This knowledge can be used to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate emulsion-based delivery system for specific applications.
- 16McClements, D. J. Food Emulsions: Principles, Practices, and Techniques, 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, 2015.
- 17Tadros, T.; Izquierdo, P.; Esquena, J.; Solans, C. Formation and stability of nano-emulsions. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2004, 108–109, 303– 318, DOI: 10.1016/s0001-8686(03)00157-x[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar17https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXivFGmsbw%253D&md5=6ba669d47a247af5f9ec43b213c04c80Formation and stability of nano-emulsionsTadros, Tharwat; Izquierdo, P.; Esquena, J.; Solans, C.Advances in Colloid and Interface Science (2004), 108-109 (), 303-318CODEN: ACISB9; ISSN:0001-8686. (Elsevier Science B.V.)A review. This review describes the principles of formation and stability of nano-emulsions. It starts with an introduction highlighting the main advantages of nano-emulsions over macroemulsions for personal care and cosmetic formulations. It also describes the main problems with lack of progress on nano-emulsions. The 2nd section deals with the mechanism of emulsification and the dynamic light scattering technique for measurement of the droplet size of nano-emulsions. This is followed by a section on methods of emulsification and the role of surfactants. Three methods are described for nano-emulsion prepn., high energy emulsification (using homogenizers), low energy emulsification whereby H2O is added to an oil soln. of the surfactant and the principle of the phase inversion temp. (PIT). A section is devoted to steric stabilization and the role of the adsorbed layer thickness. The problem of Ostwald ripening (which is the main instability process of nano-emulsions) is described. The methods that can be applied to reduce Ostwald ripening are briefly described. This involves the addn. of a 2nd less sol. oil phase such as squalene and/or addn. of a strongly adsorbed and H2O insol. polymeric surfactant. The last part of the review gives some examples of nano-emulsions that are prepd. by the PIT method as well as using high pressure homogenizer. A comparison of the 2 methods is given and the rate of Ostwald ripening is measured in both cases. The effect of changing the alkyl chain length and branching of the oil was studied using decane, dodecane, tetradecane, hexadecane and isohexadecane. The branched oil isohexadcecane showed higher Ostwald ripening rate when compared with a linear chain oil with the same C no.
- 18Koo, S. Y.; Mok, I.-K.; Pan, C.-H.; Kim, S. M. Preparation of fucoxanthin-loaded nanoparticles composed of casein and chitosan with improved fucoxanthin bioavailability. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 9428– 9435, DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04376[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar18https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhvFCgs7zK&md5=28564ad6f52fbf1d6b7fe67ea0fd4b97Preparation of Fucoxanthin-Loaded Nanoparticles Composed of Casein and Chitosan with Improved Fucoxanthin BioavailabilityKoo, Song Yi; Mok, Il-Kyoon; Pan, Cheol-Ho; Kim, Sang MinJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2016), 64 (49), 9428-9435CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)To facilitate the utilization of fucoxanthin (FX), a valuable marine carotenoid, in the food industry, FX-loaded casein nanoparticles (FX-CN) and chitosan-coated FX-CN (FX-CS-CN) were developed using the FX-enriched fraction from Phaeodactylum tricornutum. Two nanoscale particles (237 ± 13 nm for FX-CN and 277 ± 26 nm for FX-CN-CN) with spherical and smooth surfaces showed over 71% encapsulation efficiency and polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.31-0.39 in water. Owing to the chitosan coating, FX-CS-CN showed a pos. zeta potential (24.00 mV), whereas that of FX-CN was neg. (-12.87 mV). In vitro simulated digestion demonstrated better FX bioaccessibility from the nanoparticles vs. P. tricornutum powder (Pt-powder) and from FX-CN vs. FX-CS-CN. However, in C57BL/6 mice, fucoxanthinol absorption to the blood circulation was two times higher for FX-CS-CN vs. FX-CN, possibly due to increased retention or adsorption to mucin by the cationic biopolymer in the chitosan-coated particles. These results demonstrate that FX-CS-CN can enable the application of FX, with improved bioavailability and water dispersibility, in the food industry.
- 19Mok, I.-K.; Yoon, J.-R.; Pan, C.-H.; Kim, S. M. Development, quantification, method validation, and stability study of a novel fucoxanthin-fortified milk. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2016, 64, 6196– 6202, DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02206[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar19https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28Xht1ahurrK&md5=274362ab6000ce7618aadc6ae840f0ecDevelopment, Quantification, Method Validation, and Stability Study of a Novel Fucoxanthin-Fortified MilkMok, Il-Kyoon; Yoon, Jung-Ro; Pan, Cheol-Ho; Kim, Sang MinJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2016), 64 (31), 6196-6202CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)To extend the scope of application of fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid, whole milk (WM) and skimmed milk (SM) were fortified with fucoxanthin isolated from the microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum to a final 8 μg/mL milk soln. concn. Using these liq. systems, a fucoxanthin anal. method implementing extn. and HPLC-DAD was developed and validated by accuracy, precision, system suitability, and robustness tests. The current method demonstrated good linearity over the range of 0.125-100 μg/mL fucoxanthin with R2 = 1.0000, and all validation data supported its adequacy for use in fucoxanthin anal. from milk soln. To investigate fucoxanthin stability during milk prodn. and distribution, fucoxanthin content was examd. during storage, pasteurization, and drying processes under various conditions. Fucoxanthin in milk solns. showed better stabilizing effect in 1 mo of storage period. Degrdn. rate const. (k) on fucoxanthin during this storage period suggested that fucoxanthin stability might be neg. correlated with decrease of temp. and increase of protein content such as casein and whey protein in milk matrix. In a comparison between SM and WM, fucoxantin in SM always showed better stability than that in WM during storage and three kinds of drying processes. This effect was also deduced to relate with protein content. In the pasteurization step, >91% of fucoxanthin was retained after three pasteurization processes even though the above trend was not found. This study demonstrated for the first time that milk products can be used as a basic food matrix for fucoxanthin application and that protein content in milk is an important factor for fucoxanthin stability.
- 20Salvia-Trujillo, L.; Sun, Q.; Um, B. H.; Park, Y.; McClements, D. J. In vitro and in vivo study of fucoxanthin bioavailability from nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: Impact of lipid carrier type. J. Funct. Foods 2015, 17, 293– 304, DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.05.035[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar20https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhtVeksb%252FK&md5=983ff45e7229dda835853506d9a9fb2cIn vitro and in vivo study of fucoxanthin bioavailability from nanoemulsion-based delivery systems: Impact of lipid carrier typeSalvia-Trujillo, L.; Sun, Q.; Um, B. H.; Park, Y.; McClements, D. J.Journal of Functional Foods (2015), 17 (), 293-304CODEN: JFFOAX; ISSN:1756-4646. (Elsevier Ltd.)The impact of carrier oil type on the functionality of a lipophilic nutraceutical (fucoxanthin) encapsulated within nanoemulsions was investigated. Three carrier oils were investigated: long chain triacylglycerols (LCT); medium chain triacylglycerols (MCT); and indigestible oil (orange/mineral oil). Nanoemulsions contg. LCT and MCT were completely digested under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, whereas those contg. indigestible oil were not digested. Fucoxanthin soly. in mixed micelles formed by in vitro digestion decreased in the following order: LCT > MCT > indigestible oil. Animal feeding studies revealed that fucoxanthin was absorbed into the intestinal epithelial cells in the same order as obsd. for the in vitro soly. However, the concn. of fucoxanthin in the serum of the rats was similar for all carrier oils. The present work highlights the importance of contrasting in vitro and in vivo expts. to assess the biol. fate of functional ingredients incorporated in emulsion-based delivery systems.
- 21Huang, Z.; Xu, L.; Zhu, X.; Hu, J.; Peng, H.; Zeng, Z.; Xiong, H. Stability and Bioaccessibility of Fucoxanthin in Nanoemulsions Prepared from Pinolenic Acid-contained Structured Lipid. Int. J. Food Eng. 2017, 13, 2194, DOI: 10.1515/ijfe-2016-0273
- 22Zhao, Y.; Khalid, N.; Shu, G.; Neves, M. A.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M. Formulation and characterization of O/W emulsions stabilized using octenyl succinic anhydride modified kudzu starch. Carbohydr. Polym. 2017, 176, 91– 98, DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.08.064[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar22https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhtl2ku7bP&md5=4ae260b8025650862ce2e929dbaae122Formulation and characterization of O/W emulsions stabilized using octenyl succinic anhydride modified kudzu starchZhao, Yiguo; Khalid, Nauman; Shu, Gaofeng; Neves, Marcos A.; Kobayashi, Isao; Nakajima, MitsutoshiCarbohydrate Polymers (2017), 176 (), 91-98CODEN: CAPOD8; ISSN:0144-8617. (Elsevier Ltd.)Kudzu starch esterified with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) was used as a food-grade emulsifier to formulate O/W emulsions. In addn., the difference between the physicochem. properties and emulsifying ability of native kudzu starch and those of OSA-modified kudzu starch was investigated. Granules of the OSA-modified kudzu starches increased in size after gelatinization. The interfacial tension between soybean oil and gelatinized OSA-modified kudzu starch was lower than that of kudzu starch. The droplet size of O/W emulsions decreased to 186 nm at 100 MPa after three passes. The emulsions stabilized using gelatinized OSA-modified kudzu starch were less stable when exposed to different ionic strengths (100 mM to 500 mM NaCl), than when exposed to different pH levels (2-8). The results of oil droplet size and confocal laser scanning microscopy anal. indicated that emulsions contg. 2-5% OSA-modified kudzu starch remained stable at room temp. for 30 days.
- 23Bai, L.; McClements, D. J. Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsions using biosurfactants: Rhamnolipids. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2016, 479, 71– 79, DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2016.06.047[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar23https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XhtFamtLjL&md5=535798e6d3d006c294bd377a5948a5b0Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsions using biosurfactants: RhamnolipidsBai, Long; McClements, David JulianJournal of Colloid and Interface Science (2016), 479 (), 71-79CODEN: JCISA5; ISSN:0021-9797. (Elsevier B.V.)Nanoemulsions are used in the food, cosmetics, personal care and pharmaceutical industries to provide desirable optical, textural, stability, and delivery characteristics. In many industrial applications, it is desirable to formulate nanoemulsions using natural ingredients so as to develop label-friendly products. Rhamnolipids are biosurfactants isolated from certain microorganisms using fermn. processes. They are glycolipids that have a polar head consisting of rhamnose units and a non-polar tail consisting of a hydrocarbon chain. In this study, the interfacial characteristics of this natural surfactant at medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil-water interfaces were characterized, and its ability to form nanoemulsions was compared to that of another natural surfactant (quillaja saponins). The influence of rhamnolipid concn., homogenization pressure, and oil type on the mean droplet diam. of emulsions produced by microfluidization was detd. Rhamnolipids were highly effective at forming small droplets (d32 < 0.15 μm) at low surfactant-to-oil ratios (SOR < 1:10) for MCT oil. Rhamnolipids could also be used to form small droplets using long chain triglyceride oils, such as corn and fish oil. Rhamnolipid-coated droplets were stable to aggregation over a range of pH values (5-9), salt concns. ( < 100 mM NaCl) and temps. (20-90 °C). However, droplet aggregation was obsd. at highly acidic (pH 2-4) and high ionic strength (200-500 mM NaCl) conditions. These effects were attributed to a redn. in electrostatic repulsion at low pH and high salt levels. Rhamnolipid-coated droplets had a high neg. charge at neutral pH that decreased in magnitude with decreasing pH. These results indicate that rhamnolipids are effective natural surfactants that may be able to replace synthetic surfactants in certain com. applications.
- 24Krog, N. J.; Sparso, F. V. Food Emulsifiers and Their Chemical and Physical Properties. Food emulsions, 4th ed.; Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, USA, 2004; Vol. 12.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 25Tesch, S.; Gerhards, C.; Schubert, H. Stabilization of emulsions by OSA starches. J. Food Eng. 2002, 54, 167– 174, DOI: 10.1016/s0260-8774(01)00206-0
- 26Castellani, O.; Al-Assaf, S.; Axelos, M.; Phillips, G. O.; Anton, M. Hydrocolloids with emulsifying capacity. Part 2 - Adsorption properties at the n-hexadecane-Water interface. Food Hydrocolloids 2010, 24, 121– 130, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.07.006[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar26https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXhsVyisbzL&md5=afe71d4f909b5e63801dbf3e2217a8e2Hydrocolloids with emulsifying capacity. Part 2: Adsorption properties at the n-hexadecane-Water interfaceCastellani, Oscar; Al-Assaf, Saphwan; Axelos, Monique; Phillips, Glyn O.; Anton, MarcFood Hydrocolloids (2009), 24 (2-3), 121-130CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The ability to adsorb at n-hexadecane-water interface of natural hydrocolloids was quantified by dynamic drop tensiometry. Conventional and matured hydrocolloids samples from Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal (AcSey), Sugar Beet Pectin (SBP) and natural untreated Gum Ghatti (GG), were studied in aq. solns. at pH 4.5. Maturation of A. senegal gum (Acacia (sen) SUPERGUM EM2, designated as EM2) increased its ability to lower interfacial tension and the elastic characteristics of the interfacial film. This change in properties can be attributed to the increase in mol. wt. and in arabino-galactan-protein (AGP) content. EM2 exhibited the best interfacial properties. Conventional and matured AcSey presented interfacial properties that were similar to conventional A. senegal (GAc), correlating with minimal changes obsd. in their structural features after maturation. Gum ghatti reacted similarly to EM2 and presented relatively fast kinetic profiles, revealing the good qualities of this gum. The kinetics assocd. with all the hydrocolloids at pH 4.5 have been described using a math. model, from which quant. parameters as onset time or half-time of interfacial-tension-decrease were detd. Compared to the other hydrocolloids, SBP adsorbs by a different mechanism. However, pectin presented the lowest final interfacial tension and gave the more elastic interfacial film. Acidification of hydrocolloid solns. to pH 3.1 increased both the ability to lower the interfacial tension and the elastic characteristics of interfacial film. The effect of structural modifications on interfacial properties was demonstrated, and clarifies further the already obsd. emulsification behavior of the studied hydrocolloid.
- 27Schultz, S.; Wagner, G.; Urban, K.; Ulrich, J. High-Pressure Homogenization as a Process for Emulsion Formation. Chem. Eng. Technol. 2004, 27, 361– 368, DOI: 10.1002/ceat.200406111[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar27https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2cXjsVyqsLs%253D&md5=b501a5a2e8cbb90c5576b7ae96c0006aHigh-pressure homogenization as a process for emulsion formationSchultz, Stefan; Wagner, Gerhard; Urban, Kai; Ulrich, JoachimChemical Engineering & Technology (2004), 27 (4), 361-368CODEN: CETEER; ISSN:0930-7516. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)Emulsions find a wide range of application in industry and daily life. In the pharmaceutical industry lipophilic active ingredients are often formulated in the disperse phase of oil-in-water emulsions. Milk, butter, and margarine are examples of emulsions in daily life. In the metal processing industry emulsions are used in the form of coolants. Emulsions can be produced with different systems. In the following, the process of high-pressure homogenization is briefly compared to other common mech. emulsification systems. To facilitate the selection of an emulsification system, the influence of the most important parameters of the emulsion formulation on the resulting mean droplet diam. in the most prevalent continuous emulsification systems is outlined. Subsequently, the most common high-pressure homogenization systems are discussed in detail. On the basis of data from the literature and own exptl. results the described high-pressure homogenization systems will be compared regarding their attainable mean droplet diam. It shows that homogenizers with a relatively simple geometry like the patented "combined orifice valve" (Kombi-Blende) attain the smallest mean droplet diams. The advantage of the "combined orifice valve" compared to other high-pressure homogenization systems is not more efficient droplet disruption but rather more efficient droplet stabilization against coalescence immediately after the droplet breakup. The greatest research potential concerning the development of new high-pressure homogenization systems is still to be seen in improvements of droplet stabilization, i.e., the redn. of coalescence.
- 28Anarjan, N.; Tan, C. P.; Nehdi, I. A.; Ling, T. C. Colloidal astaxanthin: preparation, characterisation and bioavailability evaluation. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1303– 1309, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.091[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar28https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtlSmurjE&md5=1b8dec0a8cdb93329fbe65c0360004b6Colloidal astaxanthin: Preparation, characterisation and bioavailability evaluationAnarjan, Navideh; Tan, Chin Ping; Nehdi, Imededdine Arbi; Ling, Tau ChuanFood Chemistry (2012), 135 (3), 1303-1309CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)Astaxanthin colloidal particles were produced using solvent-diffusion technique in the presence of different food grade surface active compds., namely, Polysorbate 20 (PS20), sodium caseinate (SC), gum Arabic (GA) and the optimum combination of them (OPT). Particle size and surface charge characteristics, rheol. behavior, chem. stability, color, in vitro cellular uptake, in vitro antioxidant activity and residual solvent concn. of prepd. colloidal particles were evaluated. The results indicated that in most cases the mixt. of surface active compds. lead to prodn. of colloidal particles with more desirable physicochem. and biol. properties, as compared to using them individually. The optimum combination of PS20, SC and GA could produce the astaxanthin colloidal particles with small particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), cond. and higher zeta potential, mobility, cellular uptake, color intensity and in vitro antioxidant activity. In addn., all prepd. astaxanthin colloidal particles had significantly (p < 0.05) higher cellular uptake than pure astaxanthin powder.
- 29Mao, L.; Xu, D.; Yang, J.; Yuan, F.; Gao, Y.; Zhao, J. Effects of small and large molecule emulsifiers on the characteristics of β-carotene nanoemulsions prepared by high pressure homogenization. Food Technol. Biotechnol. 2009, 47, 336– 342[CAS], Google Scholar29https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXht1Wht73K&md5=a7160dc8a2b470af1f4be7f64c2e3b3fEffects of small and large molecule emulsifiers on the characteristics of β-carotene nanoemulsions prepared by high pressure homogenizationMao, Like; Xu, Duoxia; Yang, Jia; Yuan, Fang; Gao, Yanxiang; Zhao, JianFood Technology and Biotechnology (2009), 47 (3), 336-342CODEN: FTBRFD; ISSN:1330-9862. (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology)Oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsion allows the prepn. of lipophilic nutrients such as carotenoids in liq. form, which may improve their bioavailability and broaden applications. In the present study, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20, TW-20), decaglycerol monolaurate (DML), octenyl succinate starch (OSS), whey protein isolate (WPI), and finally a blend of TW-20 and WPI (1 % by mass) have been tested for the prepn. of β-carotene nanoemulsions. Interfacial tension, droplet size, zeta potential, microstructures obsd. by at. force microscopy (AFM), stability of the emulsion and β-carotene have been compared. Results show that nanoemulsions stabilized with TW-20 and DML had smaller droplet size, but relatively poorer stability, compared with the ones stabilized with OSS and WPI (p<0.05). WPI was able to protect β-carotene effectively from degrdn., whereas OSS was not when emulsions were stored at 55° for 12 days. When a blend of TW-20 and WPI was used, the stability of nanoemulsions was significantly improved (p<0.05). However, no significant effect of the mixed emulsifiers was found on the stability of β-carotene in the emulsions (p>0.05).
- 30Shu, G.; Khalid, N.; Tan, T. B.; Zhao, Y.; Neves, M. A.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M. Comparison of ergocalciferol nanodispersions prepared using modified lecithin and sodium caseinate: Insights of formulation, stability and bioaccessibility. J. Funct. Foods 2017, 38, 28– 35, DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2017.08.047[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar30https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhsFSms7fN&md5=ba9a68549aa7c32e63d03b50c55971f5Comparison of ergocalciferol nanodispersions prepared using modified lecithin and sodium caseinate: Insights of formulation, stability and bioaccessibilityShu, Gaofeng; Khalid, Nauman; Tan, Tai Boon; Zhao, Yiguo; Neves, Marcos A.; Kobayashi, Isao; Nakajima, MitsutoshiJournal of Functional Foods (2017), 38 (Part_A), 28-35CODEN: JFFOAX; ISSN:1756-4646. (Elsevier Ltd.)In this work, we compared the formulation, stability and bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol nanodispersions using modified lecithin (ML) and sodium caseinate (SC) as natural emulsifiers. The mean particle size of nanodispersions stabilized by ML (56 nm) was much smaller than those stabilized by SC (112 nm). The ML-stabilized nanodispersions were stable over a wide range of pH, NaCl concns. and heating, but became unstable with slight increase in particle size when exposed to CaCl2 soln. In comparison, SC-stabilized nanodispersions were relatively unstable to particles aggregation at pH 4 and 5, CaCl2 addn. and heating. Long-term stability for ergocalciferol were obsd. in both ML- and SC-stabilized nanodispersions. In the absence of milk, the ergocalciferol bioaccessibility was strongly dependent on the emulsifier type, with ML providing much higher bioaccessibility than SC. During in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, the incorporation of milk into nanodispersions could increase the bioaccessibility and stability for ergocalciferol.
- 31Tan, C.; Nakajima, M. β-Carotene nanodispersions: preparation, characterization and stability evaluation. Food Chem. 2005, 92, 661– 671, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.08.044[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar31https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2MXjt1yiur8%253D&md5=9fc626100a42a00ef0a66db958f74c32β-Carotene nanodispersions: preparation, characterization and stability evaluationTan, C. P.; Nakajima, M.Food Chemistry (2005), 92 (4), 661-671CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier B.V.)The aim of the present study was to investigate the prepn. of β-carotene nanodispersions as potential active ingredients for food formulations. Nanodispersions contg. β-carotene were obtained by a process based on an emulsification-evapn. technique. The prepn. method consisted of emulsifying an org. soln. of β-carotene in an aq. soln. contg. emulsifier using two different homogenizers (a conventional homogenizer and a microfluidizer), followed by direct solvent evapn. under reduced pressure. The influence of different homogenizing conditions (pressure and cycle) and two org./aq. phase ratios on particle size parameters and content of β-carotene was investigated. In addn., the stability of β-carotene nanodispersions was carried out at a storage temp. of 4°. The particle size distribution of β-carotene in nanodispersions was demonstrated with a laser diffraction particle size analyzer and the retention of β-carotene in the prepd. nanodispersions was studied by high-pressure liq. chromatog. In general, homogenization pressure and cycle had significant (P < 0.05) effects on various particle size parameters. A vol.-weighted mean diam. (D4,3) of β-carotene nanoparticles, ranging from 60 to 140 nm, was obsd. in this study.
- 32Ma, F.; Bell, A. E.; Davis, F. J. Effects of high-hydrostatic pressure and pH treatments on the emulsification properties of gum arabic. Food Chem. 2015, 184, 114– 121, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.075[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar32https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXlsVOlur8%253D&md5=b6342c295d91cbf1a07aff15976ed65cEffects of high-hydrostatic pressure and pH treatments on the emulsification properties of gum arabicMa, Fanyi; Bell, Alan E.; Davis, Fred J.Food Chemistry (2015), 184 (), 114-121CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)This study investigated the emulsification properties of the native gums and those treated at high pressure (800 MPa) both at their "natural" pH (4.49 and 4.58, resp.) and under "acidic and basic" pH (2.8 and 8.0) conditions. The emulsification behavior of KLTA gum was found to be superior to that of the GCA gum. High pressure and pH treatment changed the emulsification properties of both gums. The acidic amino acids in gum arabic were shown to play an important role in their emulsification behavior, and mechanisms of emulsification for the two gums were suggested to be different. The highly "branched" nature of the carbohydrate in GCA gum was also thought to be responsible for the "spreading" of droplet size distributions obsd. Coomassie brilliant blue binding was used to indicate conformational changes in protein structure and Ellman's assay was used to est. any changes in levels of free thiols present.
- 33Sun, C.; Gunasekaran, S.; Richards, M. P. Effect of xanthan gum on physicochemical properties of whey protein isolate stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 2007, 21, 555– 564, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2006.06.003[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar33https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD2sXntFylug%253D%253D&md5=0d058946e3084e2f452635def394ebefEffect of xanthan gum on physicochemical properties of whey protein isolate stabilized oil-in-water emulsionsSun, Changhui; Gunasekaran, Sundaram; Richards, Mark P.Food Hydrocolloids (2007), 21 (4), 555-564CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The effect of xanthan gum (XG) addn. on physicochem. properties of 2 wt% whey protein isolate (WPI) stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions contg. 20% vol./vol. menhaden oil was investigated by measuring droplet size, viscosity, microstructure, creaming profile and oxidative stability. In fresh emulsions, addn. of XG at different concns. did not show any significant effect on the surface-area-av. droplet size (d32). However, emulsion microstructure and creaming profile indicated that the degree of flocculation is a function of XG concn.: when XG = 0%, there was no flocculation; when XG = 0.02-0.15 wt%, there was limited flocculation; when XG = 0.2 wt%, there was extensive flocculation leading to the formation of an emulsion gel; and when XG = 0.5 wt%, there was little or no flocculation. Lipid oxidn. of the emulsions was inhibited by the addn. of 0.15 or 0.2 wt% XG. In the presence of 0.5 wt% XG, the emulsion exhibited a high yield stress, which appreciably inhibited creaming. Nevertheless, addn. of 0.5 wt% XG was believed to have interacted with unadsorbed WPI in the aq. phase, which inhibited the antioxidant property of WPI. Thus, addn. of 0.5 wt% XG had a net prooxidant effect in the 2 wt% WPI stabilized emulsions contg. 20% vol./vol. menhaden oil.
- 34McClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A. Lipid Oxidation in Oil-in-Water Emulsions: Impact of Molecular Environment on Chemical Reactions in Heterogeneous Food Systems. J. Food Sci. 2000, 65, 1270– 1282, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2000.tb10596.x[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar34https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3MXktlOnsrk%253D&md5=925cfc39fd0452bc43ce7384edb3f28bLipid oxidation in oil-in-water emulsions: impact of molecular environment on chemical reactions in heterogeneous food systemsMcClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A.Journal of Food Science (2000), 65 (8), 1270-1282CODEN: JFDSAZ; ISSN:0022-1147. (Institute of Food Technologists)A review with ∼115 refs. The susceptibility of lipids to oxidn. is a major cause of quality deterioration in food emulsions. The reaction mechanism and factors that influence oxidn. are appreciably different for emulsified lipids than for bulk lipids. This article reviews the current understanding of the lipid oxidn. mechanism in oil-in-water emulsions. It also discusses the major factors that influence the rate of lipid oxidn. in emulsions, such as antioxidants, chelating agents, ingredient purity, ingredient partitioning, interfacial characteristics, droplet characteristics, and ingredient interactions. This knowledge is then used to define effective strategies for controlling lipid oxidn. in food emulsions.
- 35Ozturk, B.; Argin, S.; Ozilgen, M.; McClements, D. J. Nanoemulsion delivery systems for oil-soluble vitamins: Influence of carrier oil type on lipid digestion and vitamin D3 bioaccessibility. Food Chem. 2015, 187, 499– 506, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.04.065[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar35https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXntFClt7w%253D&md5=312f878b7178327b39b82342ecc51cceNanoemulsion delivery systems for oil-soluble vitamins: Influence of carrier oil type on lipid digestion and vitamin D3 bioaccessibilityOzturk, Bengu; Argin, Sanem; Ozilgen, Mustafa; McClements, David JulianFood Chemistry (2015), 187 (), 499-506CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)The influence of carrier oil type on the bioaccessibility of vitamin D3 encapsulated within oil-in-water nanoemulsions prepd. using a natural surfactant (quillaja saponin) was studied using a simulated gastrointestinal tract (GIT) model: mouth; stomach; small intestine. The rate of free fatty acid release during lipid digestion decreased in the following order: medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) > corn oil ≈ fish oil > orange oil > mineral oil. Conversely, the measured bioaccessibility of vitamin D3 decreased in the following order: corn oil ≈ fish oil > orange oil > mineral oil > MCT. These results show that carrier oil type has a considerable impact on lipid digestion and vitamin bioaccessibility, which was attributed to differences in the release of bioactives from lipid droplets, and their solubilization in mixed micelles. Nanoemulsions prepd. using long-chain triglycerides (corn or fish oil) were most effective at increasing vitamin bioaccessibility.
- 36Qian, C.; Decker, E. A.; Xiao, H.; McClements, D. J. Nanoemulsion delivery systems: Influence of carrier oil on β-carotene bioaccessibility. Food Chem. 2012, 135, 1440– 1447, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.06.047[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar36https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC38XhtlSmu7%252FM&md5=2bc09ac740b18148d87eb4c90fdf055aNanoemulsion delivery systems: Influence of carrier oil on β-carotene bioaccessibilityQian, Cheng; Decker, Eric Andrew; Xiao, Hang; McClements, David JulianFood Chemistry (2012), 135 (3), 1440-1447CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)Carotenoid use in foods is currently limited because of their poor water-soly., low bioavailability and chem. instability. The authors examd. the impact of carrier oil type on the bioaccessibility of β-carotene encapsulated within nanoemulsion-based delivery systems. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions (d < 200 nm) were formed using a non-ionic surfactant (Tween 20) as emulsifier and long-chain triglycerides (LCT), medium-chain triglycerides (MCT), or orange oil as carrier oils. The influence of carrier oil type on β-carotene bioaccessibility was established using an in vitro model to simulate the oral, gastric and small intestinal phases of the gastrointestinal tract. The rate and extent of free fatty acid prodn. in the intestine decreased in the order LCT ≈ MCT » orange oil; whereas β-carotene bioaccessibility decreased in the order LCT » MCT > orange oil. The bioaccessibility of β-carotene was negligible (≈0%) in orange oil nanoemulsions because no mixed micelles were formed to solubilize β-carotene, and was relatively low (≈2%) in MCT nanoemulsions because the mixed micelles formed were too small to solubilize β-carotene. In contrast, β-carotene bioaccessibility was relatively high (≈66%) in LCT nanoemulsions. The data have implications for the design of effective delivery systems for encapsulation of carotenoids and other lipophilic bioactive components.
- 37Mu, H.; Høy, C.-E. The digestion of dietary triacylglycerols. Prog. Lipid Res. 2004, 43, 105– 133, DOI: 10.1016/s0163-7827(03)00050-x[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar37https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD3sXptlyhtbo%253D&md5=581d5f53f2e8beb5f10f0c7834666542The digestion of dietary triacylglycerolsMu, Huiling; Hoy, Carl-ErikProgress in Lipid Research (2004), 43 (2), 105-133CODEN: PLIRDW; ISSN:0163-7827. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)A review. Dietary triacylglycerols (TAGs) are the major lipid components in the human diet and they are carriers of energy as well as important fatty acids. Many factors affect the digestion and absorption of TAGs. Evidence is accumulating that, in addn. to the overall fatty acid profile, the TAG structure and the species compn. are of importance when considering the nutritional effects of a dietary fat. There is good evidence that in addn. to its short-term effects in the intestine on absorption of fatty acids the TAG structure also has long-term effects resulting from differences in the profile of absorbed fatty acids. Observations on the different atherogenic potential of dietary fats have given us a clear indication of the importance of the TAG structure for absorption of satd. fatty acids. In this context, one may focus on the effects of the structure of dietary fats as such, or one may speculate addnl. on the possibilities of modifying the structure of fats to affect their absorption and the distribution of the fatty acids in the body after digestion and uptake. In this review we will summarize diverse aspects of TAG digestion and absorption, as well as the influences of the fatty acid compn. and the intramol. structure of dietary TAGs on their digestion and absorption.
- 38Mun, S.; Kim, Y.-R.; Shin, M.; McClements, D. J. Control of lipid digestion and nutraceutical bioaccessibility using starch-based filled hydrogels: influence of starch and surfactant type. Food Hydrocolloids 2015, 44, 380– 389, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2014.10.013[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar38https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2cXhvVCms77E&md5=8341350ae4975b76b1739c9dcbf2adc2Control of lipid digestion and nutraceutical bioaccessibility using starch-based filled hydrogels: Influence of starch and surfactant typeMun, Saehun; Kim, Yong-Ro; Shin, Malshick; McClements, David JulianFood Hydrocolloids (2015), 44 (), 380-389CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The aim of this study was to prep. starch-based filled hydrogels fortified with a model lipophilic nutraceutical (β-carotene) and det. the influence of starch type (mung bean or rice starch) and surfactant type (whey protein isolate (WPI) or Tween 20 (T20)) on lipid digestibility and β-carotene bioaccessibility. Microstructure, lipid digestion, and β-carotene bioaccessibility were measured as the emulsions and filled hydrogels were passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract that included oral, gastric, and intestinal phases. The bioaccessibility was defined as the fraction of β-carotene solubilized within the mixed micelle phase after lipid digestion. Non-encapsulated T20-stabilized emulsions had better aggregation stability than WPI-stabilized emulsions under simulated gastrointestinal conditions, which led to a higher β-carotene bioaccessibility. Both Tween 20- and WPI-stabilized emulsions incorporated in starch-based filled hydrogels led to high lipid digestion and β-carotene bioaccessibility. The release behavior of free fatty acids during lipase digestion depended on the type of starch used as a hydrogel matrix, which was attributed to differences in starch structure. The information obtained in this study may be useful for the fortification of starch-based gelled products with lipophilic nutraceuticals.
- 39Zou, L.; Zheng, B.; Zhang, R.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, W.; Liu, C.; Xiao, H.; McClements, D. J. Enhancing the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic bioactive agents using mixed colloidal dispersions: Curcumin-loaded zein nanoparticles plus digestible lipid nanoparticles. Food Res. Int. 2016, 81, 74– 82, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2015.12.035[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar39https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC28XmtFCntA%253D%253D&md5=8a6007a0030d2b4e11e2aed3ceb8ce4fEnhancing the bioaccessibility of hydrophobic bioactive agents using mixed colloidal dispersions: Curcumin-loaded zein nanoparticles plus digestible lipid nanoparticlesZou, Liqiang; Zheng, Bingjing; Zhang, Ruojie; Zhang, Zipei; Liu, Wei; Liu, Chengmei; Xiao, Hang; McClements, David JulianFood Research International (2016), 81 (), 74-82CODEN: FORIEU; ISSN:0963-9969. (Elsevier B.V.)The potential of mixed colloidal dispersions for increasing the bioaccessibility of a hydrophobic bioactive agent (curcumin) was examd. Curcumin was encapsulated within zein nanoparticles (fabricated by antisolvent pptn.) to obtain a high loading capacity and good chem. stability. These protein nanoparticles were then mixed with digestible lipid nanoparticles (fabricated by microfluidization) designed to increase curcumin bioaccessibility by forming mixed micelles in the small intestine. Changes in particle properties (size, charge, and organization) were measured as the mixed colloidal dispersions were passed through a simulated gastrointestinal tract: mouth; stomach; and small intestine. Curcumin bioaccessibility increased with increasing lipid nanoparticle concn. in the mixed colloidal dispersions, which was attributed to an increase in the solubilization capacity of the mixed micelle phase. This study suggests that delivery systems contg. mixed colloidal particles (protein and lipid nanoparticles) may be designed to increase the bioaccessibility of lipophilic bioactive agents.
- 40Chen, Z.; Shu, G.; Taarji, N.; Barrow, C. J.; Nakajima, M.; Khalid, N.; Neves, M. A. Gypenosides as natural emulsifiers for oil-in-water nanoemulsions loaded with astaxanthin: Insights of formulation, stability and release properties. Food Chem. 2018, 261, 322– 328, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.04.054[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar40https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1cXotFOis78%253D&md5=facf34f9498df3f3b597d5cd749c83a6Gypenosides as natural emulsifiers for oil-in-water nanoemulsions loaded with astaxanthin: Insights of formulation, stability and release propertiesChen, Zhang; Shu, Gaofeng; Taarji, Noamane; Barrow, Colin J.; Nakajima, Mitsutoshi; Khalid, Nauman; Neves, Marcos A.Food Chemistry (2018), 261 (), 322-328CODEN: FOCHDJ; ISSN:0308-8146. (Elsevier Ltd.)The formulation, physicochem. stability and bioaccessibility of astaxanthin (AST) loaded oil-in-water nanoemulsions fabricated using gypenosides (GPs) as natural emulsifiers was investigated and compared with a synthetic emulsifier (Tween 20) that is commonly applied in food industry. GPs were capable of producing nanoemulsions with a small vol. mean diam. (d4,3=125±2 nm), which was similar to those prepd. using Tween 20 (d4,3=145±6 nm) under the same high-pressure homogenization conditions. GPs-stabilized nanoemulsions were stable against droplet growth over a range of pH (6-8) and thermal treatments (60-120 °C). Conversely, instability occurred under acidic (pH 3-5) and high ionic strength (25-100 mM CaCl2) conditions. In comparison with Tween 20, GPs were more effective at inhibiting AST from degrdn. during 30 days of storage at both 5 and 25 °C. However, GPs led to lower lipid digestion and AST bioaccessibility from nanoemulsions than did Tween 20.
- 41Zou, L.; Liu, W.; Liu, C.; Xiao, H.; McClements, D. J. Utilizing food matrix effects to enhance nutraceutical bioavailability: increase of curcumin bioaccessibility using excipient emulsions. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 2052– 2062, DOI: 10.1021/jf506149f[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar41https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2MXhvFGns74%253D&md5=655f3cf2300333370e27ac2f1697870fUtilizing Food Matrix Effects To Enhance Nutraceutical Bioavailability: Increase of Curcumin Bioaccessibility Using Excipient EmulsionsZou, Liqiang; Liu, Wei; Liu, Chengmei; Xiao, Hang; McClements, David JulianJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2015), 63 (7), 2052-2062CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)Excipient foods have compns. and structures specifically designed to improve the bioaccessibility of bioactive agents present in other foods coingested with them. In this study, an excipient emulsion was shown to improve the soly. and bioaccessibility of curcumin from powd. rhizome turmeric (Curcuma longa). Corn oil-in-water emulsions were mixed with curcumin powder, and the resulting mixts. were incubated at either 30 °C (to simulate a salad dressing) or 100 °C (to simulate a cooking sauce). There was an appreciable transfer of curcumin into the excipient emulsions at both incubation temps., but this effect was much more pronounced at 100 °C. The bioaccessibility of curcumin measured using a simulated gastrointestinal tract model was greatly improved in the presence of the excipient emulsion, particularly in the system held at 100 °C. This effect was attributed to the higher initial amt. of curcumin solubilized within the oil droplets, as well as that solubilized in the mixed micelles formed by lipid digestion. This study highlights the potential of designing excipient food emulsions that increase the oral bioavailability of lipophilic nutraceuticals, such as curcumin.
- 42Yi, J.; Li, Y.; Zhong, F.; Yokoyama, W. The physicochemical stability and in vitro bioaccessibility of beta-carotene in oil-in-water sodium caseinate emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 2014, 35, 19– 27, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.07.025[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar42https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3sXhs1eqsb7M&md5=67463c09ccbc77e57cbcf17a28377f2bThe physicochemical stability and in vitro bioaccessibility of beta-carotene in oil-in-water sodium caseinate emulsionsYi, Jiang; Li, Yue; Zhong, Fang; Yokoyama, WallaceFood Hydrocolloids (2014), 35 (), 19-27CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)Beta-carotene (BC), the most important dietary source of provitamin A, is necessary for optimum human health. BC is insol. or only slightly sol. in most liqs. but its bioavailability improves when ingested with fat. Therefore lipid emulsions are ideal matrixes for BC delivery. BC (0.1̂) in corn oil, the dispersed phase (5 or 10̂), was homogenized with 2̂ sodium caseinate soln. in a microfluidizer. Homogenization at different pressures produced droplet diams. (Dz = 368-124 nm) that were linear and inversely related to homogenization pressures in the pressure range 10-100 MPa. Nanoemulsions (r < 200 nm) were prepd. at 100 MPa. The sodium caseinate emulsions were generally very stable to coalescence or flocculation over 30 days and the slow rate of vol. increase was found to be related to the square of the initial droplet radius following Stokes velocity of settling equation. BC stability towards oxidn. was lower as droplet diam. decreased. The extent of lipolysis in an in vitro system was higher and linearly related to the inverse of droplet diam. Bioaccessibility, as defined by the amt. of BC recovered in the aq. phase after ultracentrifugation, was linearly related to smaller emulsion droplet diam. These results show that sodium caseinate, a food grade emulsifier, can be used to prep. stable emulsions of food oils carrying beta-carotene. Since food oils facilitate the uptake of beta-carotene this may be a preferred system to deliver beta-carotene.
- 43Wang, P.; Liu, H.-J.; Mei, X.-Y.; Nakajima, M.; Yin, L.-J. Preliminary study into the factors modulating β-carotene micelle formation in dispersions using an in vitro digestion model. Food Hydrocolloids 2012, 26, 427– 433, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.11.018[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar43https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhtFOmtb3F&md5=8911bdbdc7dab14c20bc5048380100e0Preliminary study into the factors modulating β-carotene micelle formation in dispersions using an in vitro digestion modelWang, Pan; Liu, Hai-Jie; Mei, Xue-Ying; Nakajima, Mitsutoshi; Yin, Li-JunFood Hydrocolloids (2012), 26 (2), 427-433CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)β-Carotene is an active compd. assocd. with prevention of heart disease, cancer and cataracts. For absorption in vivo, β-carotene must be incorporated in mixed micelles. Micelle formulation varies widely and depends on various factors. The aim of this study was to identify and study the main factors governing the bioaccessibility of β-carotene incorporated into dispersions, using an in vitro digestion model. β-Carotene dispersions were prepd. by high-pressure homogenization or by combining emulsification and evapn. The av. particle sizes of the dispersions obtained ranged from 45 to 18315 nm. Results show that the concn. of β-carotene, bile ext. and pancreatic lipase, pH, and the particle size of the dispersions significantly affected the transfer of β-carotene from dispersions into micelles. The transfer of β-carotene was inversely related to the particle size and the concn. of bile ext. and was highest at pH 6 and 0.4 mg/mL pancreatic lipase. Bile salt played different roles depending on the particle sizes of the dispersion. When the mean diam. of β-carotene particle was below 100 nm, the addn. of bile ext. and pancreatic lipase did not significantly affect bioaccessibility of β-carotene passing through in vitro digestion model. At larger particle sizes, the transfer efficiency of β-carotene increased with bile ext. concn. The outcomes suggest that there is potential to improve the bioavailability of β-carotene by micronizing lipid droplets.
- 44McClements, D. J.; Li, Y. Structured emulsion-based delivery systems: controlling the digestion and release of lipophilic food components. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2010, 159, 213– 228, DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2010.06.010[Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar44https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXhtVGit7zK&md5=ed76ca469700f9c0244143ff441e7a02Structured emulsion-based delivery systems: Controlling the digestion and release of lipophilic food componentsMcClements, David Julian; Li, YanAdvances in Colloid and Interface Science (2010), 159 (2), 213-228CODEN: ACISB9; ISSN:0001-8686. (Elsevier B.V.)A review. There is a need for edible delivery systems to encapsulate, protect and release bioactive and functional lipophilic constituents within the food and pharmaceutical industries. These delivery systems could be used for a no. of purposes: controlling lipid bioavailability; targeting the delivery of bioactive components within the gastrointestinal tract; and designing food matrixes that delay lipid digestion and induce satiety. Emulsion technol. is particularly suited for the design and fabrication of delivery systems for lipids. In this article we provide an overview of a no. of emulsion-based technologies that can be used as edible delivery systems by the food and other industries, including conventional emulsions, nanoemulsions, multilayer emulsions, solid lipid particles, and filled hydrogel particles. Each of these delivery systems can be produced from food-grade (GRAS) ingredients (e.g., lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, surfactants, and minerals) using relatively simple processing operations (e.g., mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). The structure, prepn., and utilization of each type of delivery system for controlling lipid digestion are discussed. This knowledge can be used to select the most appropriate emulsion-based delivery system for specific applications, such as encapsulation, controlled digestion, and targeted release.
- 45Sarkar, A.; Goh, K. K. T.; Singh, R. P.; Singh, H. Behaviour of an oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by β-lactoglobulin in an in vitro gastric model. Food Hydrocolloids 2009, 23, 1563– 1569, DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.10.014[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar45https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXjtFanur8%253D&md5=f614837cdcb9a325faab753038d40fedBehaviour of an oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by β-lactoglobulin in an in vitro gastric modelSarkar, Anwesha; Goh, Kelvin K. T.; Singh, R. Paul; Singh, HarjinderFood Hydrocolloids (2009), 23 (6), 1563-1569CODEN: FOHYES; ISSN:0268-005X. (Elsevier Ltd.)The behavior of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg)-stabilized emulsions (1.0 wt% protein and 20.0 wt% soy oil) using pepsin digestion under simulated gastric conditions (37 °C, pH 1.2 and 34 mM NaCl ionic strength, with continuous shaking at approx. 95 rev/min for 2 h) was investigated. Changes in particle size, ζ-potential and microstructure were monitored as a function of incubation time in the gastric fluid. Initially, β-lg formed a stable anionic emulsion at pH 7, but the emulsion underwent extensive droplet flocculation, with some coalescence, on mixing with the simulated gastric fluid. The ζ-potential values gradually changed from -57.1 ± 0.5 mV to +17.6 ± 1.2 mV because of pH change and peptic hydrolysis of the interfacial layer. Native β-lg was largely resistant to pepsin attack but, when β-lg was present at the interfacial layer of the oil-in-water emulsion, it was rapidly hydrolyzed by pepsin, as shown by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The droplet flocculation and the coalescence obsd. during hydrolysis were markedly dependent on the digestion time.
- 46Shu, G.; Khalid, N.; Tan, T. B.; Zhao, Y.; Neves, M. A.; Kobayashi, I.; Nakajima, M. In vitro bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol in nanoemulsion-based delivery system: the influence of food-grade emulsifiers with different stabilising mechanisms. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 53, 430– 440, DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.13601[Crossref], [CAS], Google Scholar46https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC2sXhslSkt7jE&md5=17b378f85a16a4b6bde5fc34d25de692In vitro bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol in nanoemulsion-based delivery system: the influence of food-grade emulsifiers with different stabilising mechanismsShu, Gaofeng; Khalid, Nauman; Tan, Tai Boon; Zhao, Yiguo; Neves, Marcos A.; Kobayashi, Isao; Nakajima, MitsutoshiInternational Journal of Food Science and Technology (2018), 53 (2), 430-440CODEN: IJFTEZ; ISSN:0950-5423. (Wiley-Blackwell)Summary : The effect of emulsifier type on the in vitro bioaccessibility of ergocalciferol-loaded nanoemulsions was examd. (mouth, stomach and small intestinal phases). Oil-in-water nanoemulsions were prepd. using emulsifiers with different stabilizing mechanisms: decaglycerol monooleate (MO7S; steric), modified lecithin (ML; electrostatic), sodium caseinate (SC; electrosteric) and ML-MO7S (combined electrostatic and steric). The droplet size, size distribution, ζ-potential and microstructure of nanoemulsions during digestion depended on the emulsifier type. The fate of lipid in the small intestinal phase also relied on the emulsifier type, with the free fatty acids release rate decreasing in the following order: MO7S > ML-MO7S > ML > SC. The ergocalciferol bioaccessibilities in nanoemulsions prepd. using MO7S (62%), ML (64%) and ML-MO7S (65%) were similar and significantly higher than that stabilized by SC (12%). No significant loss of ergocalciferol was obsd. in all nanoemulsions after full digestion; they were chem. stable against digestion conditions, regardless of the emulsifier type.
- 47Li, Y.; McClements, D. J. New mathematical model for interpreting pH-stat digestion profiles: Impact of lipid droplet characteristics on in vitro digestibility. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 8085– 8092, DOI: 10.1021/jf101325m[ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar47https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3cXnsFSqtr4%253D&md5=81e9463cfbe5a5e05cdbe67d94384ff4New Mathematical Model for Interpreting pH-Stat Digestion Profiles: Impact of Lipid Droplet Characteristics on in Vitro DigestibilityLi, Yan; McClements, David JulianJournal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry (2010), 58 (13), 8085-8092CODEN: JAFCAU; ISSN:0021-8561. (American Chemical Society)The pH-stat method is commonly used to characterize the in vitro digestibility of lipids under simulated small intestine conditions. This method measures the fraction of free fatty acids (FFA) released from triacylglycerols over time. A new math. model has been developed to characterize the FFA vs. time profiles generated by the pH-stat method, which can be used to quantify the influence of physicochem. parameters on the rate (k) and extent (.vphi.max) of lipid digestion. In this model, k is the amt. of FFA produced per unit time per unit surface area, whereas .vphi.max is the max. fraction of digestible FFAs released. This model is used to quantify the influence of lipid droplet characteristics (size, concn., compn., and emulsifier type) on the digestion of emulsified lipids. The rate (k) of lipid digestion increased with decreasing lipid content (from 2.5 to 0.5 wt %), increasing droplet diam. (from d = 200-15000 nm), and decreasing fatty acid mol. wt. (MCT vs. corn oil). The extent (.vphi.max) of lipid digestion was also considerably less for corn oil than for MCT. The rate and extent of lipid digestion did not depend strongly on initial emulsifier type: β-lactoglobulin, Tween 20, lecithin, or lyso-lecithin. These results are interpreted in terms of differences in the concns. of reactants, products, catalysts and cofactors at the lipid droplet surfaces during digestion, for example, triacylglycerols, emulsifiers, FFA, lipase, and bile salts. This model provides a useful means of quantifying the influence of specific parameters on lipid digestion using the pH-stat method.
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