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Transferable Force Field for Metal–Organic Frameworks from First-Principles: BTW-FF
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Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies and Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
*Email: [email protected]
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Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation

Cite this: J. Chem. Theory Comput. 2014, 10, 10, 4644–4652
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https://doi.org/10.1021/ct500515h
Published August 27, 2014

Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under these Terms of Use.

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Abstract

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We present an ab-initio derived force field to describe the structural and mechanical properties of metal–organic frameworks (or coordination polymers). The aim is a transferable interatomic potential that can be applied to MOFs regardless of metal or ligand identity. The initial parametrization set includes MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1. The force field describes the periodic crystal and considers effective atomic charges based on topological analysis of the Bloch states of the extended materials. Transferable potentials were developed for the four organic ligands comprising the test set and for the associated Cu, Zn, and Zr metal nodes. The predicted materials properties, including bulk moduli and vibrational frequencies, are in agreement with explicit density functional theory calculations. The modal heat capacity and lattice thermal expansion are also predicted.

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1 Introduction

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Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), or coordination polymers, are hybrid materials that display a range of unique properties that can be used for a variety of applications ranging from gas storage and catalysis to photovoltaics and drug delivery systems. (1-3) MOFs are formed via the coordination of metals and organic ligands in a self-assembled manner to create an extended crystalline material. The number of possible combinations of building blocks is therefore vast, and the associated crystal structures and properties are often unpredictable. To reduce efforts spent on refining the optimum conditions for the synthesis of a particular MOF, and to identify compositions of particular interest, accurate property predictions from computer simulations would be highly beneficial.
The emerging field of “materials design” has largely been based around the application of modern electronic structure techniques, such as density functional theory (DFT), to predict the structures and properties of new materials. (4-8) Such approaches are appropriate for high-symmetry close-packed inorganic materials but are challenging for the large and complex crystal structures associated with MOFs. For example, a “complex” quaternary semiconductor such as Cu2ZnSnS4 can be described using only 8 atoms in its primitive unit cell, (9) while a “simple” MOF can require several hundred atoms. For example, the popular framework MOF-5 has 106 atoms in its primitive cell and 424 atoms in its conventional crystallographic cell. A high-quality calculation of a single MOF poses a heavy computational burden; a large-scale screening is prohibitively expensive.
An alternative to a direct quantum mechanical treatment, which usually involves a self-consistent numerical solution of the Kohn–Sham or Hartree–Fock equations, is the use of an analytical interatomic potential or force field that can describe a range of properties of interest. (10, 11) An accurate and transferable force field for MOFs would provide a means of rapidly screening material compositions and properties for particular applications.
A number of initial MOF force fields have been recently reported. (12-16) These have been mainly fitted for specific MOF structures that were highlighted experimentally as possessing functional properties. An example by Vaduyfhuys et al. is a force field for the Al containing MIL-53. (17) One common approximation for MOF potentials, to reduce the complexity of parametrization, is to fix the atom positions within the unit cell. This approach is generally used for probing gas adsorption using Grand Canonical Monte Carlo (GCMC) or Molecular Dynamic (MD) simulations. The advantage is that the intraframework interactions need not be considered, facilitating fast screening, (2, 18-23) but materials response functions are not described. As an extension to this approach one can conduct hybrid GCMC and MD calculations to model structural transitions of flexible MOFs. (24-26)
A second approach is to use a generic force field derived for molecules such as proteins, hydrocarbons, and common gases; OPLS-aa (Optimized Potentials for Liquid Simulations—all atom), DREIDING, and MM3 (Molecular Mechanics 3) are examples of these. (27-29) The application of generic force fields to MOFs, which consist of both organic and inorganic components, is highly convenient but approximate. While large-scale screenings can be again performed, (30, 31) complex geometries and interactions are often not modeled with quantitative accuracy. Recent progress includes UFF4MOF, an extension of the universal force field (UFF) (30) to describe some common metal–organic framework motifs. (32)
A third common approach to MOF force fields is to construct representative finite clusters (fragments) of the full MOF crystals. (33) The advantage is faster derivation with a reduced number of interaction parameters (and degrees of freedom) in the model. The disadvantage is that the neglect of periodicity and long-range interactions is unphysical and standard mechanical, thermal, and dielectric properties cannot be described in the absence of a sophisticated embedding procedure.
In this paper, we report a force field to describe metal–organic frameworks parametrized by first-principles crystal structures and electron density. The aim is a transferable potential form suitable to describe the majority of ligand and metal combinations for MOFs, including predicting properties of novel compositions. In contrast to the universal force field approach in which general parameters not fitted for MOFs and fixed generic charges are employed, we develop a force field that has been fitted explicitly to the periodic frameworks. Some initial parameters have been refined from existing force fields (MM3 and MOF-FF) and the functional format of MM3 is preserved. (34-36) Ligand and metal interatomic potentials are parametrized and validated across multiple MOF structures and atomic charges are determined based on topological analysis using Bader’s atom in molecules theory (AIM) (37) of the equilibrium electron density from solid-state DFT calculations.

2 Metal–Organic Frameworks

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We consider six representative MOFs covering three of the most common isoreticular frameworks: [MOF-5 (Zn4O(BDC)3), IRMOF-10 (Zn4O(BPDC)3), IRMOF-14 (Zn4O(PDC)3), UiO-66 (Zr6O4(OH)4(BDC)6), UiO-67 (Zr6O4(OH)4(BPDC)6), and HKUST-1 (Cu3(BTC)2)], as illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Comparative illustrations of the repeating units of Zn-containing MOF-5, IRMOF-10 and IRMOF-14 with the organic ligands shown underneath each structure. Torsion angle (atom types 170-913-902-912) labeled as x has been highlighted.

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Figure 2

Figure 2. Comparative illustrations of the repeating units of Cu-containing HKUST-1 and Zr-containing UiO-66 and UiO-67 with the organic ligands shown underneath each structure. Torsion angle (atom types 912-903-903-912) labeled as y has been highlighted.

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MOF-5 was first reported by the group of Yaghi. (38) It is formed of Zn4O clusters and 1,4-benzenedicarboxylate (BDC) organic ligands. The Zn metal centers are in tetrahedral coordination with respect to oxygen (Figure 1), which is similar to the bulk metal oxide. The crystal structure can be described by its primitive rhombohedral unit cell of dimensions a = 18.289 Å, α = 60.0°. The cubic unit cell of MOF-5 has the associated dimension of a = 25.832 Å and space group Fm3̅m. (39) The ligands form the edges of the cubic structure and the metal clusters the corners. Each unit cell contains half the ligand molecules orientated face-on and half rotated 90° into the plane. The structures of IRMOF-10 and IRMOF-14 are analogous to that of MOF-5, differing only in the ligand identity. The organic ligand comprising IRMOF-10 is 4,4′-biphenyldicarboxylate (BPDC), whereas for IRMOF-14 it is pyrene-2,7-dicarboxylate (PDC). The cell parameter for the cubic unit cell of IRMOF-10 is a = 34.281 Å, while IRMOF-14 is a = 34.381 Å. (39)
Table 1. Experimentally Determined Crystal Structure Parameters of Six Metal–Organic Frameworksa
MOFmetaloxidationligandspace groupa (Å)N
MOF-5 (39)ZnIIBDCFm3̅m25.832424
IRMOF-10 (39)ZnIIBPDCFm3̅m34.281664
IRMOF-14 (39)ZnIIPDCFm3̅m34.381760
UiO-66 (40)ZrIVBDCF4̅3m20.978456
UiO-67 (40)ZrIVBPDCF4̅3m27.094684
HKUST-1 (41)CuIIBTCFm3̅m26.343576
a

Oxidation refers to the formal metal oxidation state, while N refers to the number of atoms in the unit cell described.

Beyond the isoreticular Zn-MOFs, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1 were also modeled (see Figure 2). UiO-66 is formed of Zr6O4(OH)4 clusters 12-coordinated to BDC ligands, such that each Zr ion is in octahedral coordination with capping η3-OH and η3-O anions. (40, 42, 43) The cubic cell dimension for UiO-66, with the space group F4̅3m, is a = 20.978 Å. (40) The crystal structure of UiO-67 is similar but composed of the biphenyl ligand (BPDC); the extension is analogous to that of MOF-5 to IRMOF-10. The behavior of the BPDC ligand differs for UiO-67 due to a ligand twist (labeled y in Figure 2). First-principles calculations predict the twist across the central carbon atoms connecting the two aromatic rings to be approximately 31°. UiO-67 also has the space group F4̅3m, with cell dimension a = 27.094 Å. (40, 44) The UiO series is of increasing interest for MOF applications due to their high thermal stability up to 813 K and resistivity to water decomposition. (45)
HKUST-1 differs in relation to the structures previously discussed. Here, the ligand is 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid (BTC), as shown in Figure 2. This MOF, first reported by Chui et al., (41) is of interest not only for its high gas storage capacities but also for its unique electronic structure originating from Cu–Cu interactions. The room temperature experimental crystal structure infers metal–metal separation of 2.63 Å. The metal nodes in HKUST-1 are Cu, which are in a square planar coordination resulting in a 3D network with a paddlewheel geometry and three voids of diameters 5, 11, and 13.5 Å, respectively. Each metal center has 4 BTC ligands, with additional water coordination in vertical alignment with the Cu–Cu interaction, resulting in a pseudo-octahedral geometry for hydrated crystals. The water can be removed and/or substituted to further expose the metals. (46, 47) In this paper, we will consider only the dehydrated HKUST-1 structure. HKUST-1 has a cubic crystal symmetry (space group Fm3̅m) with a lattice dimension of a = 26.343 Å. Table 1 gives a summary of unit cell parameters of each structure described.

3 Theoretical Approach

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3.1 Reference Solid-State Electronic Structure Calculations

In order to provide systematic benchmark data, electronic structure calculations for the periodic crystals were performed using DFT as implemented in the VASP (Vienna Ab-Initio Simulation Package) code. (48, 49) All calculations were performed using the PBEsol functional, (50) which is a semilocal functional that usually predicts equilibrium structures in very good agreement with experiment; its success for MOFs has been well demonstrated. (3, 51) Comparison of different exchange-correlation functionals for a range of materials shows that the structures and frequencies of PBEsol are among the most accurate currently available for solids. (52, 53)
The computational setup differed between structures due to variations in the unit cell size. A 2 × 2 × 2 k-point grid was used for the optimization of UiO-66. Due to the larger unit cells of MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-67, and HKUST-1, only Γ-point sampling was performed. The quasi-Newtonian relaxation employed for structural optimization was converged to forces of 0.005 eV/Å or lower. A kinetic energy cutoff of 500 eV was employed for the plane-wave basis set. Scalar-relativistic projector-augmented wave (PAW) potentials were used to model the interactions between the core and valence electrons on each atom, with the 3d electrons treated explicitly for Zn. Effective atomic charges for each atom type were derived using the AIM theory on the total electron density (i.e., the sum of the PAW and valence density) for the optimized structure. (54) Vibrational frequencies were calculated with Γ-point sampling of the Brillouin zone using the finite displacement method.

3.2 Force Field Parametrization and Testing

The functional form of MM3 is maintained in our parametrization. Thus, the overall energy expression is(1)where str = stretch, tor = torsion, opb = out of plane bend, Coul = Coulomb, and vdW = van der Waals interactions and where the usual bond stretching and bending modes are described, in addition to longer range van der Waals (dispersion) and Coulombic interactions. Nonbonding interactions were calculated using the Buckingham equation:(2)vdW radii and ε values are given in Table 4. Default values for the A, B, and C constants were used (184000.0, 12.0, 2.25, respectively) as defined in TINKER.
The MM3 force field has been shown to recreate organic systems accurately and, more recently, has been applied to MOF structures. (33-36, 55) The TINKER package (56, 57) contains the full set of the MM3 force field parameters and has a range of capabilities for crystal structure and property calculations. The XTALMIN program inside of TINKER was used to apply periodic boundary conditions allowing the full crystal to be modeled and optimized. The internal positions are described using connectivity (in the absence of space group symmetry). When considering the interaction between organic and inorganic building blocks both “bonding” and “nonbonding” contributions were included. Atom types were assigned based on the element and the environment of the crystal. The reparameterization of the MM3 force field include the terms describing the carboxylic head and interaction between metal node and ligand. New parameters were also derived for the metal node, particularly for the metal–inorganic oxygen interaction. TINKER default values of the Buckingham potentials were used in association with Coulomb long-range terms to describe nonbonding interactions.
Vibrational frequencies were calculated at the Γ-point using the VIBRATE program, and bulk moduli with the DYNAMIC program in the TINKER package through molecular dynamic simulations. A series of Canonical (NVT) ensemble calculations were employed to fix the unit cell volume at 1 K with negligible kinetic energy contribution. Unit cell volumes were sampled every 0.01 Å for ±1% from the equilibrium volume (V0). Simulations were run for 250 000 dynamic steps with a time step of 1 fs at 1 atm with an Ewald cutoff of 11 Å. Constant temperature of the system was maintained with a Nosé–Hoover thermostat. The Velocity Verlet algorithm was used to integrate the Newton equations. Average values of the potential energy were taken from the final 50 ps (500 dynamic steps). The bulk moduli (B0) of each structure was calculated using the isothermal Birch–Murnaghan equation of state (eq 3). Data processing was implemented in Octave using the Asturfit program, which performs a least-squares fit to the Birch–Murnaghan equation of state. (58, 59)(3)
Linear (α) (eq 4) and volumetric (β) (eq 5) thermal expansion coefficients were calculated from a series of anisotropic isothermal–isobaric (NPT) ensemble calculations. The Berendensen bath coupling method was used as a barostat to maintain defined pressures. The temperatures were sampled at 1 K and between 80–500 at 50 K increments with 500 K as an additional temperature point. The program DYNAMIC was used to calculate the average lattice parameters over 50 ps following equilibration for 200 ps.(4)(5)
For isotropic expansion 3 × α = β; this relationship was used when calculating the volumetric thermal coefficients from the linear thermal coefficients. The value of the lattice parameter a when calculating the linear thermal expansion coefficient was taken as the average of the 298 K MD simulation and ∂a/∂T is the average slope over the temperature range 80–500 K.
Finally, isochoric heat capacities (CV) were calculated within the harmonic approximation from the vibrational frequencies of each structure for temperatures ranging between 80 and 500 at 50 K intervals using the standard (Einstein) phonon summation:(6)

3.3 Molecular versus Periodic Charges

One distinction of our MOF potential is the choice of effective atomic charges. When deriving effective charges the core atomic density is often not considered due to the use of a pseudopotential or effective core potential. This leads to a systematic error in the calculation of the atomic surfaces, making bonds appear more ionic in nature. (60) With the PAW method, we can reconstruct the total charge density of the system as a sum of the valence and PAW density. The effective charges derived from topological analysis of charge density for different structural representations of MOF-5, including those of BTW-FF (with and without the core density) are listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Comparative Bader Charges Derived for a Small Cluster (SC) (79 Atom, Zn4O13C42H30) and Large Cluster (LC) (328 Atom, Zn32O104C120H72) of MOF-5 Compared with Those Derived for the Periodic System Used in the BTW-FF and UFF Modelsa
  Bader charges (au)
atom typeelementBTW-FFinc.coreBTW-FFexc.coreSCLCUFF
172Zn1.2811.4081.2911.2911.308
913C (acid)1.4972.6831.5581.5361.912
912C (benz)–0.053–0.011–0.058–0.0551.912
902C (C–Cacid)–0.008–0.0070.010–0.0031.912
170O (acid)–1.151–1.768–1.195–1.168–2.300
171O (inorganic)–1.115–1.336–1.171–1.207–2.300
915H (H–C)0.1260.0830.0900.1230.712
a

Also given are the periodic charges with and without the inclusion of core density. Charges are given in atomic units.

Analysis of data first confirms the importance of including core charges for MOFs. The differences are large, especially for the carboxylic head of the ligand. Second, comparing charges derived from the Bloch states versus finite molecular orbitals, we show that similar results can be obtained when a large cluster is used. In contrast, the standard molecular UFF parametrization has a more ionic description with charges larger in magnitude for all atoms.

4 Results

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To begin, topological analysis of charge density of the equilibrium MOF structures from the electronic structure calculations was performed to obtain the effective atomic charges to be used in the force field. The values are presented in Table 3. Comparable charges were derived for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, and IRMOF-14, and also for UiO-66 and UiO-67. The higher charge of Zr is consistent with its higher oxidation state. Similar derived charges for each atom type allowed average charges to be used, resulting in a fully transferable model, analogous to that of an UFF implementation.
The values used for the van der Waals radii and polarizability (ε) parameters describing the nonbonding interactions in each structure are given in Table 4. The derived parameters of Zn and Cu are similar to those derived by Schmid et al. (34) Zr is heavier and its higher oxidation state in UiO-66 results in greater polarizability; hence, its values are larger. The Zr parameters are similar to those already used within inorganic crystals. (61)
The final set of force field parameters to describe all MOFs reported here are included as Supporting Information (SI) and an online repository, which will be updated with future potentials. (62)

4.1 IRMOF Series

The lattice parameter agreement between the equilibrium BTW-FF and DFT (PBEsol) structures is very good (errors of less than 1%). The full internal structural parameter comparison for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, and IRMOF-14 is provided as SI. Atom type assignment is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Atom type definitions used for MOF-5/IRMOF-10/IRMOF-14.

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An interesting observation was made when deriving the potentials for both MOF-5 and IRMOF-10. Initial parametrization resulted in slightly distorted ligand structures with a nonplanar torsion angle occurring between the O-C(carb)-C(phen)-C(phen) (170-3-902-2) (labeled as x in Figure 1). For comparison a DFT(PBEsol) calculation was run starting from a 2.73° angle, where the equilibrium structure gave a distortion of 1.04°. Our data suggests that the ground-state of the ligands in MOF-5, IRMOF-10, and IRMOF-14 is slightly distorted, with a space group of lower symmetry than the average one identified at room temperature. This distortion is likely to fluctuate at higher temperatures, with an average structure that is planar (double well potential). The force field parameters presented contain a torsion potential to suppress this distortion and recreate experimental data; however, it can be removed without disrupting the remainder of the framework.
Table 3. Atomic Charges Derived Via Topological Analysis for Each Atom Type in Each MOFa
  effective atomic charges (au)
elementatom typeMOF-5IRMOF-10IRMOF-14UiO-66UiO-67HKUST-1avg. charges
C (benz)912–0.054–0.046–0.044–0.058–0.060–0.023–0.050
C (acid)9131.4971.5381.5381.5761.5481.5401.539
C (Cbenz–Cacid)9020.008–0.0280.051–0.0560.006–0.011–0.008
C (Cbenz–Cbenz′)903 –0.012  –0.035 –0.024
O (acid)170–1.151–1.163–1.156–1.181–1.182–1.091–1.154
O (inorganic)171–1.115–1.214–1.224–1.189–1.881 –1.186
O (O–H)75   –1.242–1.244 –1.243
H (H–C)9150.1260.1050.0920.1290.0960.1580.118
H (H–O)21   0.6220.623 0.622
metal 1.2811.2951.2972.6012.6101.0361.291 (Zn), 2.605 (Zr)
a

Atomic charges are given in atomic units and total average charges of all structures are given.

Table 4. van der Waals Radii and ε Values Used for the Transition Metals within the MOF Structuresa
elementsvdW radii (Å)ε (kcal mol–1)
Zn2.2900.276
Cu2.2900.276
Zr3.5200.367
a

Epsilon refers to the polarizability of the atoms, which is an energy term within the van der Waals function in the MM3 format (eq 1).

4.2 UiO-Series

Compared to the IRMOF series, the structural fit of UiO-66 and UiO-67 proved more challenging to converge. The equilibrium lattice constants are within 0.51% of the DFT(PBEsol) values. The ligand potentials used to model the IRMOF structures are transferable to UiO-66 and UiO-67 with small errors in bond lengths and angles (see SI). Atom type assignments are shown in Figure 4. The results and the error associated with the Zr–inorganic oxygen bond (2.23 and 2.67% in UiO-66 and UiO-67, respectively) suggest a more robust nonbonding interaction for these bonds may be required to improve the overall accuracy of the models (e.g., higher-order multipoles in the electrostatic summations).
To stress the close relationship between MOF-5 and UiO-66, the ligand potentials for the BDC ligand remained unchanged between the structures. This is also the case for IRMOF-10 and UiO-67. The one exception is that in order to recreate the 31° twist across the central bond of the biphenyl ligand within UiO-67, the applied k-force for the torsion (912-903-903-912 atom types) was reduced. The resultant twist of UiO-67 was 32.2°. The Zr potential is fully transferable between UiO-66 and UiO-67.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Definition of atom types for UiO-66 and UiO-67.

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4.3 HKUST-1

The equilibrium lattice constants of HKUST-1 show errors of less than 0.1%, with the internal structure parameters also well described (see SI). See Figure 5 for atom type assignment. The nature of the Cu–Cu bonding is somewhat in debate; chemically each Cu ion is formally divalent (d9) and the unpaired spin form open-shell and closed-shell singlets, as well as a (ferromagnetic) triplet state. (63, 64) Here, it was necessary to model Cu–Cu as 5 coordinate, that is, bonded to 4 carboxylic acid oxygens in the equatorial positions and 1 Cu in the axial position. Reasonable k-force was required to model this metal–metal interaction. Future work could extend these HKUST-1 potentials to include water coordination as described in the introduction of this paper to form a pseudo Cu octahedral environment.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Definition of atom types for HKUST-1.

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4.4 Property Calculations

To validate the accuracy and transferability of the potential model beyond equilibrium structures, a series of materials property calculations have been performed. We have determined the bulk moduli and vibrational frequencies for each structure using our force field and compared these to available reference data. These properties are extremely computationally expensive to calculate on the DFT potential energy landscape but are straightforward using our potential model.
The calculated bulk moduli are given in Table 5, with the energy/volume curves provided in Figure 6. An excellent agreement with reference values for all structures besides UiO-66 is shown. The trends in the obtained bulk moduli of the MOFs is also consistent with available experimental and DFT calculated values. UiO-66 appears to be an unique case due to the large increase in mechanical strength for UiO-66 when comparing this value with the structurally similar UiO-67. To our knowledge, experimental values for the bulk modulus of UiO-66 are not available currently to provide a definitive reference. The large difference between the bulk moduli of MOF-5 and UiO-66 is due to the coordination and oxidation state differences of the metal centers in either structure. In MOF-5 the metals are 4-coordinate and formally Zn2+ and in UiO-66 the metals are 6-coordinate with 6 further capping ligands to create a total outer coordination of 12. In addition, the formal oxidation state of the metals in UiO-66 is Zr4+. UiO-66 can therefore be considered as being formed of stronger interactions, which increase the mechanical strength of the material.
Table 5. Bulk Moduli of MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1a
MOFBulk moduli (GPa)
BTW-FFReference
MOF-511.9518.20 (65)
IRMOF-108.256.00 (66)
IRMOF-148.405.90 (66)
UiO-6627.1541.01 (65)
UiO-6719.1517.15 (65)
HKUST-125.0524.53 (65)
a

Values reported are those using BTW-FF and available reference data from DFT calculations. Reference calculations used Density Functional based Tight Binding (Kuc et al.) (66) and PBE functional (Wu et al.). (65) Note that the bulk modulus is related to the second derivatives of the energy with respect to volume and hence is sensitive to the theoretical approach.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Energy/volume curves for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67 and HKUST-1, from which the bulk moduli were derived via an equation of state.

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It should be noted that the bulk modulus of a material is temperature dependent. Direct comparison with experimental data is therefore not often appropriate when discussing accuracy to athermal calculations. (67) Furthermore, where values from other DFT studies are compared, it should be remembered that these values are sensitive to the choice of functional, where the bulk modulus is proportional to the equilibrium cell volume, that is(7)where standard local and semilocal functionals can produce large errors.
Vibrational frequencies were calculated and compared with those from DFT (PBEsol) (see Figure 7). A generally good agreement is found for all structures. There are, however, frequencies in the 1900 cm–1 to 3000 cm–1 range for UiO-67 and IRMOF-10, which are not calculated with DFT. We can assign these anomalous modes to stretches involving the central C–C bond (atom types 903-903). The force constants involving the connection of this central bond were strengthened to prevent the previously discussed carboxylate head twisting distortion occurring. Further additional modes for UiO-67 and also for UiO-66 were predicted by BTW-FF in the same frequency region. Analysis of the associated eigenvectors confirms these to be due to stretching modes within the Zr–O(O–H) (atom types Zr-75) bonds. These bonds have the largest error (2.23% and 2.67% for UiO-66 and UiO-67, respectively, Supporting Information Table S2) when compared to the equilibrated DFT structure. HKUST-1 was not included in the vibrational frequency analysis as the DFT proved to be too expensive to compute due to the larger crystal structure. It should be noted that soft modes associated with the carboxylate torsion of the ligands were present in all cases. This torsion has previously been described and labeled as x in Figure 1.
As a further analysis, we compare the vibrational frequencies of the IRMOF and UiO-series with DFT (B3-LYP) data previously reported and analyzed by Civalleri et al. and Valenzano et al. for the respective series of structures (Table 6 and Table 7). (44, 68) Assignment of the vibrational frequencies for prominent stretching and bending modes shows an excellent agreement in our reported results using BTW-FF and those from DFT (B3-LYP). This agreement further supports the accuracy of our model.
Table 6. Assigned Vibrational Frequencies (ω) for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, and IRMOF-14a
 ω (cm–1)
descriptionDFT (MOF-5)MOF-5IRMOF-10IRMOF-14
Oacid–Zn–Oacid bend114111123136
Zn–Oinorganic–Zn bend136174181178–179
Zn–Oacid–Cacid bend263283302–305284
Zn–Oinorganic asymmetric stretch512497497–498493
Zn–Oacid symmetric stretch579558544–575545–565
Zn–Oacid asymmetric stretch606563–568590–602575–590
Cacid–Oacid symmetric stretch142113941471–14731355–1382
a

Reference DFT calculations B3-LYP level of theory in the CRYSTAL code (Civalleri et al.). Reported DFT values are for MOF-5. (68)

Occupation of the lattice phonons at finite temperatures leads to changes in the crystal structure parameters. Linear and volumetric thermal expansion coefficients have been calculated to determine the change in unit cell size with increasing temperature. Many MOFs are known to contract with increasing thermal energy due to transverse vibrational modes of the ligands. Details describing the causes of negative thermal expansion in solid materials are detailed in a referenced review. (69) The phenomenon is not to be confused with structural changes that occur following the evacuation of internal solvent molecules.
Table 7. Assigned Vibrational Frequencies (ω) for UiO-66 and UiO-67a
 ω (cm–1)
descriptionDFT (UiO-66)UiO-66UiO-67
Zr–Oacid asymmetric stretch556558593
μ3–O stretch673671–672667–671
O–H bend771, 814778–779, 810–812872
Cacid–Oacid symmetric stretch14081380, 14081363
a

Reference DFT calculations B3-LYP level of theory in the CRYSTAL code (Valenzano et al). Reported DFT values are for UiO-66. (44)

Figure 7

Figure 7. Γ-point vibrational frequencies between 500–3500 cm–1 for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1. DFT calculated (left) and BTW-FF calculated (right). Note: DFT (PBEsol) frequencies for HKUST-1 could not be computed owing to the computational expense.

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Table 8. Calculated Linear (α) and Volumetric (β) Thermal Expansion Coefficients of MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1
MOFα (×10–6) (K–1)β (×10–6) (K–1)
MOF-5–5.27–15.80
IRMOF-10–8.11–24.32
IRMOF-14–4.95–14.86
UiO-66–1.04–3.11
UiO-67–2.22–6.66
HKUST-1–3.18–9.53

Figure 8

Figure 8. Thermal expansion profiles for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1. In contrast to standard quasi-harmonic approaches, molecular dynamic simulations include high order anharmonicity from phonon–phonon interactions. Shown is the difference in a parameter at a given temperature, with respect to the a parameter at 1 K. Error bars indicate the variation in the lattice constants at each temperature due to thermal fluctuations.

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Negative thermal expansion was calculated for each structure as shown by the thermal expansion coefficients (Table 8). The extent of unit cell contraction with temperature is shown in Figure 8. IRMOF-10 experiences the greatest thermal contraction due to bending modes of the biphenyl ligand. IRMOF-14 and MOF-5, although containing the same metal node as IRMOF-10, have more rigid ligands and therefore contract less with temperature. The UiO series contract the least due to the high charge on the Zr metal node resulting in a rigid extended structure. The influence of the charge on the metal is highlighted by the difference in behavior of UiO-67 and IRMOF-10. These structures contain the same ligand, but due to the higher ionicity of UiO-67, soft bending modes of the biphenyl ligand are no longer present. The final structure, HKUST-1 also exhibits very weak negative thermal expansion at high temperatures. A low charge was calculated on the Cu metal centers (Table 3) suggesting that HKUST-1 exhibits harder structural properties due to the rigidity of the tricarboxylate ligand and not increased ionicity. Calculated values are consistent with those previously found from experiment and MD simulations. (70-72)
Finally, volumetric heat capacities were calculated at constant volume from the vibrational frequencies (eq 6) for each structure under the harmonic approximation. The heat capacity describes the energy required to increase the temperature of a material by a given quantity and is determined from the changes in vibrational occupancy with increasing temperature. The values plateau at relatively low temperatures (200–300 K) suggesting low Debye temperatures (Figure 9). Unfortunately, little experimental data is available on the heat capacity of MOFs to date for comparison.

5 Conclusions

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We have parametrized a new interatomic potential to describe the crystal structures and properties of metal–organic frameworks. The force field is shown to accurately reproduce the structural parameters of MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1. The ligand parameters are transferable between the Zr and Zn frameworks and are expected to be valid for other systems of interest. Bulk moduli and vibrational frequencies have been calculated and are in agreement with calculations on the DFT (PBEsol) potential energy surface. Finally, we highlighted the importance of periodic boundaries when deriving empirical parameters for MOFs. Future work will concern extending this model to other systems and extending the range of materials response functions that can be calculated for hybrid frameworks.

Figure 9

Figure 9. Temperature dependence of the predicted volumetric heat capacities for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1.

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Supporting Information

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Structural parameters, including bond lengths, angles, and unit cell parameters for each structure. Potential parameter sets and data used to plot modal heat capacities. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org

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Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Author
    • Aron Walsh - Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies and Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Jessica K. Bristow - Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies and Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
    • Davide Tiana - Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies and Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgment

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We thank Rochus Schmid for providing access to his MOF-FF potential implementation, and Jonathan Skelton for useful conversations and guidance with this work. J.K.B. is funded by the EPSRC Doctoral Training Centre for Sustainable Chemical Technologies at Bath University (Grant No. EP/G03768X/1). D.T. is funded under ERC Starting Grant 277757. A.W. acknowledges support from the Royal Society University Research Fellowship scheme. The work benefits from the high performance computing facility at the University of Bath. Access to the HECToR and ARCHER supercomputers was facilitated through membership of the HPC Materials Chemistry Consortium (EP/F067496).

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Cite this: J. Chem. Theory Comput. 2014, 10, 10, 4644–4652
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  • Abstract

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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Comparative illustrations of the repeating units of Zn-containing MOF-5, IRMOF-10 and IRMOF-14 with the organic ligands shown underneath each structure. Torsion angle (atom types 170-913-902-912) labeled as x has been highlighted.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Comparative illustrations of the repeating units of Cu-containing HKUST-1 and Zr-containing UiO-66 and UiO-67 with the organic ligands shown underneath each structure. Torsion angle (atom types 912-903-903-912) labeled as y has been highlighted.

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Atom type definitions used for MOF-5/IRMOF-10/IRMOF-14.

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    Figure 4

    Figure 4. Definition of atom types for UiO-66 and UiO-67.

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    Figure 5

    Figure 5. Definition of atom types for HKUST-1.

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    Figure 6

    Figure 6. Energy/volume curves for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67 and HKUST-1, from which the bulk moduli were derived via an equation of state.

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    Figure 7

    Figure 7. Γ-point vibrational frequencies between 500–3500 cm–1 for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1. DFT calculated (left) and BTW-FF calculated (right). Note: DFT (PBEsol) frequencies for HKUST-1 could not be computed owing to the computational expense.

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    Figure 8

    Figure 8. Thermal expansion profiles for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1. In contrast to standard quasi-harmonic approaches, molecular dynamic simulations include high order anharmonicity from phonon–phonon interactions. Shown is the difference in a parameter at a given temperature, with respect to the a parameter at 1 K. Error bars indicate the variation in the lattice constants at each temperature due to thermal fluctuations.

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    Figure 9

    Figure 9. Temperature dependence of the predicted volumetric heat capacities for MOF-5, IRMOF-10, IRMOF-14, UiO-66, UiO-67, and HKUST-1.

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      Open metal-org. frameworks are widely regarded as promising materials for applications in catalysis, sepn., gas storage and mol. recognition. Compared to conventionally used microporous inorg. materials such as zeolites, these org. structures have the potential for more flexible rational design, through control of the architecture and functionalization of the pores. So far, the inability of these open frameworks to support permanent porosity and to avoid collapsing in the absence of guest mols., such as solvents, has hindered further progress in the field. The authors report the synthesis of a metal-org. framework, Zn4O(BDC)3.(DMF)8.(PhCl) (named MOF-5, where BDC = 1,4-benzenedicarboxylate), which remains cryst., as evidenced by x-ray single-crystal analyses, and stable when fully desolvated and when heated up to 300°. This synthesis is achieved by borrowing ideas from metal carboxylate cluster chem., where an org. dicarboxylate linker was used in a reaction that gives supertetrahedron clusters when capped with monocarboxylates. The rigid and divergent character of the added linker allows the articulation of the clusters into a three-dimensional framework resulting in a structure with higher apparent surface area and pore vol. than most porous cryst. zeolites. This simple and potentially universal design strategy is currently being pursued in the synthesis of new phases and composites, and for gas-storage applications.
    39. 39
      Eddaoudi, M.; Kim, J.; Rosi, N.; Vodak, D.; Wachter, J.; O’Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O. M. Science 2002, 295, 469– 472
      39
      Systematic design of pore size and functionality in isoreticular MOFs and their application in methane storage
      Eddaoudi, Mohamed; Kim, Jaheon; Rosi, Nathaniel; Vodak, David; Wachter, Joseph; O'Keeffe, Michael; Yaghi, Omar M.
      Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2002), 295 (5554), 469-472CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
      A strategy based on reticulating metal ions and org. carboxylate links into extended networks has been advanced to a point that allowed the design of porous structures in which pore size and functionality could be varied systematically. Metal-org. framework (MOF-5), a prototype of a new class of porous materials and one that is constructed from octahedral Zn-O-C clusters and benzene links, was used to demonstrate that its three-dimensional porous system can be functionalized with the org. groups -Br, -NH2, -OC3H7, -OC5H11, -C2H4, and -C4H4 and that its pore size can be expanded with the long mol. struts biphenyl, tetrahydropyrene, pyrene, and terphenyl. We synthesized an isoreticular series (one that has the same framework topol.) of 16 highly cryst. materials whose open space represented up to 91.1% of the crystal vol., as well as homogeneous periodic pores that can be incrementally varied from 3.8 to 28.8 Å. One member of this series exhibited a high capacity for methane storage (240 cm3 at std. temp.), and others the lowest densities (0.41 to 0.21 g/cm3) for a cryst. material at room temp.
    40. 40
      Yang, Q.; Guillerm, V.; Ragon, F.; Wiersum, A. D.; Llewellyn, P. L.; Zhong, C.; Devic, T.; Serre, C.; Maurin, G. Chem. Commun. 2012, 48, 9831– 9833
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      Chui, S. S.-Y.; Lo, S. M.-F.; Charmant, J. P.; Orpen, A. G.; Williams, I. D. Science 1999, 283, 1148– 1150
      41
      A chemically functionalizable nanoporous material [Cu3(TMA)2(H2O)3]n
      Chui, Stephen S.-Y.; Lo, Samuel M.-F.; Charmant, Jonathan P. H.; Orpen, A. Guy; Williams, Ian D.
      Science (Washington, D. C.) (1999), 283 (5405), 1148-1150CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
      Although zeolites and related materials combine nanoporosity with high thermal stability, they are difficult to modify or derivatize in a systematic way. A highly porous metal coordination polymer [Cu3(TMA)2(H2O)3]n (TMA is benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxylate) was formed in 80% yield. It has interconnected [Cu2(O2CR)4] units (R is an arom. ring), which create a three-dimensional system of channels with a pore size of 1 nm and an accessible porosity of ∼40% in the solid. Unlike zeolites, the channel linings can be chem. functionalized; for example, the aqua ligands can be replaced by pyridines. TGA and high-temp. single-crystal diffractometry indicate that the framework is stable up to 240°.
    42. 42
      Cavka, J. H.; Jakobsen, S.; Olsbye, U.; Guillou, N.; Lamberti, C.; Bordiga, S.; Lillerud, K. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 13850– 13851
      42
      A new zirconium inorganic building brick forming metal organic frameworks with exceptional stability
      Cavka Jasmina Hafizovic; Jakobsen Soren; Olsbye Unni; Guillou Nathalie; Lamberti Carlo; Bordiga Silvia; Lillerud Karl Petter
      Journal of the American Chemical Society (2008), 130 (42), 13850-1 ISSN:.
      Porous crystals are strategic materials with industrial applications within petrochemistry, catalysis, gas storage, and selective separation. Their unique properties are based on the molecular-scale porous character. However, a principal limitation of zeolites and similar oxide-based materials is the relatively small size of the pores, typically in the range of medium-sized molecules, limiting their use in pharmaceutical and fine chemical applications. Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) provided a breakthrough in this respect. New MOFs appear at a high and an increasing pace, but the appearances of new, stable inorganic building bricks are rare. Here we present a new zirconium-based inorganic building brick that allows the synthesis of very high surface area MOFs with unprecedented stability. The high stability is based on the combination of strong Zr-O bonds and the ability of the inner Zr6-cluster to rearrange reversibly upon removal or addition of mu3-OH groups, without any changes in the connecting carboxylates. The weak thermal, chemical, and mechanical stability of most MOFs is probably the most important property that limits their use in large scale industrial applications. The Zr-MOFs presented in this work have the toughness needed for industrial applications; decomposition temperature above 500 degrees C and resistance to most chemicals, and they remain crystalline even after exposure to 10 tons/cm2 of external pressure.
    43. 43
      Schaate, A.; Roy, P.; Godt, A.; Lippke, J.; Waltz, F.; Wiebcke, M.; Behrens, P. Chem. Eur. J. A 2011, 17, 6643– 6651
      43
      Modulated Synthesis of Zr-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks: From Nano to Single Crystals
      Schaate, Andreas; Roy, Pascal; Godt, Adelheid; Lippke, Jann; Waltz, Florian; Wiebcke, Michael; Behrens, Peter
      Chemistry - A European Journal (2011), 17 (24), 6643-6651, S6643/1-S6643/11CODEN: CEUJED; ISSN:0947-6539. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      The authors present a study on the influence of benzoic acid, acetic acid, and water on the syntheses of the Zr-based metal-org. frameworks Zr-bdc (UiO-66), Zr-bdc-NH2 (UiO-66-NH2), Zr-bpdc (UiO-67), and Zr-tpdc-NH2 (UiO-68-NH2) (H2bdc: terephthalic acid, H2bpdc: biphenyl-4,4'-dicarboxylic acid, H2tpdc: terphenyl-4,4''-dicarboxylic acid). By varying the amt. of benzoic or acetic acid, the synthesis of Zr-bdc can be modulated. With increasing concn. of the modulator, the products change from intergrown to individual crystals, the size of which can be tuned. Addn. of benzoic acid also affects the size and morphol. of Zr-bpdc and, addnl., makes the synthesis of Zr-bpdc highly reproducible. The control of crystal and particle size is proven by powder XRD, SEM and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements. TGA and Ar sorption expts. show that the materials from modulated syntheses can be activated and that they exhibit high sp. surface areas. Water proved to be essential for the formation of well-ordered Zr-bdc-NH2. Zr-tpdc-NH2, a material with a structure analogous to that of Zr-bdc and Zr-bpdc, but with the longer, functionalized linker 2'-amino-1,1':4',1''-terphenyl-4,4''-dicarboxylic acid, was obtained as single crystals. This allowed the 1st single-crystal structural anal. of a Zr-based metal-org. framework.
    44. 44
      Valenzano, L.; Civalleri, B.; Chavan, S.; Bordiga, S.; Nilsen, M. H.; Jakobsen, S.; Lillerud, K. P.; Lamberti, C. Chem. Mater. 2011, 23, 1700– 1718
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    45. 45
      Wiersum, A. D.; Soubeyrand-Lenoir, E.; Yang, Q.; Moulin, B.; Guillerm, V.; Yahia, M. B.; Bourrelly, S.; Vimont, A.; Miller, S.; Vagner, C. Asian J. Chem. 2011, 6, 3270– 3280
      45
      An Evaluation of UiO-66 for Gas-Based Applications
      Wiersum, Andrew D.; Soubeyrand-Lenoir, Estelle; Yang, Qingyuan; Moulin, Beatrice; Guillerm, Vincent; Ben Yahia, Mouna; Bourrelly, Sandrine; Vimont, Alexandre; Miller, Stuart; Vagner, Christelle; Daturi, Marco; Clet, Guillaume; Serre, Christian; Maurin, Guillaume; Llewellyn, Philip L.
      Chemistry - An Asian Journal (2011), 6 (12), 3270-3280CODEN: CAAJBI; ISSN:1861-4728. (Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA)
      In addn. to its high thermal stability, repetitive hydration/dehydration tests revealed that the porous zirconium terephthalate UiO-66 switches reversibly between its dehydroxylated and hydroxylated versions. The structure of its dehydroxylated form has thus been elucidated by coupling mol. simulations and x-ray powder diffraction data. IR measurements showed that relatively weak acid sites are available while microcalorimetry combined with Monte Carlo simulations emphasize moderate interactions between the UiO-66 surface and a wide range of guest mols. including CH4, CO, and CO2. These properties, in conjunction with its significant adsorption capacity, make UiO-66 of interest for its further evaluation for CO2 recovery in industrial applications. This global approach suggests a strategy for the evaluation of metal-org. frameworks for gas-based applications.
    46. 46
      Lin, K.-S.; Adhikari, A. K.; Ku, C.-N.; Chiang, C.-L.; Kuo, H. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37, 13865– 13871
      46
      Synthesis and characterization of porous HKUST-1 metal organic frameworks for hydrogen storage
      Lin, Kuen-Song; Adhikari, Abhijit Krishna; Ku, Chi-Nan; Chiang, Chao-Lung; Kuo, Hua
      International Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2012), 37 (18), 13865-13871CODEN: IJHEDX; ISSN:0360-3199. (Elsevier Ltd.)
      Hydrogen storage capacity has been investigated on a copper-based metal org. framework named HKUST-1 with fine structural analyses. The cryst. structure of HKUST-1 MOF has been confirmed from the powder X-ray diffraction and the av. particle diam. has been found about 15-20 μm identified by FE-SEM. Nitrogen adsorption isotherms show that HKUST-1 MOF has approx. type-I isotherm with a BET sp. surface area of 1055 m2g-1. Hydrogen adsorption study shows that this material can store 0.47 wt.% of H2 at 303 K and 35 bar. The existence of Cu (II) in cryst. framework of HKUST-1 MOF has been confirmed by pre-edge XANES spectra. The sharp feature at 8985.8 eV in XANES spectra represents the dipole-allowed electron transition from 1s to 4pxy. In addn., EXAFS spectra indicate that HKUST-1 MOF structure has the Cu-O bond distance of 1.95 Å with a coordination no. of 4.2.
    47. 47
      Gascon, J.; Aguado, S.; Kapteijn, F. Micropor. Mesopor. Mater. 2008, 113, 132– 138
      47
      Manufacture of dense coatings of Cu3(BTC)2 (HKUST-1) on α-alumina
      Gascon, Jorge; Aguado, Sonia; Kapteijn, Freek
      Microporous and Mesoporous Materials (2008), 113 (1-3), 132-138CODEN: MIMMFJ; ISSN:1387-1811. (Elsevier)
      A seeding approach was used to prep. copper benzene tricarboxylate (Cu3(BTC)2; HKUST-1) coatings on α-alumina. The obtained crystal densities, order and intergrowth improve the best results reported up to now in the literature for any metal-org. framework material. The effect of synthesis conditions on the morphol. and crystal size of Cu3(BTC)2 was detd. to optimize the strategies for the synthesis of continuous layers. Seeding with coordination polymers of different morphol. resulted in control of crystal growth of the coating. Two seeding suspensions yielded the best intergrowth of crystals. Spin-coating the support with a one-dimensional Cu(II)-BTC coordination polymer suspension resulted in a high d. coating with randomly oriented crystals of ∼2 μm, while using amorphous MOF precursors (proto-MOFs) as seeds, coatings with crystals of ∼5 μm were obtained.
    48. 48
      Kresse, G.; Hafner, J. Phys. Rev. B 1993, 47, 558
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      Ab initio molecular dynamics of liquid metals
      Kresse, G.; Hafner, J.
      Physical Review B: Condensed Matter and Materials Physics (1993), 47 (1), 558-61CODEN: PRBMDO; ISSN:0163-1829.
      The authors present ab initio quantum-mech. mol.-dynamics calcns. based on the calcn. of the electronic ground state and of the Hellmann-Feynman forces in the local-d. approxn. at each mol.-dynamics step. This is possible using conjugate-gradient techniques for energy minimization, and predicting the wave functions for new ionic positions using sub-space alignment. This approach avoids the instabilities inherent in quantum-mech. mol.-dynamics calcns. for metals based on the use of a factitious Newtonian dynamics for the electronic degrees of freedom. This method gives perfect control of the adiabaticity and allows one to perform simulations over several picoseconds.
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      Blöchl, P. E. Phys. Rev. B 1994, 50, 17953
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      Projector augmented-wave method
      Blochl
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      Perdew, J. P.; Burke, K.; Ernzerhof, M. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1996, 77, 3865– 3868
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      Generalized gradient approximation made simple
      Perdew, John P.; Burke, Kieron; Ernzerhof, Matthias
      Physical Review Letters (1996), 77 (18), 3865-3868CODEN: PRLTAO; ISSN:0031-9007. (American Physical Society)
      Generalized gradient approxns. (GGA's) for the exchange-correlation energy improve upon the local spin d. (LSD) description of atoms, mols., and solids. We present a simple derivation of a simple GGA, in which all parameters (other than those in LSD) are fundamental consts. Only general features of the detailed construction underlying the Perdew-Wang 1991 (PW91) GGA are invoked. Improvements over PW91 include an accurate description of the linear response of the uniform electron gas, correct behavior under uniform scaling, and a smoother potential.
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      Hendon, C. H.; Tiana, D.; Fontecave, M.; Sanchez, C.; D’arras, L.; Sassoye, C.; Rozes, L.; Mellot-Draznieks, C.; Walsh, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2013, 135, 10942– 10945
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      Analysis and Application of Potential Energy Smoothing and Search Methods for Global Optimization
      Pappu, Rohit V.; Hart, Reece K.; Ponder, Jay W.
      Journal of Physical Chemistry B (1998), 102 (48), 9725-9742CODEN: JPCBFK; ISSN:1089-5647. (American Chemical Society)
      Global energy optimization of a mol. system is difficult due to the well-known "multiple min." problem. The rugged potential energy surface (PES) characteristic of multidimensional systems can be transformed reversibly using potential smoothing to generate a new surface that is easier to search for favorable configurations. The diffusion equation method (DEM) is one example of a potential smoothing algorithm. Potential smoothing as implemented in DEM is intuitively appealing and has certain appropriate statistical mech. properties, but often fails to identify the global min. even for relatively small problems. In the present paper, extensions to DEM capable of correcting its empirical behavior are systematically investigated. Two types of local search (LS) procedures are applied during the reversing schedule from the smooth deformed PES to the undeformed surface. Changes needed to generate smooth-able versions of std. mol. mechanics force fields such as AMBER/OPLS and MM2 are also described. The resulting methods are applied in an attempt to det. the global energy min. for a variety of systems in different coordinate representations. The problems studied include argon clusters, cycloheptadecane, capped polyalanine, and the docking of α-helixes. Depending on the specific problem, potential smoothing and search (PSS) is performed in Cartesian, torsional, or rigid body space. For example, PSS finds a very low energy structure for cycloheptadecane with much greater efficiency than a search restricted to the undeformed potential surface. It is shown that potential smoothing is characterized by three salient features. As the level of smoothing is increased, unique min. merge into a common basin, crossings can occur in the relative energies of a pair of min., and the spatial locations of min. are shifted due to the averaging effects of smoothing. Local search procedures improve the ability of smoothing methods to locate global min. because they facilitate the post facto correction of errors due to energy crossings that may have occurred at higher levels of smoothing. PSS methods should serve as useful tools for global energy optimization on a variety of difficult problems of practical interest.
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      Equations of state in solids: Fitting theoretical data, possibly including noise and jumps
      Otero-de-la-Roza, Alberto; Luana, Victor
      Computational & Theoretical Chemistry (2011), 975 (1-3), 111-115CODEN: CTCOA5; ISSN:2210-271X. (Elsevier B.V.)
      An anal. equation of state is commonly fitted to the energy vs. vol. theor. data to det. the equil. properties and obtain derivs. A weighted av. of polynomials is shown to ext. optimally the information contained in the data set and provide conservative and meaningful error bars. The fitting becomes problematic when the data contains noise and small jumps. We examine some techniques that can detect and deal with those problems.
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      Talin, A. A.; Centrone, A.; Ford, A. C.; Foster, M. E.; Stavila, V.; Haney, P.; Kinney, R. A.; Szalai, V.; El Gabaly, F.; Yoon, H. P. Science 2014, 343, 66– 69
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      Butler, K. T.; Hendon, C. H.; Walsh, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 2703– 2706
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      Wu, H.; Yildirim, T.; Zhou, W. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2013, 4, 925– 930
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      Mechanical stability of highly porous zirconium metal-organic framework UiO-66
      Wu, Hui; Yildirim, Taner; Zhou, Wei
      Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters (2013), 4 (6), 925-930CODEN: JPCLCD; ISSN:1948-7185. (American Chemical Society)
      Metal-org. frameworks (MOFs) with high porosity usually exhibit weak mech. stabilities, in particular, rather low stabilities against shear stress. This limitation remains one of the bottlenecks for certain applications of porous MOFs, such as gas storage or sepn. that requires dense packing of the MOF powders under mech. compression without collapsing the pores. We found that UiO-66, a prototypical Zr-MOF with high porosity, exhibits unusually high shear stability. Its minimal shear modulus (Gmin = 13.7 GPa) is an order of magnitude higher than those of other benchmark highly porous MOFs (e.g., MOF-5, ZIF-8, HKUST-1), approaching that of zeolites. Our anal. clearly shows that the exceptional mech. stability of UiO-66 is due to its high framework connections (i.e., the high degree of coordination of Zr-O metal centers to the org. linkers). Our work thus provides important guidelines for developing new porous MOFs targeting at high mech. stabilities.
    66. 66
      Kuc, A.; Enyashin, A.; Seifert, G. J. Phys. Chem. B 2007, 111, 8179– 8186
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      Negative thermal expansion: a review
      Miller, W.; Smith, C. W.; Mackenzie, D. S.; Evans, K. E.
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      A review. Most materials demonstrate an expansion upon heating, however a few are known to contract, i.e. exhibit a neg. coeff. of thermal expansivity (NTE). This naturally occurring phenomenon has been shown to occur in a range of solids including complex metal oxides, polymers and zeolites, and opens the door to composites with a coeff. of thermal expansion (CTE) of zero. The state of the art in NTE solids is reviewed, and understanding of the driving mechanisms of the effect is considered along with exptl. and theor. evidence. The various categories of solids with NTE are explored, and exptl. methods for their exptl. characterization and applications for such solids are proposed. An abstraction for an underlying mechanism for NTE at the supramol. level and its applicability at the mol. level is discussed.
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      The mechanistic study of the hydroxyl radical reaction with trans-2-chlorovinyldichloroarsine
      Zhang, Wanqiao; Guo, Xiaodi; Zhang, Yunju; Wang, Fang; Shi, Haijie; Zhang, Jingping; Wang, Rongshun; Tang, Shuwei; Wang, Haitao; Sun, Hao
      Journal of Molecular Modeling (2014), 20 (7), 1-19CODEN: JMMOFK; ISSN:0948-5023. (Springer)
      The trans-2-chlorovinyldichloroarsine (Lewisite) was produced and handled during WWI and WWII as chem. warfare agents. It was very difficult to explore its chem. characterization by expts. ways. The quantum chem. calcns. proved to be a precise and harmless method for the toxicol. system. In this paper, the gas phase reaction mechanisms of OH radical with trans-2-chlorovinyldichloroarsine (lewisite) were studied by second-order Moller-Plesset perturbation theory (MP2) method. The geometries of reactants, products, complexes, and transition states were optimized at the MP2/6-311++G(d,p) level. To gain more accurate mechanistic knowledge, the single-point energies were calcd. using G3 and CCSD(T) method. This reaction exhibited three mechanisms, namely, direct hydrogen abstraction, direct chlorine abstraction, and addn./elimination. Multichannel Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus theory and transition-state theory have been carried out for overall and individual rate consts. over a wide range of temps. and pressures. The computational results indicated that addn./elimination reaction is more favorable than direct hydrogen abstraction and direct chlorine abstraction. The major products for the total reaction are AsCl2 and CHClCH2O generated via C(2)-addn./elimination.
    72. 72
      Lock, N.; Christensen, M.; Wu, Y.; Peterson, V. K.; Thomsen, M. K.; Piltz, R. O.; Ramirez-Cuesta, A. J.; McIntyre, G. J.; Norén, K.; Kutteh, R. Dalton Trans. 2013, 42, 1996– 2007
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.

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