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Cleaner Cooking Solutions to Achieve Health, Climate, and Economic Cobenefits
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 9, 3944–3952

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https://doi.org/10.1021/es304942e

Published April 3, 2013

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Abstract

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Nearly half the world’s population must rely on solid fuels such as biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural residues, and animal dung) and coal for household energy, burning them in inefficient open fires and stoves with inadequate ventilation. Household solid fuel combustion is associated with four million premature deaths annually; contributes to forest degradation, loss of habitat and biodiversity, and climate change; and hinders social and economic progress as women and children spend hours every day collecting fuel. Several recent studies, as well as key emerging national and international efforts, are making progress toward enabling wide-scale household adoption of cleaner and more efficient stoves and fuels. While significant challenges remain, these efforts offer considerable promise to save lives, improve forest sustainability, slow climate change, and empower women around the world.

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Synopsis

Introduction

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In many parts of the developing world, the simple act of cooking a meal has dire consequences for health and the environment. More than 3 billion people must rely on solid fuels such as biomass (wood, charcoal, agricultural residues, and animal dung) and coal as the primary source of household energy. These solid fuels are often burned in inefficient open fires and rudimentary stoves with inadequate ventilation, exposing families, in particular women and children, to toxic indoor smoke for hours daily over their lifetimes. Household solid fuel combustion is associated with 3.5 million and 0.5 million premature deaths annually due to indoor and outdoor air pollution exposure, respectively. (1) This burden occurs mainly in developing countries (Figure 1) and now appears to exceed the burdens of malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV combined. Millions more suffer from disabilities related to cardiovascular problems, chronic and acute respiratory conditions, and cataracts. Women and children are also burdened with time-consuming and physically demanding fuel collection that prevents them from attending school or working and puts them at risk of violence in some conflict areas. Inefficient burning of solid fuels for energy contributes to climate change, and when woodfuel is unsustainably harvested, deforestation, forest degradation, and loss of habitat and biodiversity can result.

Figure 1. Premature deaths attributable to household solid fuel use occur mainly in developing countries, as shown by these national estimates for 2002 (reproduced with permission from ref 2. Copyright 2007, WHO). Globally, estimates for 2010 are approximately double these earlier estimates for 2002, mainly due to methodological improvements. (1)

Low-income households in developing countries are the most dependent on solid fuels for household energy needs, with developed countries and higher-income households in developing countries typically using electricity or processed fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and natural gas (Table 1). The share of the population relying on solid fuels for energy needs ranges from less than 25% in some developing countries to 95% in many Sub-Saharan African countries, and is nearly 100% in many rural areas. (3) As in developed countries, many homes in developing countries use multiple fuels and devices (“fuel-device stacking”) for cooking, lighting, heating, and specialized cooking tasks such as making tortillas in Mexico, chapathis in India, or njera in Ethiopia, with solid fuel stoves fulfilling many of these needs (Table 1). In all countries, household energy decisions are shaped by income, tradition, social expectations, and fuel availability. For example, wood-burning heating stoves are often used in developed countries despite accessible and affordable cleaner alternatives.

Table 1. Typical Progression for Household Energy Use: Arrows Indicate Income Levels, but Other Variables Also Influence Fuel Choice, Thus Households of Varying Income May Span Different Typologies of Fuel Use^a

^{Table a}

Adapted from Sovacool. (3)

Over the last decades, various national efforts have introduced millions of fuel efficient stoves (e.g., in China, India, and Kenya), with some achieving greater success than others. In the past several years, scientific advances, financial innovation, and several successful clean cookstove initiatives have begun to demonstrate the great potential for relieving the societal burden of cooking over open fires and rudimentary stoves, gaining support from influential leaders around the world. The resulting flow of resources into the sector is enabling new approaches to encourage large-scale, sustainable adoption of clean cooking solutions. However, despite significant recent progress, it remains a complex challenge to design stoves that women want to use and that reduce fuel use and emissions enough to achieve today’s policy goals, in addition to making them widely accessible and affordable.

Evaluating Performance for Varied Policy Priorities

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Advanced fuels such as LPG, ethanol, and biogas are often vastly cleaner, more efficient, safer, and in many cases more appealing to users than traditional solid fuels. However, accessibility, affordability, and adaptation of local cooking devices must be improved for advanced fuels to be a viable solution for many current solid fuel users. Fortunately, clean and efficient solid fuel stoves are increasingly available around the world, and if adopted on a wide scale, could yield health, environmental, and economic cobenefits.

Over the past decade, a variety of solid fuel based cookstove models that improve combustion efficiency and reduce emissions when compared with open fires and traditional stoves have entered the market. However, policy objectives to reduce indoor and outdoor air pollution, mitigate long-term and near-term climate change, reduce deforestation, empower women and girls, and support economic development are driven by different factors, including fuel use (collected or purchased), and emissions of air pollutants that affect health and climate (Table 2). Results from recent laboratory and field testing show wide variation in stove performance for these indicators. (4-9)

Table 2. Policy Priorities (Not Listed in Priority Order) for Clean Cookstoves and Fuels and Indicators for Evaluating Stove/Fuel Performance for Each Priority

policy priorities	indicator for evaluating performance
deforestation and degradation prevention, habitat and biodiversity preservation	fuel use savings (wood harvested unsustainably)
women’s and girls’ empowerment (social progress, gender-based violence reduction)	fuel use and time savings (collected)
economic development and poverty eradication	fuel use savings (collected or purchased), fuel expenditures savings, health-relevant emissions
reduction of health impacts of exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution	reduction of air pollutant emissions (e.g., particulate matter, ozone-producing gases, hazardous air pollutants), exposure, and health effects
long-term climate change mitigation	reduction of emissions of long-lived greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide from unsustainably harvested biomass, methane)
near-term climate change mitigation	reduction of emissions of short-lived climate pollutants (e.g., methane, black and brown carbon, ozone producing gases)

Many stoves currently on the market effectively save fuel, based on data from both laboratory and field settings. Residential use of woodfuels accounts for approximately 7% of global energy use, (10) half of wood harvested worldwide annually, (11) and 6% of global deforestation, (3) mainly in specific locations or “hotspots”. (12-14) Unsustainable harvesting of woodfuels degrades forests and in some locations leads to deforestation, reducing habitat, biodiversity, and uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Although burning sustainably harvested woodfuels is carbon dioxide neutral, it is not climate neutral as other emitted climate pollutants like black carbon (BC), methane, and other ozone-producing gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds) are not reabsorbed.

The impact of cleaner cooking solutions on fuel use and air pollutant emissions varies by fuel type, stove design, cooking practice, and environmental conditions. Recent studies have found that many of the stoves on the market reduce fuel use by 30–60%. (4, 15-18) Some advanced biomass systems, such as small-scale gasifier and biogas stoves, are even as efficient as LPG systems. (18) Less fuel use can lead to transformative benefits—less burden for women or more income for families and less risk of violence for women and girls as they collect fuel in certain insecure areas. Reduced fuel use due to increased heat transfer efficiency (with equal or greater combustion efficiency) can also mean fewer emissions of air pollutants that affect health and climate and reduced impacts on forests, habitats, and biodiversity.

But fuel savings alone are not enough—protecting public health likely requires dramatically reducing emissions from stoves. (19) Although exposure patterns vary due to individual (age, socioeconomic status, time spent in cooking area) and household differences (fuel/stove type, cookhouse ventilation, use of biomass for heating), use of solid fuels in traditional stoves results in air pollution exposure levels that can reach 50 times greater than the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for clean air, particularly for women and children who typically spend more time inside the home than men. (20) Exposure to indoor smoke containing toxic compounds such as fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), carbon monoxide, and hazardous air pollutants is associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes including early childhood pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease. (21) Solid fuel users relying on open fires and traditional stoves are also at risk of severe burns and cataracts. (22)

Many solid fuel based cleaner cookstove models available on the market reduce PM_2.5 emissions, but some are much more effective than others. While laboratory studies observed 50% PM_2.5 reductions from typical natural draft stoves and over 90% reductions from some forced draft stoves, which employ a fan to increase combustion efficiency, (4, 15) these reductions may be less robust in field settings. (16, 23-26) Clean stoves used with chimneys can further reduce indoor PM_2.5 exposure (e.g., 27). While air pollution levels often still exceed the WHO guidelines even with use of cleaner cookstoves (particularly where background air pollution levels are high due to other emission sources or where widespread household use of traditional stoves persists in the broader community), the large reductions in exposure are likely to achieve significant health benefits. (1, 28) Combined with reduced fuel use, the health benefits associated with cleaner and more efficient stoves may lead to benefit–cost ratios of 10 to 1 or more for cookstove interventions, (29) although these values are likely highly variable. However, more information is needed to better understand the exposure–response relationships at very high exposure levels, as modest exposure reductions in households may have limited health benefits and large-scale emission reductions at both the household and neighborhood level may be needed to be protective of public health. (30) In addition, more efforts are needed to meet all household energy needs in a way that reduces dependence on traditional stoves and open fires; otherwise, residual use of polluting stoves and fuels can offset the exposure reductions.

Burning solid fuels in open fires and traditional stoves also releases emissions of some of the most important contributors to global climate change: carbon dioxide, methane and other ozone producing gases such as carbon monoxide, and short-lived but very efficient sunlight-absorbing particles such as BC and brown carbon. (31, 32) In Asia, residential solid fuel burning contributes to atmospheric brown clouds of air pollutants that affect both outdoor air pollution exposure and climate. (10, 33-38) While the mixture of emissions from cookstoves depends strongly on the stove, fuel, and user, the near-term climate impact of residential biomass and coal burning is estimated to be net warming, even when coemitted reflecting aerosols (e.g., organic carbon) are considered. (39) When methane and carbon dioxide are accounted for, the long-term climate effect of residential solid fuel use is strongly warming.

Studies show that controlling both short-lived climate pollutants such as BC and methane and long-lived greenhouse gases can increase the chances of limiting global temperature rise to below 2 °C, a long-term international goal for avoiding the most dangerous impacts of climate change. (34, 40, 41) In South Asia where over half of BC comes from cookstoves (Figure 2), (42) BC also disrupts the monsoon and accelerates melting of the Himalayan-Tibetan glaciers. (32, 35) As a result, water availability and food security are threatened for millions of people. These problems are compounded by crop damage from ozone produced in part by cookstove emissions and from surface dimming as airborne BC intercepts sunlight. In addition, since BC is an indicator of the toxic substances in PM_2.5, reducing BC is likely to reduce harmful health effects. (43)

Figure 2. Effect of biofuel cooking on Asian BC loading. (a) Simulated annual mean optical depth of BC aerosols for 2004–2005 using a regional aerosol/chemical/transport model. The values include BC emissions from biofuel cooking (indoor cooking with wood/dung/crop residues), fossil fuels, and biomass burning. (b) Same as for (a), but without biofuel cooking. Reproduced with permission from ref 35. Copyright 2008, Nature Publishing Group.

For the first time, a recent field study of BC emissions from stoves found that BC can be reduced substantially by forced draft stoves (by 50–90%), (5) confirming earlier laboratory-based studies. (44) Similar reductions were achieved for emissions of carbon monoxide, which is toxic and leads to the formation of ozone, a greenhouse gas and an air pollutant. The field study findings were also consistent with prior lab (18) and field studies (45) indicating that the impact of natural draft stoves on BC is highly variable—reducing BC by 33% on average, but occasionally leading to BC increases for some stoves. These findings point to an opportunity to both slow climate change and protect public health by promoting clean cooking solutions that substantially reduce both BC and total PM_2.5. Of the presently available measures to reduce BC globally, substantially reducing pollution from residential solid fuel use would have the greatest overall health benefits from a global perspective. (10, 33, 46)

Clean fuels must also be part of the solution. In addition to the clean gas and liquid fuels noted above, processed solid fuels (e.g., biomass pellets) used in certain types of cookstoves can burn more efficiently and cleanly than collected fuels such as wood, dung (particularly when not adequately dried), and crop residues. One prototype natural draft stove used with low-moisture pellet fuel has been shown to reduce air pollutants as much as forced draft stoves. (4) More information is needed to ensure that these processed fuels remain beneficial when accounting for upstream emissions associated with their production. Simply eliminating fuel mixing, such as mixing wood with dung, has also been found to reduce BC specifically by approximately 50%. (5)

The growing literature shows that different types of stoves and fuels vary in their health, environmental, social, and economic benefits over burning solid fuels in traditional stoves or open fires. Since the various benefits are driven by different factors, solving the problems posed by burning solid fuels in traditional stoves and open fires requires clear criteria that can be used to inform decision-makers on the suitable stove/fuel combinations that meet their specific needs. To achieve the multiple benefits simultaneously, the evidence to date indicates that the market must be driven toward stoves and fuels that are both extremely clean and efficient. (47)

Challenges and Research Priorities

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Despite the growing availability of advanced stoves and fuels that reduce fuel use, household exposures to PM_2.5, and short-lived climate pollutants (including BC), more studies are needed to quantify the benefits of different stove and fuel combinations, in both the laboratory and in the field. In addition, a major challenge is designing high-performing stoves that can be made affordable, that meet users’ broader energy needs, and that women want to use. Even a high-performing stove only provides benefits if it is used frequently on a sustained basis and displaces less efficient devices. Additional research is thus needed to strengthen the evidence base and overcome challenges to achieving the many potential benefits of clean stoves worldwide (Table 3).

Table 3. Priorities for Future Research to Assess the Benefits of Adopting Clean Cookstoves and Fuels and to Advance Sustained Adoption of Clean Cooking Solutions Globally; Many of these Topics and Research Priorities, Shown Here in Alphabetical Order, Are Interlinked

topic	research priorities
adoption and markets	factors driving clean cookstove purchase, use, and broader aspirational change
	end-uses of traditional stoves (cooking and noncooking)
	effectiveness of business models, social marketing, and consumer finance strategies
	cost-effective monitoring protocols documenting short- and long-term stove use patterns, including stove and fuel combinations
cleaner fuels	impacts of fuel stacking and switching to gaseous, liquid, pelletized, and renewable fuels
	impacts and efficiency of fuel production
	processed biomass and biofuels, including efficient conversion of agricultural products and residues into pellets, biochar, charcoal, and gaseous or liquid fuels
climate and environment	impacts on short-lived and long-lived climate forcer emissions, global and regional radiative forcing, and nonradiative climate effects (e.g., aerosol effects on precipitation and snow/ice melt)
	impacts on deforestation, carbon dioxide uptake by forests, habitat, biodiversity
gender and livelihoods	impacts of women employed in clean cookstove and fuel value chain on adoption
	impacts on consumers (time savings, income savings, education, and employment)
	case studies and best practice analyses of women’s empowerment in clean cooking project implementation
health	impacts on indoor and outdoor air quality and air pollution exposures
	impacts on development and child survival
	impacts on adult disease, including respiratory health and cardiovascular disease
	incidence of severe burns and injuries
humanitarian	impacts on refugees and other vulnerable populations in terms of meeting basic nutrition requirements, gender-based violence, livelihoods, income, and environment and health outcomes
technology	improved stove design (materials, heat transfer, design tools), monitoring (sensors, mobile tools, etc.), and related devices (electric cogeneration, fans, cookware, etc.)
testing and standards	laboratory and field testing to support voluntary industry consensus standards
	development of standards and test protocols, particularly for field testing
	research to support development of global testing infrastructure

Strengthening the evidence base by demonstrating the magnitude of the health, environmental, and socio-economic benefits of clean cookstoves and fuels is a critical priority that will help drive investment into solving this issue. Research is needed to further define how clean stoves and fuels need to be to provide real benefits for health, climate, and the environment. More studies are needed to quantify the benefits of cleaner cooking for ambient air quality; development and child survival; reducing adult respiratory, cardiovascular, and other diseases; and reducing the incidence of severe burns and injuries. Studies on the benefits of efficient cooking solutions for refugees and other vulnerable populations specifically are also needed. In addition, many improvements can be made in stove design, monitoring, and related technologies such as stove materials and components, ventilation, and cookware. Research is needed to understand the benefits of these technological improvements, as well as of the benefits of switching from minimally processed solid fuels to cleaner gaseous, liquid, pelletized, and renewable fuels, including the impacts and efficiency of fuel production.

In addition to strengthening the evidence base, a more integrated understanding of the interplay between socio-cultural, economic, and technological factors is essential for sustaining intervention efforts. Improving access to financing, user-centered design, field testing, understanding cultural values and expectations, spreading awareness, aligning policies and regulations, and building local capacity are critical elements to advancing sustained adoption of clean stoves and fuels. (3, 48) The cookstoves sector is burdened with many past examples where low-end stoves—often designed with inadequate consideration of user needs, with little or no testing—were heavily subsidized or given away without proper user training and awareness campaigns, and as a result were abandoned (e.g., 49,50). For example, some clean and efficient stoves are not designed to execute needed tasks, such as baking bread or space heating, leading to continued use of traditional cookstoves alongside the newer technology. (51-56) Since a single advanced stove is often insufficient for all the uses performed by the traditional stoves, a broader agenda to meet all household energy needs is needed to avoid residual use of traditional stoves. It is important to better understand the impact of engaging women in the clean cookstove and fuel value chain on sustained adoption rates and impacts of clean stoves and fuels on consumers’ time, income, and educational and employment opportunities. Studies are also needed to determine the factors driving clean stove purchase, use, and aspirational change (e.g., attitudes about the function of the kitchen for homes and families including those factors that “pull” families to continue relying on traditional devices and those the “push” them to adopt the new stoves) and to evaluate the effectiveness of various business models, social marketing, and consumer finance strategies for achieving sustained adoption of clean stoves and fuels.

Although progress has been made to establish interim fuel use, emissions, and safety guidelines, further development and adoption of voluntary industry consensus standards is required to provide transparency to governments, donors, investors, and others regarding the potential benefits of different solutions and to develop certification procedures, performance benchmarks, and meaningful test infrastructure for the global cookstove market. (57) Such standards can provide incentives for stove and fuel developers to rapidly innovate and improve performance. To support standard development, additional laboratory and field testing of fuel use and emissions is needed, along with laboratory tests that better reflect actual field performance. While laboratory measurements can capture performance variation across a wide range of stoves and fuels under controlled conditions, isolating the impact of the inherent qualities of the device and fuel, field measurements are needed to account for variation in users and functionality. Studies show that factors such as degree of attention given to fire tending, fuel type (as previously discussed), and proper loading of fuel dramatically affect the magnitude and composition of air pollutants that affect health and climate, often with field studies showing lower effectiveness of cleaner stoves and fuels compared with laboratory studies. (9, 58, 59)

Fuel use and emissions testing can be enhanced by improved methods. State-of-the-art instrumentation can provide data in real time on important aerosol characteristics such as size distribution, composition, surface area, light absorption, and light scattering. Greater use of currently available technologies and development of lower-cost instruments for use in the field could lead to a better understanding of cookstove emissions that affect health and climate. Additional metrics that may capture particle toxicity differently than does PM_2.5 mass, such as particle size distribution, particle composition, number of particles, and surface area, should also be explored further. (60-62) In addition, aerosol formation and growth models are needed to improve the design and testing of cookstoves.

Opportunities for Transformational Change

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Despite these challenges, several recent and emerging international efforts are potentially game-changing opportunities to achieve simultaneous benefits for health, climate, the environment, women’s empowerment, and economic development through wide-scale household adoption of clean cookstoves. Given the complexities of the problem, working toward this goal requires a multifaceted approach, including significant international investments in research, technology development, awareness raising, creative business models for manufacturers and distributors, and innovative financing mechanisms for end users.

In September 2010, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, along with several leading international public figures and private companies, launched the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, a public–private partnership to catalyze a thriving global market for clean cooking solutions (http://www.cleancookstoves.org/). Over 650 partners, including 38 countries, have joined the Alliance. In its first two years, the Alliance has raised over $30 million, directly leveraged more than $120 million in new funding from Alliance partners, increased awareness of the issue around the world, and convened over 350 global experts to help develop a forward-looking plan for overcoming the many barriers that have limited progress in the past. In its third year, the Alliance is poised to implement action plans in six priority countries (Bangladesh, China, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Uganda), catalyze private investment into the sector, and advance priority research.

An early success of the Alliance was to spearhead efforts that led to the June 2012 publication of an International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Workshop Agreement, which serves as interim guidelines for evaluating cookstove performance, (63) the first international framework for evaluating stoves against specific indicators. The guidelines provide a rating system with tiers of performance for four performance indicators: fuel use (efficiency), total emissions (carbon monoxide and PM_2.5), indoor emissions (carbon monoxide and PM_2.5), and safety. These guidelines will not only inform governments, donors, and investors as to the stove models that can potentially achieve their intended benefits, but will drive the development of standardized fuel use and emissions testing protocols, certification procedures, and performance benchmarks for the global cookstove market. While these guidelines are beginning to provide an incentive for stove developers to innovate and improve performance, further development of formal standards and test protocols is needed.

Many countries have also expanded or begun to develop ambitious national programs to tackle this issue. Massive programs have been launched to bring clean-burning biogas to rural families in China (64) and to switch families cooking with kerosene to clean-burning LPG in Indonesia, each reaching over 40 million homes to date. In 2009, India announced a National Biomass Cookstove Initiative addressing technology, standards, testing, research, and commercial dissemination. (65) Ethiopia and Nigeria have set national goals of helping nine million and ten million households, respectively, adopt clean cooking solutions, while countries such as Ghana and Rwanda are actively weaving clean cooking into broad efforts to bring clean energy to their populations. Peru and Mexico have set national goals of helping 500,000 and 600,000 rural families, respectively, adopt clean cooking solutions. Many other countries are moving in similar directions.

Another new international initiative may provide an additional venue in which to pursue climate and health cobenefits through promoting clean cooking solutions. The Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (www.unep.org/ccac/) was launched in February 2012 by Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Mexico, Sweden, the United States, and the United Nations Environment Programme, with the aim of slowing the rate of climate change within the first half of this century while also protecting public health and the environment. Now with many new national and nongovernmental partners, the CCAC is working toward rapid and scaled up international actions to reduce BC, methane, and hydrofluorocarbons. The CCAC may be a new opportunity to promote clean stoves and fuels, with a particular focus on solutions that reduce BC specifically.

Several additional emerging innovations in the cookstove sector are making clean cooking solutions more affordable and promoting sustained adoption. Carbon financing, though facing an uncertain future, offers an opportunity to lower the price of clean stoves and fuels as they reduce carbon dioxide and methane emissions, but only if stoves are actually being used—verification may be facilitated by rapid developments in the real-time monitoring of stove use. (66, 67) Several emerging clean stove or fuel businesses seek to leverage the growing cost of charcoal by offering less expensive and extremely clean alternative fuels such as ethanol, biomass pellets, methane, or LPG—and in some cases, these alternatives are offered to poor, rural customers through business models that allow for extremely low costs. Other innovations include manufacturing clean stoves that can charge cell phones (and thus be financed via offset phone-charging fees) and partnering with local customer support such as women’s groups to increase sustained adoption.

The current literature indicates that many stoves available today provide immediate and meaningful benefits to families by reducing fuel use. Some of the more advanced stoves and fuels can also further improve health and slow the rate of climate change by significantly reducing PM_2.5 and BC emissions. While these clean and efficient technologies are nowhere near universally affordable or accessible, and while there is still much to learn on how best to meet the needs of the users, these recent and emerging efforts demonstrate that substantial progress toward wide-scale household adoption of clean stoves and fuels is possible. However, this is just the beginning. Transforming how half of the world’s population cooks their food and heats their homes requires a comprehensive global approach that includes sustained investment, understanding consumer demand, technology development and supply, and research, as well as coordinated institutional support from national and international bodies and adequate policies to foster market development. The potential benefits to women, children, communities, and the world are enormous.

Author Information

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Corresponding Author
- Susan C. Anenberg - U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC, United States; Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, United States; Email: [email protected]
Authors
- Kalpana Balakrishnan - Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Sri Ramachandra University, Chennai, India
- James Jetter - Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States
- Omar Masera - Center for Ecosystem Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Morelia, Mexico
- Sumi Mehta - Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, Washington, DC, United States
- Jacob Moss - U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC, United States; Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, United States
- Veerabhadran Ramanathan - Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, United States
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Biographies

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Susan Anenberg is an Environmental Scientist in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Office of Air and Radiation, and wrote this article while on detail as Senior Advisor to U.S. Cookstove Initiatives at the U.S. Department of State.

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Kalpana Balakrishnan is a professor at Sri Ramachandra University, Chennai, India.

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James Jetter is an Environmental Engineer in the USEPA Office of Research and Development.

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Omar Masera is a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, Morelia, Mexico.

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Sumi Mehta is the Director of Programs at the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves.

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Jacob Moss is the Director of U.S. Cookstove Initiatives at the U.S. Department of State.

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Veerabhadran Ramanathan is a Distinguished Professor of Atmospheric and Climate Sciences at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego.

Acknowledgment

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Views expressed in this article are those of the authors’ and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of State, the U.S. Government, or any other organization. O.M. is supported in part by the Programa de Apoyo a Proyectos de Investigación e Innovación Tecnológica of the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the National Council on Science and Technology (CONACYT) of Mexico.

References

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This article references 67 other publications.

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Lim, S. S.; Vos, T.; Flaxman, A. D.; Danaei, G.; Shibuya, K.; Adair-Rohani, H.; Amann, M.; Anderson, H. R.; Andrews, K. G.; Aryee, M.; Atkinson, C.; Bacchus, L. J.; Bahalim, A. N.; Balakrishnan, K.; Balmes, J.; Barker-Collo, S.; Baxter, A.; Bell, M. L.; Blore, J. D.; Blyth, F.; Bonner, C.; Borges, G.; Bourne, R.; Boussinesq, M.; Brauer, M.; Brooks, P.; Bruce, N. G.; Brunekreef, B.; Bryan-Hancock, C.; Bucello, C.; Buchbinder, R.; Bull, F.; Burnett, R. T.; Byers, T. E.; Calabria, B.; Carapetis, J.; Carnahan, E.; Chafe, Z.; Charlson, F.; Chen, H.; Chen, J. S.; Cheng, A. T.-A.; Child, J. C.; Cohen, A.; Colson, K. E.; Cowie, B. C.; Darby, S.; Darling, S.; Davis, A.; Degenhardt, L.; Dentener, F.; Des Jarlais, D. C.; Devries, K.; Dherani, M.; Ding, E. L.; Dorsey, E. R.; Driscoll, T.; Edmond, K.; Ali, S. E.; Engell, R. E.; Erwin, P. J.; Fahimi, S.; Falder, G.; Farzadfar, F.; Ferrari, A.; Finucane, M. M.; Flaxman, S.; Fowkes, F. G. R.; Freedman, G.; Freeman, M. K.; Gakidou, E.; Ghosh, S.; Giovannucci, E.; Gmel, G.; Graham, K.; Grainger, R.; Grant, B.; Gunnell, D.; Gutierrez, H. R.; Hall, W.; Hoek, H. W.; Hogan, A.; Hosgood Iii, H. D.; Hoy, D.; Hu, H.; Hubbell, B. J.; Hutchings, S. J.; Ibeanusi, S. E.; Jacklyn, G. L.; Jasrasaria, R.; Jonas, J. B.; Kan, H.; Kanis, J. A.; Kassebaum, N.; Kawakami, N.; Khang, Y.-H.; Khatibzadeh, S.; Khoo, J.-P.; Kok, C.; Laden, F.; Lalloo, R.; Lan, Q.; Lathlean, T.; Leasher, J. L.; Leigh, J.; Li, Y.; Lin, J. K.; Lipshultz, S. E.; London, S.; Lozano, R.; Lu, Y.; Mak, J.; Malekzadeh, R.; Mallinger, L.; Marcenes, W.; March, L.; Marks, R.; Martin, R.; McGale, P.; McGrath, J.; Mehta, S.; Mensah, G. A.; Merriman, T. R.; Micha, R.; Michaud, C.; Mishra, V.; Hanafiah, K. M.; Mokdad, A. A.; Morawska, L.; Mozaffarian, D.; Murphy, T.; Naghavi, M.; Neal, B.; Nelson, P. K.; Nolla, J. M.; Norman, R.; Olives, C.; Omer, S. B.; Orchard, J.; Osborne, R.; Ostro, B.; Page, A.; Pandey, K. D.; Parry, C. D. H.; Passmore, E.; Patra, J.; Pearce, N.; Pelizzari, P. M.; Petzold, M.; Phillips, M. R.; Pope, D.; Pope Iii, C. A.; Powles, J.; Rao, M.; Razavi, H.; Rehfuess, E. A.; Rehm, J. T.; Ritz, B.; Rivara, F. P.; Roberts, T.; Robinson, C.; Rodriguez-Portales, J. A.; Romieu, I.; Room, R.; Rosenfeld, L. C.; Roy, A.; Rushton, L.; Salomon, J. A.; Sampson, U.; Sanchez-Riera, L.; Sanman, E.; Sapkota, A.; Seedat, S.; Shi, P.; Shield, K.; Shivakoti, R.; Singh, G. M.; Sleet, D. A.; Smith, E.; Smith, K. R.; Stapelberg, N. J. C.; Steenland, K.; Stöckl, H.; Stovner, L. J.; Straif, K.; Straney, L.; Thurston, G. D.; Tran, J. H.; Van Dingenen, R.; van Donkelaar, A.; Veerman, J. L.; Vijayakumar, L.; Weintraub, R.; Weissman, M. M.; White, R. A.; Whiteford, H.; Wiersma, S. T.; Wilkinson, J. D.; Williams, H. C.; Williams, W.; Wilson, N.; Woolf, A. D.; Yip, P.; Zielinski, J. M.; Lopez, A. D.; Murray, C. J. L.; Ezzati, M. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 Lancet 2013, 380 (9859) 2224– 2260
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World Health Organization. Indoor Air Pollution: National Burden of Disease Estimates; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
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Sovacool, B. K. The political economy of energy poverty: A review of key challenges Energy Sustainable Dev. 2012, 16 (3) 272– 282
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Jetter, J.; Zhao, Y.; Smith, K. R.; Khan, B.; Yelverton, T.; DeCarlo, P.; Hays, M. D. Pollutant emissions and energy efficiency under controlled conditions for household biomass cookstoves and implications for metrics useful in setting international test standards Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (19) 10827– 10834
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Pollutant Emissions and Energy Efficiency under Controlled Conditions for Household Biomass Cookstoves and Implications for Metrics Useful in Setting International Test Standards
Jetter, James; Zhao, Yongxin; Smith, Kirk R.; Khan, Bernine; Yelverton, Tiffany; DeCarlo, Peter; Hays, Michael D.
Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (19), 10827-10834CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
Realistic metrics and methods to test household biomass cookstoves are required to develop stds. needed by international policy-makers, donors, and investors. Application of consistent test practices allows pollutant emissions and energy efficiency performance to be benchmarked and enables meaningful comparisons among traditional and advanced stove types. In this work, 22 cookstoves burning 6 types of fuel (wood, charcoal, pellets, corn cobs, rice hulls, plant oil) at 2 fuel moisture levels were examd. in lab.-controlled operating conditions as outlined in the Water Boiling Test (WBT) protocol, Version 4. Pollutant emissions (CO2, CO, CH4, total hydrocarbons, ultra-fine particles) were continuously monitored. Fine particle mass was measured gravimetrically for each WBT phase. Addnl. measurements included cookstove power, energy efficiency, and fuel use. Emission factors were given based on fuel and cooking energy, fuel mass, time, and cooking task or activity. Lowest PM2.5 emissions were 74 mg/MJdelivered from a technol. advanced cookstove vs. 700-1400 mg/MJdelivered from the base-case, open 3-stone cook fire. Highest thermal efficiency was 53% vs. 14-15% for the 3-stone cookfire. Based on these lab.-controlled test results and observations, recommendations to develop potentially useful metrics to establish international stds. are suggested.
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Kar, A.; Rehman, I. H.; Burney, J.; Puppala, S. P.; Suresh, R.; Singh, L.; Singh, V. K.; Ahmed, T.; Ramanathan, N.; Ramanathan, V. Real-Time Assessment of Black Carbon Pollution in Indian Households Due to Traditional and Improved Biomass Cookstoves Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (5) 2993– 3000
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Berrueta, V. M.; Edwards, R. D.; Masera, O. R. Energy performance of wood-burning cookstoves in Michoacan, Mexico Renew. Energy 2008, 33 (5) 859– 870
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Johnson, M.; Edwards, R.; Alatorre Frenk, C.; Masera, O. In-field greenhouse gas emissions from cookstoves in rural Mexican households Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (6) 1206– 1222
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In-field greenhouse gas emissions from cookstoves in rural Mexican households
Johnson, Michael; Edwards, Rufus; Alatorre Frenk, Claudio; Masera, Omar
Atmospheric Environment (2008), 42 (6), 1206-1222CODEN: AENVEQ; ISSN:1352-2310. (Elsevier Ltd.)
The majority of ests. of the greenhouse gas emissions assocd. with changes from traditional to improved cookstoves in developing countries come from water-boiling tests (WBTs) conducted in simulated kitchens. Little is known about the bias in these ests. relative to typical stove use by residents in rural communities. To assess this bias, the redns. in emissions as a result of installation of an improved wood-burning "Patsari" stove were quantified in both simulated kitchens and field conditions in eight homes with open fire stoves and 13 homes with Patsari stoves in Purepecha communities of Michoacan, Mexico. The results demonstrate that nominal combustion efficiencies (NCEs) of open fire cookstoves were significantly lower (p < 0.001) in rural homes during daily cooking activities (89.7 ± 2.0%) compared to WBTs in simulated kitchens (94.2 ± 0.5%), which results in almost a doubling of the products on incomplete combustion (PICs) emitted. Since emissions from the rural residential sector are important in the modeling of atm. trace greenhouse gas concns. in areas that rely on solid fuel use for primary energy provision, if these open fires reflect conditions in other areas of the world, substantial underestimation of emissions from open fires may be present in current emission databases. Conversely, NCEs for the improved Patsari stoves were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in rural homes during daily cooking activities (92.3 ± 1.3%) compared to during WBTs in simulated kitchens (87.2 ± 4.3%), as WBTs do not reflect cooking activities in rural homes. Thus the Patsari emits 25% less PICs per kg fuel-wood used than the open fire, and carbon emission redns. of Patsari and similar improved stoves are also likely underestimated. Finally, in addn. to a redn. in overall particulate emissions for rural homes during daily activities, the ratio of org. carbon (OC) to elemental carbon (EC) within the aerosol fraction decreased between the open fire and improved Patsari stoves. While the overall EC contribution for the brick Patsari was reduced, the fraction of EC increased relative to OC, which makes the overall warming implication more ambiguous given current uncertainties in warming and cooling potentials of these fractions.
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Johnson, M.; Edwards, R.; Berrueta, V.; Masera, O. New approaches to performance testing of improved cookstoves Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 44 (1) 368– 374
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Roden, C. A.; Bond, T. C.; Conway, S.; Osorto Pinel, A. B.; MacCarty, N.; Still, D. Laboratory and field investigations of particulate and carbon monoxide emissions from traditional and improved cookstoves Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43 (6) 1170– 1181
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Laboratory and field investigations of particulate and carbon monoxide emissions from traditional and improved cookstoves
Roden, Christoph A.; Bond, Tami C.; Conway, Stuart; Osorto Pinel, Anibal Benjamin; MacCarty, Nordica; Still, Dean
Atmospheric Environment (2009), 43 (6), 1170-1181CODEN: AENVEQ; ISSN:1352-2310. (Elsevier Ltd.)
We implemented a program in which emission characterization is enabled through collaborations between academic, US and international non-governmental entities that focus on evaluation, dissemination, and in-use testing, of improved cookstoves. This effort resulted in a study of field and lab. emissions from traditional and improved biofuel cookstoves. We found that field measured particulate emissions of actual cooking av. three times those measured during simulated cooking in the lab. Emission factors are highly dependent on the care and skill of the operator and the resulting combustion; these do not appear to be accurately reproduced in lab. settings. The single scattering albedo (SSA) of the emissions was very low in both lab and field measurements, averaging about 0.3 for lab tests and around 0.5 for field tests, indicating that the primary particles are climate warming. Over the course of three summers in Honduras, we measured field emissions from traditional cookstoves, relatively new improved cookstoves, and "broken-in" improved cookstoves. We found that well-designed improved cookstoves can significantly reduce PM and CO emission factors below traditional cookstoves. For improved stoves, the presence of a chimney generally resulted in lower emission factors but left the SSA unaffected. Traditional cookstoves had an av. PM emission factor of 8.2 g kg-1 - significantly larger than previous studies. Particulate emission factors for improved cookstoves without and with chimneys averaged about 6.6 g kg-1 and 4.5 g kg-1, resp. The elemental carbon (EC) fraction of PM varied significantly between individual tests, but averaged about 25% for each of the categories.
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Chum, H.; Faaij, A.; Moreira, J.; Berndes, G.; Dhamija, P.; Dong, H.; Gabrielle, B.; Goss Eng, A.; Lucht, W.; Mapako, M.; Masera Cerutti, O.; McIntyre, T.; Minowa, T.; Pingoud, K. Bioenergy. In IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation; Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Seyboth, K.; Matschoss, P.; Kadner, S.; Zwickel, T.; Eickemeier, P.; Hansen, G.; Schlömer, S.; von Stechow, C., Eds.; Cambridge, UK and New York, 2011.
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Global Bioenergy Partnership. A Review of the Current State of Bioenergy Development in G8 + 5 Countries; Global Bioenergy Partnership, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations: Rome, 2008.
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Ghilardi, A.; Guerrero, G.; Masera, O. A GIS-based methodology for highlighting fuelwood supply/demand imbalances at the local level: A case study for Central Mexico Biomass Bioenergy 2009, 33 (6) 957– 972
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Drigo, R. East Africa WISDOM - Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping (WISDOM) Methodology - Spatial Woodfuel Production and Consumption Analysis of Selected African Countries; FAO World Energy Programme: Rome, 2006.
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Drigo, R. Wood-Energy Supply/Demand Scenarios in the Context of Poverty Mapping. A WISDOM Case Study in Southeast Asia for the Years 2000 and 2015; FAO Wood Energy Programme (FOPP) and Poverty Mapping Project (SDRN): Paris, 2007.
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Jetter, J. J.; Kariher, P. Solid-fuel household cook stoves: Characterization of performance and emissions Biomass Bioenergy 2009, 33 (2) 294– 305
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Solid-fuel household cook stoves: Characterization of performance and emissions
Jetter, James J.; Kariher, Peter
Biomass and Bioenergy (2009), 33 (2), 294-305CODEN: BMSBEO; ISSN:0961-9534. (Elsevier Ltd.)
In this study, 14 solid-fuel household cook stove and fuel combinations, including 10 stoves and four fuels, were tested for performance and pollutant emissions using a WBT (Water Boiling Test) protocol. Results from the testing showed that some stoves currently used in the field have improved fuel efficiency and lower pollutant emissions compared with traditional cooking methods. Stoves with smaller-mass components exposed to the heat of fuel combustion tended to take lesser time to boil, have better fuel efficiency, and lower pollutant emissions. The challenge is to design stoves with smaller-mass components that also have acceptable durability, affordable cost, and meet user needs. Results from this study provide stove performance and emissions information to practitioners disseminating stove technol. in the field. This information may be useful for improving the design of existing stoves and for developing new stove designs. Comparison of results between labs. shows that results can be replicated between labs when the same stove and fuel are tested using the WBT protocol. Recommendations were provided to improve the ability to replicate results between labs. Implications of better solid-fuel cook stoves are improved human health, reduced fuel use, reduced deforestation, and reduced global climate change.
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Pennise, D.; Brant, S.; Agbeve, S. M.; Quaye, W.; Mengesha, F.; Tadele, W.; Wofchuck, T. Indoor air quality impacts of an improved wood stove in Ghana and an ethanol stove in Ethiopia Energy Sustainable Dev. 2009, 13 (2) 71– 76
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Indoor air quality impacts of an improved wood stove in Ghana and an ethanol stove in Ethiopia
Pennise, David; Brant, Simone; Agbeve, Seth Mahu; Quaye, Wilhemina; Mengesha, Firehiwot; Tadele, Wubshet; Wofchuck, Todd
Energy for Sustainable Development (2009), 13 (2), 71-76CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (Elsevier B.V.)
This study was undertaken to assess the potential of two types of improved cookstoves to reduce indoor air pollution in African homes. An ethanol stove, the CleanCook, was tested in three locations in Ethiopia: the city of Addis Ababa and the Bonga and Kebribeyah Refugee Camps, while a wood-burning rocket stove, the Gyapa, was evaluated in Accra, Ghana. In both countries, kitchen concns. of PM2.5 and CO, the two pollutants responsible for the bulk of the ill-health assocd. with indoor smoke, were monitored in a before and after study design without controls. Baseline (before) measurements were made in households using a traditional stove or open fire. After measurements were performed in the same households, once the improved stove had been introduced. PM2.5 was measured using UCB Particle Monitors, which have photoelec. detectors. CO was measured with Onset HOBO Loggers. In Ghana and Kebribeyah Camp, CO was also measured with Gastec diffusion tubes. In Ghana, av. 24-h PM2.5 concns. decreased 52% from 650 μg/m3 in the before phase to 320 μg/m3 in the after phase (p=0.00), and av. 24-h kitchen CO concns. decreased 40% from 12.3 ppm to 7.4 ppm (p = 0.01). Including all three subgroups in Ethiopia, av. PM2.5 concns. decreased 84% from 1 250 μg/m3 to 200 μg/m3 (p = 0.00) and av. CO concns. decreased 76% from 38.9 ppm to 9.2 ppm (p = 0.00). 24-H av. CO levels in households using both the Gyapa and CleanCook stoves met, or nearly met, the World Health Organization (WHO) 8-h Air Quality Guideline. PM2.5 concns. were well above both the WHO 24-h Guideline and Interim Targets. Therefore, despite the significant improvements assocd. with both of these stoves, further changes in stove or fuel type or household fuel mixing patterns would be required to bring PM to levels that are not considered harmful to health.
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Adkins, E.; Tyler, E.; Wang, J.; Siriri, D.; Modi, V. Field testing and survey evaluation of household biomass cookstoves in rural sub-Saharan Africa Energy Sustainable Dev. 2010, 14 (3) 172– 185
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MacCarty, N.; Still, D.; Ogle, D. Fuel use and emissions performance of fifty cooking stoves in the laboratory and related benchmarks of performance Energy Sustainable Dev. 2010, 14 (3) 161– 171
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Smith, K. R.; McCracken, J. P.; Weber, M. W.; Hubbard, A.; Jenny, A.; Thompson, L. M.; Balmes, J.; Diaz, A.; Arana, B.; Bruce, N. Effect of reduction in household air pollution on childhood pneumonia in Guatemala (RESPIRE): A randomised controlled trial Lancet 2011, 378 (9804) 1717– 1726
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Effect of reduction in household air pollution on childhood pneumonia in Guatemala (RESPIRE): a randomised controlled trial
Smith Kirk R; McCracken John P; Weber Martin W; Hubbard Alan; Jenny Alisa; Thompson Lisa M; Balmes John; Diaz Anaite; Arana Byron; Bruce Nigel
Lancet (London, England) (2011), 378 (9804), 1717-26 ISSN:.
BACKGROUND: Pneumonia causes more child deaths than does any other disease. Observational studies have indicated that smoke from household solid fuel is a significant risk factor that affects about half the world's children. We investigated whether an intervention to lower indoor wood smoke emissions would reduce pneumonia in children. METHODS: We undertook a parallel randomised controlled trial in highland Guatemala, in a population using open indoor wood fires for cooking. We randomly assigned 534 households with a pregnant woman or young infant to receive a woodstove with chimney (n=269) or to remain as controls using open woodfires (n=265), by concealed permuted blocks of ten homes. Fieldworkers visited homes every week until children were aged 18 months to record the child's health status. Sick children with cough and fast breathing, or signs of severe illness were referred to study physicians, masked to intervention status, for clinical examination. The primary outcome was physician-diagnosed pneumonia, without use of a chest radiograph. Analysis was by intention to treat (ITT). Infant 48-h carbon monoxide measurements were used for exposure-response analysis after adjustment for covariates. This trial is registered, number ISRCTN29007941. FINDINGS: During 29,125 child-weeks of surveillance of 265 intervention and 253 control children, there were 124 physician-diagnosed pneumonia cases in intervention households and 139 in control households (rate ratio [RR] 0·84, 95% CI 0·63-1·13; p=0·257). After multiple imputation, there were 149 cases in intervention households and 180 in controls (0·78, 0·59-1·06, p=0·095; reduction 22%, 95% CI -6% to 41%). ITT analysis was undertaken for secondary outcomes: all and severe fieldworker-assessed pneumonia; severe (hypoxaemic) physician-diagnosed pneumonia; and radiologically confirmed, RSV-negative, and RSV-positive pneumonia, both total and severe. We recorded significant reductions in the intervention group for three severe outcomes-fieldworker-assessed, physician-diagnosed, and RSV-negative pneumonia--but not for others. We identified no adverse effects from the intervention. The chimney stove reduced exposure by 50% on average (from 2·2 to 1·1 ppm carbon monoxide), but exposure distributions for the two groups overlapped substantially. In exposure-response analysis, a 50% exposure reduction was significantly associated with physician-diagnosed pneumonia (RR 0·82, 0·70-0·98), the greater precision resulting from less exposure misclassification compared with use of stove type alone in ITT analysis. INTERPRETATION: In a population heavily exposed to wood smoke from cooking, a reduction in exposure achieved with chimney stoves did not significantly reduce physician-diagnosed pneumonia for children younger than 18 months. The significant reduction of a third in severe pneumonia, however, if confirmed, could have important implications for reduction of child mortality. The significant exposure-response associations contribute to causal inference and suggest that stove or fuel interventions producing lower average exposures than these chimney stoves might be needed to substantially reduce pneumonia in populations heavily exposed to biomass fuel air pollution. FUNDING: US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and WHO.
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World Health Organization. Global Indoor Air Pollution Database; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2012.
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World Health Organization. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2009.
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Smith, K. R.; Mehta, S.; Maeusezahl-Feuz, M. Indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels. In Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Due to Selected Major Risk Factors; Ezzati, M.; Lopez, A. D.; Rodgers, A.; Murray, C. J. L., Eds.; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2004; pp 1435– 1493.
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Dutta, K.; Shields, K. N.; Edwards, R.; Smith, K. R. Impact of improved biomass cookstoves on indoor air quality near Pune, India Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 19– 32
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Impact of improved biomass cookstoves on indoor air quality near Pune, India
Dutta, Karabi; Shields, Kyra Naumoff; Edwards, Rufus; Smith, Kirk R.
Energy for Sustainable Development (2007), 11 (2), 19-32CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
To reduce the impact of indoor air pollution and improve fuel efficiency, the Appropriate Rural Technol. Institute (ARTI), in conjunction with 10 non-governmental organizations, helped establish rural enterprises that subsequently distributed 30,000 improved cement cookstoves in Maharashtra, India, between August 2004 and Dec. 2005. In a subset of these households (n = 110), ARTI undertook a comprehensive assessment of the impact of the improved Laxmi (vented) and Bhagyalaxmi (unvented) stoves on indoor air quality. Measurements of CO and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were taken for a 48-h period in kitchens before and after installation of improved stoves. One year after the installation of the improved stoves, the 48-h mean CO concn. was reduced, on av., by 39% for the Laxmi and 38% for the Bhagyalaxmi. Similarly, the 48-h mean PM2.5 concn. was reduced, on av., by 24% for the Laxmi and 49% for the Bhagyalaxmi. Key challenges during the monitoring were: (i) motivating household members to purchase the improved cookstoves (ICSs); (ii) ensuring that the households made the transition to using the ICSs; and (iii) maintaining high stds. of data quality as a field team. Despite the challenges, the importance of monitoring and evaluation remains crit. in verifying the benefits of improved stove designs. Building on the lessons that we have learned, future efforts will focus on monitoring and evaluating fewer villages to conc. resources, establishing a stronger rapport with study participants, and better understanding the dynamics of stove adoption in each home. Our hope is that this experience will aid other organizations in the design of their own ICS monitoring and evaluation programs.
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Chengappa, C.; Edwards, R.; Bajpai, R.; Shields, K. N.; Smith, K. R. Impact of improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in the Bundelkhand region in India Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 33– 44
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Impact of improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in the Bundelkhand region in India
Chengappa, Chaya; Edwards, Rufus; Bajpai, Rajesh; Shields, Kyra Naumoff; Smith, Kirk R.
Energy for Sustainable Development (2007), 11 (2), 33-44CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
Despite the reach of India's National Program on Improved Chulhas, little quant. monitoring and evaluation of improved stove projects in India has previously been undertaken by non-governmental organizations. Development Alternatives (DA) recently distributed 980 improved chimney cookstoves (Sukhad stoves) in the Bundelkhand region of India. In a subset of these households (n = 60), DA undertook a comprehensive assessment of the impact of the improved Sukhad stove on indoor air quality. Measurements of CO and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were conducted for a 48-h period in 60 rural kitchens in Bundelkhand before and after installation of the Sukhad stove. One year after the installation of the of the Sukhad, 48-h av. CO concns. were reduced, on av., by 70% (p < 0.001) in the homes of regular users of the improved stove. Similarly, 48-h av. PM2.5 concns. were reduced, on av., by 44% (p < 0.01). Given these redns., continued promotion of the Sukhad stove would be warranted, while simultaneously improving stove design. Similar to other Household Energy and Health projects, there were many homes that transitioned to use of the improved stove, while maintaining a traditional stove in the home, which highlights the need for follow-up in stove training after installation of the improved stove. Although challenging, the monitoring and evaluation provided important information about actual use of the stove in communities, and was important in understanding the adoption process for these rural families.
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Masera, O.; Edwards, R.; Arnez, C. A.; Berrueta, V.; Johnson, M.; Bracho, L. R.; Riojas-Rodríguez, H.; Smith, K. R. Impact of Patsari improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in Michoacán, Mexico Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 45– 56
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Impact of Patsari improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in Michoacan, Mexico
Masera, Omar; Edwards, Rufus; Arnez, Cynthia Armendariz; Berrueta, Victor; Johnson, Michael; Bracho, Leonora Rojas; Riojas-Rodriguez, Horacio; Smith, Kirk R.
Energy for Sustainable Development (2007), 11 (2), 45-56CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
Little quant. monitoring and evaluation of the impacts of improved stoves were performed in Mexico. Grupo Interdisciplinario de Tecnologia Rural Apropiada (GIRA) has recently disseminated 4000 improved Patsari cookstoves, most of them in the Purepecha region of Michoacan state, Mexico. In paired comparisons in a subset of kitchens in a single community before and after installation of an improved Patsari cookstove, 48-h av. kitchen concns. of CO and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were reduced by 66% (n = 32) and 67% (n = 33), resp. Kitchens that had more elevated concns. during the baseline measurements demonstrated more dramatic redns., as the overall variability was reduced when the improved stove was used. Thus, the Patsari stove provides an effective means of reducing kitchen air pollution and potential benefits of installing these stoves are considerable. Although requiring significant addnl. resources, the Household Energy and Health Project catalyzed a much broader investigation into health, climate, environment, and societal impacts of Patsari stoves, which has had a greater impact on public policy than the direct impact of the no. of improved stoves installed in these communities.
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Balakrishnan, K.; Sambandam, S.; Ghosh, S.; Sadasivam, A.; Madhavan, S.; Siva, R.; Samanta, M. Assessing Household Level Exposure Reductions Associated with the use of Market Based Improved Biomass Cook-Stoves in Rural Communities in India: Results from Field Assessments in Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh; Sri Ramachandra University: Chennai, India, 2012.
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Cynthia, A. A.; Edwards, R. D.; Johnson, M.; Zuk, M.; Rojas, L.; Jiménez, R. D.; Riojas-Rodriguez, H.; Masera, O. Reduction in personal exposures to particulate matter and carbon monoxide as a result of the installation of a Patsari improved cook stove in Michoacan Mexico Indoor Air 2008, 18 (2) 93– 105
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Laumbach, R. J.; Kipen, H. M. Respiratory health effects of air pollution: Update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution J. Allergy Clin. Immun. 2012, 129 (1) 3– 11
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García-Frapolli, E.; Schilmann, A.; Berrueta, V. M.; Riojas-Rodríguez, H.; Edwards, R. D.; Johnson, M.; Guevara-Sanginés, A.; Armendariz, C.; Masera, O. Beyond fuelwood savings: Valuing the economic benefits of introducing improved biomass cookstoves in the Purépecha region of Mexico Ecol. Econ. 2010, 69 (12) 2598– 2605
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Pope, C. A.; Burnett, R. T.; Krewski, D.; Jerrett, M.; Shi, Y.; Calle, E. E.; Thun, M. J. Cardiovascular mortality and exposure to airborne fine particulate matter and cigarette smoke shape of the exposure-response relationship Circulation 2009, 120 (11) 941– 948
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Ramanathan, V.; Chung, C.; Kim, D.; Bettge, T.; Buja, L.; Kiehl, J. T.; Washington, W. M.; Fu, Q.; Sikka, D. R.; Wild, M. Atmospheric brown clouds: Impacts on South Asian climate and hydrological cycle Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 2005, 102 (15) 5326– 5333
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Atmospheric brown clouds: impacts of South Asian climate and hydrological cycle
Ramanathan, V.; Chung, C.; Kim, D.; Bettge, T.; Buja, L.; Kiehl, J. T.; Washington, W. M.; Fu, Q.; Sikka, D. R.; Wild, M.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2005), 102 (15), 5326-5333CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
South Asian emissions of fossil fuel SO2 and black carbon increased ≈6-fold since 1930, resulting in large atm. concns. of black carbon and other aerosols. This period also witnessed strong neg. trends of surface solar radiation, surface evapn., and summer monsoon rainfall. These changes over India were accompanied by an increase in atm. stability and a decrease in sea surface temp. gradients in the Northern Indian Ocean. We conducted an ensemble of coupled ocean-atm. simulations from 1930 to 2000 to understand the role of atm. brown clouds in the obsd. trends. The simulations adopt the aerosol radiative forcing from the Indian Ocean expt. observations and also account for global increases in greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols. The simulated decreases in surface solar radiation, changes in surface and atm. temps. over land and sea, and decreases in monsoon rainfall are similar to the obsd. trends. We also show that greenhouse gases and sulfates, by themselves, do not account for the magnitude or even the sign in many instances, of the obsd. trends. Thus, our simulations suggest that absorbing aerosols in atm. brown clouds may have played a major role in the obsd. regional climate and hydrol. cycle changes and have masked as much as 50% of the surface warming due to the global increase in greenhouse gases. The simulations also raise the possibility that, if current trends in emissions continue, the subcontinent may experience a doubling of the drought frequency in the coming decades.
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Chung, C. E.; Ramanathan, V.; Decremer, D. Observationally constrained estimates of carbonaceous aerosol radiative forcing Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 2012, 109 (29) 11624– 11629
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Observationally constrained estimates of carbonaceous aerosol radiative forcing
Chung, Chul E.; Ramanathan, V.; Decremer, Damien
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2012), 109 (29), 11624-11629, S11624/1-S11624/8CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
Carbonaceous aerosols (CA) emitted by fossil and biomass fuels consist of black carbon (BC), a strong absorber of solar radiation, and org. matter (OM). OM scatters as well as absorbs solar radiation. The absorbing component of OM, which is ignored in most climate models, is referred to as brown carbon (BrC). Model ests. of the global CA radiative forcing range from 0 to 0.7 Wm-2, to be compared with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's est. for the pre-industrial to the present net radiative forcing of about 1.6 Wm-2. This study provides a model-independent, observationally based est. of the CA direct radiative forcing. Ground-based aerosol network data is integrated with field data and satellite-based aerosol observations to provide a decadal (2001 through 2009) global view of the CA optical properties and direct radiative forcing. The estd. global CA direct radiative effect is about 0.75 Wm-2 (0.5 to 1.0). This study identifies the global importance of BrC, which is shown to contribute about 20% to 550-nm CA solar absorption globally. Because of the inclusion of BrC, the net effect of OM is close to zero and the CA forcing is nearly equal to that of BC. The CA direct radiative forcing is estd. to be about 0.65 (0.5 to about 0.8) Wm-2, thus comparable to or exceeding that by methane. Caused in part by BrC absorption, CAs have a net warming effect even over open biomass-burning regions in Africa and the Amazon.
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Anenberg, S. C.; Schwartz, J.; Shindell, D.; Amann, M.; Faluvegi, G.; Klimont, Z.; Janssens-Maenhout, G.; Pozzoli, L.; Van Dingenen, R.; Vignati, E.; Emberson, L.; Muller, N. Z.; West, J. J.; Williams, M.; Demkine, V.; Hicks, W. K.; Kuylenstierna, J.; Raes, F.; Ramanathan, V. Global Air Quality and Health Co-benefits of Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change through Methane and Black Carbon Emission Controls Environ. Health Perspect 2012, 120 (6) 831– 839
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Global air quality and health co-benefits of mitigating near-term climate change through methane and black carbon emission controls
Anenberg Susan C; Schwartz Joel; Shindell Drew; Amann Markus; Faluvegi Greg; Klimont Zbigniew; Janssens-Maenhout Greet; Pozzoli Luca; Van Dingenen Rita; Vignati Elisabetta; Emberson Lisa; Muller Nicholas Z; West J Jason; Williams Martin; Demkine Volodymyr; Hicks W Kevin; Kuylenstierna Johan; Raes Frank; Ramanathan Veerabhadran
Environmental health perspectives (2012), 120 (6), 831-9 ISSN:.
BACKGROUND: Tropospheric ozone and black carbon (BC), a component of fine particulate matter (PM ≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter; PM(2.5)), are associated with premature mortality and they disrupt global and regional climate. OBJECTIVES: We examined the air quality and health benefits of 14 specific emission control measures targeting BC and methane, an ozone precursor, that were selected because of their potential to reduce the rate of climate change over the next 20-40 years. METHODS: We simulated the impacts of mitigation measures on outdoor concentrations of PM(2.5) and ozone using two composition-climate models, and calculated associated changes in premature PM(2.5)- and ozone-related deaths using epidemiologically derived concentration-response functions. RESULTS: We estimated that, for PM(2.5) and ozone, respectively, fully implementing these measures could reduce global population-weighted average surface concentrations by 23-34% and 7-17% and avoid 0.6-4.4 and 0.04-0.52 million annual premature deaths globally in 2030. More than 80% of the health benefits are estimated to occur in Asia. We estimated that BC mitigation measures would achieve approximately 98% of the deaths that would be avoided if all BC and methane mitigation measures were implemented, due to reduced BC and associated reductions of nonmethane ozone precursor and organic carbon emissions as well as stronger mortality relationships for PM(2.5) relative to ozone. Although subject to large uncertainty, these estimates and conclusions are not strongly dependent on assumptions for the concentration-response function. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to climate benefits, our findings indicate that the methane and BC emission control measures would have substantial co-benefits for air quality and public health worldwide, potentially reversing trends of increasing air pollution concentrations and mortality in Africa and South, West, and Central Asia. These projected benefits are independent of carbon dioxide mitigation measures. Benefits of BC measures are underestimated because we did not account for benefits from reduced indoor exposures and because outdoor exposure estimates were limited by model spatial resolution.
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United Nations Environment Programme. Near-term Climate Protection and Clean Air Benefits: Actions for Controlling Short-Lived Climate Forcers; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2011.
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Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G. Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon Nat. Geosci. 2008, 1 (4) 221– 227
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Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon
Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G.
Nature Geoscience (2008), 1 (4), 221-227CODEN: NGAEBU; ISSN:1752-0894. (Nature Publishing Group)
A review concerning regional and global climate changes induced by soot black carbon via visible solar radiation absorption in the atm. is given. Topics discussed include: regional hotspots; climate system radiative forcing; global climate effects; regional climate effects; climate system response and feedbacks; reducing future black carbon emissions; and Asian emissions and future trends.
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Rehman, I.; Ahmed, T.; Praveen, P.; Kar, A.; Ramanathan, V. Black carbon emissions from biomass and fossil fuels in rural India Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011, 11 (14) 7289– 7299
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Ramanathan, V.; Agrawal, M.; Akimoto, H.; Auffhammer, M.; Devotta, S.; Emberson, L.; Hasnain, S. I.; Iyngararasan, M.; Jayaraman, A.; Lawrence, M.; Nakajima, T.; Oki, T.; Rodhe, H.; Ruchirawat, M.; Tan, S. K.; Vincent, J.; Wang, J. Y.; Yang, D.; Zhang, Y. H.; Autrup, H.; Barregard, L.; Bonasoni, P.; Brauer, M.; Brunekreef, B.; Carmichael, G.; Chung, C. E.; Dahe, J.; Feng, Y.; Fuzzi, S.; Gordon, T.; Gosain, A. K.; Htun, N.; Kim, J.; Mourato, S.; Naeher, L.; Navasumrit, P.; Ostro, B.; Panwar, T.; Rahman, M. R.; Ramana, M. V.; Rupakheti, M.; Settachan, D.; Singh, A. K.; St. Helen, G.; Tan, P. V.; Viet, P. H.; Yinlong, J.; Yoon, S. C.; Chang, W. C.; Wang, X.; Zelikoff, J.; Zhu, A. Atmospheric Brown Clouds: Regional Assessment Report with Focus on Asia; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2008.
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Praveen, P.; Ahmed, T.; Kar, A.; Rehman, I.; Ramanathan, V. Link between local scale BC emissions in the Indo-Gangetic Plains and large scale atmospheric solar absorption Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2012, 12, 1173– 1187
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Bond, T. C.; Doherty, S. J.; Fahey, D. W.; Forster, P. M.; Berntsen, T.; DeAngelo, B. J.; Flanner, M. G.; Ghan, S.; Kärcher, B.; Koch, D.; Kinne, S.; Knodo, Y.; Quinn, P. K.; Sarofim, M. C.; Schultz, M. G.; Schulz, M.; Venkataraman, C.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, S.; Bellouin, N.; Guttinkunda, S. K.; Hopke, P. K.; Jacobson, M. Z.; Kaiser, J. W.; Klimont, Z.; Lohmann, U.; Schwarz, J. P.; Shindell, D.; Storelvmo, T.; Warren, S. G.; Zender, C. S. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment J. Geophys. Res. 2013, DOI: doi: 10.1002/jgrd.50171
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Shindell, D.; Kuylenstierna, J. C. I.; Vignati, E.; van Dingenen, R.; Amann, M.; Klimont, Z.; Anenberg, S. C.; Muller, N.; Janssens-Maenhout, G.; Raes, F.; Schwartz, J.; Faluvegi, G.; Pozzoli, L.; Kupiainen, K.; Hoglund-Isakkson, L.; Emberson, L.; Streets, D.; Ramanathan, V.; Hicks, K.; Oahn, N. T. K.; Milly, G.; Williams, M.; Demkine, V.; Fowler, D. Simultaneously mitigating near-term climate change and improving human health and food security Science 2012, 335 (6065) 183– 189
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Simultaneously Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change and Improving Human Health and Food Security
Shindell, Drew; Kuylenstierna, Johan C. I.; Vignati, Elisabetta; van Dingenen, Rita; Amann, Markus; Klimont, Zbigniew; Anenberg, Susan C.; Muller, Nicholas; Janssens-Maenhout, Greet; Raes, Frank; Schwartz, Joel; Faluvegi, Greg; Pozzoli, Luca; Kupiainen, Kaarle; Hoeglund-Isaksson, Lena; Emberson, Lisa; Streets, David; Ramanathan, V.; Hicks, Kevin; Oanh, N. T. Kim; Milly, George; Williams, Martin; Demkine, Volodymyr; Fowler, David
Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2012), 335 (6065), 183-189CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
Tropospheric ozone and black carbon (BC) contribute to both degraded air quality and global warming. We considered ~400 emission control measures to reduce these pollutants by using current technol. and experience. We identified 14 measures targeting methane and BC emissions that reduce projected global mean warming ~0.5°C by 2050. This strategy avoids 0.7 to 4.7 million annual premature deaths from outdoor air pollution and increases annual crop yields by 30 to 135 million metric tons due to ozone redns. in 2030 and beyond. Benefits of methane emissions redns. are valued at 700 to 5000 per metric ton, which is well above typical marginal abatement costs (less than 250). The selected controls target different sources and influence climate on shorter time scales than those of carbon dioxide-redn. measures. Implementing both substantially reduces the risks of crossing the 2°C threshold.
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Ramanathan, V.; Xu, Y. The Copenhagen Accord for limiting global warming: Criteria, constraints, and available avenues Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 2010, 107 (18) 8055– 8062
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Lamarque, J. F.; Bond, T. C.; Eyring, V.; Granier, C.; Heil, A.; Klimont, Z.; Lee, D.; Liousse, C.; Mieville, A.; Owen, B.; Schultz, M. G.; Shindell, D.; Smith, S. J.; Stehfest, E.; Van Aardenne, J. V.; Cooper, O. R.; Kainuma, M.; Mahowald, N.; McConnell, J. R.; Naik, V.; Riahi, K.; van Vuuren, D. P. Historical (1850–2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10 (15) 7017– 7039
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Janssen, N. A. H.; Gerlofs-Nijland, M. E.; Lanki, T.; Salonen, R. O.; Cassee, F.; Hoek, G.; Fischer, P.; Brunekreef, B.; Krzyzanowski, M. Health Effects of Black Carbon; World Health Organization: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2011.
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MacCarty, N.; Ogle, D.; Still, D.; Bond, T.; Roden, C. A laboratory comparison of the global warming impact of five major types of biomass cooking stoves Energy Sustainable Dev. 2008, 12 (2) 56– 65
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A laboratory comparison of the global warming impact of five major types of biomass cooking stoves
MacCarty, Nordica; Ogle, Damon; Still, Dean; Bond, Tami; Roden, Christoph
Energy for Sustainable Development (2008), 12 (2), 56-65CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
With over 2 billion of the world's population living in families using biomass to cook every day, the possibility of improved stoves helping to mitigate climate change is generating increasing attention. With their emissions of CO2, methane, and black carbon, among other substances, is there a cleaner, practical option to provide to the families that will need to continue to use biomass for cooking. This study served to help quantify the relative emissions from five common types of biomass combustion in order to investigate if there are cleaner options. The lab. results showed that for situations of sustainable harvesting where CO2 emissions are considered neutral, some improved stoves with rocket-type combustion or fan assistance can reduce overall warming impact from the products of incomplete combustion (PICs) by as much as 50-95%. In non-sustainable situations where fuel and CO2 savings are of greater importance, three types of improved combustion methods were shown to potentially reduce warming by 40-60%. Charcoal-burning may emit less CO2 than traditional wood-burning, but the PIC emissions are significantly greater.
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Johnson, M.; Lam, N.; Pennise, D.; Charron, D.; Bond, T.; Modi, V.; Ndemere, J. A. In-home Emissions of Greenhouse Pollutants from Rocket and Traditional Biomass Cooking Stoves in Uganda; U.S. Agency for International Development: Washington, DC, 2011.
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report to Congress on Black Carbon; Research Triangle Park, NC, 2012.
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Grieshop, A. P.; Marshall, J. D.; Kandlikar, M. Health and climate benefits of cookstove replacement options Energy Policy 2011, 39 (12) 7530– 7542
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Health and climate benefits of cookstove replacement options
Grieshop, Andrew P.; Marshall, Julian D.; Kandlikar, Milind
Energy Policy (2011), 39 (12), 7530-7542CODEN: ENPYAC; ISSN:0301-4215. (Elsevier Ltd.)
The health and climate impacts of available household cooking options in developing countries vary sharply. Here, we analyze and compare these impacts (health; climate) and the potential co-benefits from the use of fuel and stove combinations. Our results indicate that health and climate impacts span 2 orders of magnitude among the technologies considered. Indoor air pollution is heavily impacted by combustion performance and ventilation; climate impacts are influenced by combustion performance and fuel properties including biomass renewability. Emission components not included in current carbon trading schemes, such as black carbon particles and carbon monoxide, can contribute a large proportion of the total climate impact. Multiple 'improved' stove options analyzed in this paper yield roughly equiv. climate benefits but have different impacts on indoor air pollution. Improvements to biomass stoves can improve indoor air quality, which nonetheless remains significantly higher than for stoves that use liq. or gaseous hydrocarbons. LPG- and kerosene-fueled stoves have unrivaled air quality benefits and their climate impacts are also lower than all but the cleanest stoves using renewable biomass.
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Hanna, R.; Duflo, E.; Greenstone, M., Up in smoke: The influence of household behavior on the long-run impact of improved cooking stoves. In MIT Department of Economics Working Paper Series 12–10, Cambridge, MA, 2012.
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Barnes, D.; Kumar, P. Success factors in improved stoves programmes: Lessons from six states in India J. Environ. Stud. Policy 2002, 5 (2) 99– 112
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Bailis, R.; Cowan, A.; Berrueta, V.; Masera, O. Arresting the killer in the kitchen: The promises and pitfalls of commercializing improved cookstoves World Dev. 2009, 37 (10) 1694– 1705
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Masera, O. R.; Navia, J. Fuel switching or multiple cooking fuels? Understanding inter-fuel substitution patterns in rural Mexican households Biomass Bioenergy 1997, 12 (5) 347– 361
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Joon, V.; Chandra, A.; Bhattacharya, M. Household energy consumption pattern and socio-cultural dimensions associated with it: A case study of rural Haryana, India Biomass Bioenergy 2009, 33 (11) 1509– 1512
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Heltberg, R. Factors determining household fuel choice in Guatemala Environ. Dev. Econ. 2005, 10 (3) 337– 361
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Heltberg, R. Fuel switching: Evidence from eight developing countries Energy Econ. 2004, 26 (5) 869– 887
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Hiemstra-van der Horst, G.; Hovorka, A. J. Reassessing the “energy ladder”: Household energy use in Maun, Botswana Energy Policy 2008, 36 (9) 3333– 3344
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Mukhopadhyay, R.; Sambandam, S.; Pillarisetti, A.; Jack, D.; Mukhopadhyay, K.; Balakrishnan, K.; Vaswani, M.; Bates, M. N.; Kinney, P. L.; Arora, N.; Smith, K. R. Cooking practices, air quality, and the acceptability of advanced cookstoves in Haryana, India: An exploratory study to inform large-scale interventions Global Health Action 2012, 5, 1– 13
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The World Bank. Household Cookstoves, Environment, Health, and Climate Change; Washington, DC, 2011.
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Bailis, R.; Berrueta, V.; Chengappa, C.; Dutta, K.; Edwards, R.; Masera, O.; Still, D.; Smith, K. R. Performance testing for monitoring improved biomass stove interventions: Experiences of the Household Energy and Health Project Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 57– 70
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Johnson, M.; Edwards, R.; Alatorre Frenk, C.; Masera, O. In-field greenhouse gas emissions from cookstoves in rural Mexican households Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (6) 1206– 1222
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In-field greenhouse gas emissions from cookstoves in rural Mexican households
Johnson, Michael; Edwards, Rufus; Alatorre Frenk, Claudio; Masera, Omar
Atmospheric Environment (2008), 42 (6), 1206-1222CODEN: AENVEQ; ISSN:1352-2310. (Elsevier Ltd.)
The majority of ests. of the greenhouse gas emissions assocd. with changes from traditional to improved cookstoves in developing countries come from water-boiling tests (WBTs) conducted in simulated kitchens. Little is known about the bias in these ests. relative to typical stove use by residents in rural communities. To assess this bias, the redns. in emissions as a result of installation of an improved wood-burning "Patsari" stove were quantified in both simulated kitchens and field conditions in eight homes with open fire stoves and 13 homes with Patsari stoves in Purepecha communities of Michoacan, Mexico. The results demonstrate that nominal combustion efficiencies (NCEs) of open fire cookstoves were significantly lower (p < 0.001) in rural homes during daily cooking activities (89.7 ± 2.0%) compared to WBTs in simulated kitchens (94.2 ± 0.5%), which results in almost a doubling of the products on incomplete combustion (PICs) emitted. Since emissions from the rural residential sector are important in the modeling of atm. trace greenhouse gas concns. in areas that rely on solid fuel use for primary energy provision, if these open fires reflect conditions in other areas of the world, substantial underestimation of emissions from open fires may be present in current emission databases. Conversely, NCEs for the improved Patsari stoves were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in rural homes during daily cooking activities (92.3 ± 1.3%) compared to during WBTs in simulated kitchens (87.2 ± 4.3%), as WBTs do not reflect cooking activities in rural homes. Thus the Patsari emits 25% less PICs per kg fuel-wood used than the open fire, and carbon emission redns. of Patsari and similar improved stoves are also likely underestimated. Finally, in addn. to a redn. in overall particulate emissions for rural homes during daily activities, the ratio of org. carbon (OC) to elemental carbon (EC) within the aerosol fraction decreased between the open fire and improved Patsari stoves. While the overall EC contribution for the brick Patsari was reduced, the fraction of EC increased relative to OC, which makes the overall warming implication more ambiguous given current uncertainties in warming and cooling potentials of these fractions.
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Lam, N. L.; Smith, K. R.; Gauthier, A.; Bates, M. N. Kerosene: A Review of Household Uses and their Hazards in Low-and Middle-Income Countries J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part B 2012, 15 (6) 396– 432
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Naeher, L. P.; Brauer, M.; Lipsett, M.; Zelikoff, J. T.; Simpson, C. D.; Koenig, J. Q.; Smith, K. R. Woodsmoke health effects: A review Inhalat. Toxicol. 2007, 19 (1) 67– 106
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Woodsmoke health effects: a review
Naeher, Luke P.; Brauer, Michael; Lipsett, Michael; Zelikoff, Judith T.; Simpson, Christopher D.; Koenig, Jane Q.; Smith, Kirk R.
Inhalation Toxicology (2007), 19 (1), 67-106CODEN: INHTE5; ISSN:0895-8378. (Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.)
A review. The sentiment that woodsmoke, being a natural substance, must be benign to humans is still sometimes heard. It is now well established, however, that wood-burning stoves and fireplaces as well as wildland and agricultural fires emit significant quantities of known health-damaging pollutants, including several carcinogenic compds. Two of the principal gaseous pollutants in woodsmoke, CO and NOx, add to the atm. levels of these regulated gases emitted by other combustion sources. Health impacts of exposures to these gases and some of the other woodsmoke constituents (e.g., benzene) are well characterized in thousands of publications. As these gases are indistinguishable no matter where they come from, there is no urgent need to examine their particular health implications in woodsmoke. With this as the backdrop, this review approaches the issue of why woodsmoke may be a special case requiring sep. health evaluation through 2 questions. The first question we address is whether woodsmoke should be regulated and/or managed sep., even though some of its sep. constituents are already regulated in many jurisdictions. The second question we address is whether woodsmoke particles pose different levels of risk than other ambient particles of similar size. To address these 2 key questions, we examine several topics: the chem. and phys. nature of woodsmoke; the exposures and epidemiol. of smoke from wildland fires and agricultural burning, and related controlled human lab. exposures to biomass smoke; the epidemiol. of outdoor and indoor woodsmoke exposures from residential woodburning in developed countries; and the toxicol. of woodsmoke, based on animal exposures and lab. tests. In addn., a short summary of the exposures and health effects of biomass smoke in developing countries is provided as an addnl. line of evidence. In the concluding section, we return to the 2 key issues above to summarize (1) what is currently known about the health effects of inhaled woodsmoke at exposure levels experienced in developed countries, and (2) whether there exists sufficient reason to believe that woodsmoke particles are sufficiently different to warrant sep. treatment from other regulated particles. In addn., we provide recommendations for addnl. woodsmoke research.
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Energy for Sustainable Development (2010), 14 (2), 63-72CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (Elsevier B.V.)
India has recently launched the National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative (NCI) to develop next-generation cleaner biomass cookstoves and deploy them to all Indian households that currently use traditional cookstoves. The initiative has set itself the lofty aim of providing energy service comparable to clean sources such as LPG but using the same solid biomass fuels commonly used today. Such a clean energy option for the estd. 160 million Indian households now cooking with inefficient and polluting biomass and coal cookstoves could yield enormous gains in health and welfare for the weakest and most vulnerable sections of society. At the same time, cleaner household cooking energy through substitution by advanced-combustion biomass stoves (or other options such as clean fuels) can nearly eliminate the several important products of incomplete combustion that come from today's practices and are important outdoor and greenhouse pollutants. Using national surveys, published literature and assessments, and measurements of cookstove performance solely from India, we find that about 570,000 premature deaths in poor women and children and over 4% of India's estd. greenhouse emissions could be avoided if such an initiative were in place today. These avoided emissions currently would be worth more than US$1 billion on the international carbon market. In addn., about one-third of India's black carbon emissions can be reduced along with a range of other health- and climate-active pollutants that affect regional air quality and climate. Although current advanced biomass stoves show substantial emissions redns. over traditional stoves, there is still addnl. improvement needed to reach LPG-like emission levels. We recognize that the technol. development and deployment challenges to meet NCI goals of this scale are formidable and a forthcoming companion paper focuses on what program design elements might best be able to overcome these challenges.
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Abstract
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Figure 1
Figure 1. Premature deaths attributable to household solid fuel use occur mainly in developing countries, as shown by these national estimates for 2002 (reproduced with permission from ref 2. Copyright 2007, WHO). Globally, estimates for 2010 are approximately double these earlier estimates for 2002, mainly due to methodological improvements. (1)
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Figure 2
Figure 2. Effect of biofuel cooking on Asian BC loading. (a) Simulated annual mean optical depth of BC aerosols for 2004–2005 using a regional aerosol/chemical/transport model. The values include BC emissions from biofuel cooking (indoor cooking with wood/dung/crop residues), fossil fuels, and biomass burning. (b) Same as for (a), but without biofuel cooking. Reproduced with permission from ref 35. Copyright 2008, Nature Publishing Group.
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References
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  In this study, 14 solid-fuel household cook stove and fuel combinations, including 10 stoves and four fuels, were tested for performance and pollutant emissions using a WBT (Water Boiling Test) protocol. Results from the testing showed that some stoves currently used in the field have improved fuel efficiency and lower pollutant emissions compared with traditional cooking methods. Stoves with smaller-mass components exposed to the heat of fuel combustion tended to take lesser time to boil, have better fuel efficiency, and lower pollutant emissions. The challenge is to design stoves with smaller-mass components that also have acceptable durability, affordable cost, and meet user needs. Results from this study provide stove performance and emissions information to practitioners disseminating stove technol. in the field. This information may be useful for improving the design of existing stoves and for developing new stove designs. Comparison of results between labs. shows that results can be replicated between labs when the same stove and fuel are tested using the WBT protocol. Recommendations were provided to improve the ability to replicate results between labs. Implications of better solid-fuel cook stoves are improved human health, reduced fuel use, reduced deforestation, and reduced global climate change.
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  16
  Indoor air quality impacts of an improved wood stove in Ghana and an ethanol stove in Ethiopia
  Pennise, David; Brant, Simone; Agbeve, Seth Mahu; Quaye, Wilhemina; Mengesha, Firehiwot; Tadele, Wubshet; Wofchuck, Todd
  Energy for Sustainable Development (2009), 13 (2), 71-76CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (Elsevier B.V.)
  This study was undertaken to assess the potential of two types of improved cookstoves to reduce indoor air pollution in African homes. An ethanol stove, the CleanCook, was tested in three locations in Ethiopia: the city of Addis Ababa and the Bonga and Kebribeyah Refugee Camps, while a wood-burning rocket stove, the Gyapa, was evaluated in Accra, Ghana. In both countries, kitchen concns. of PM2.5 and CO, the two pollutants responsible for the bulk of the ill-health assocd. with indoor smoke, were monitored in a before and after study design without controls. Baseline (before) measurements were made in households using a traditional stove or open fire. After measurements were performed in the same households, once the improved stove had been introduced. PM2.5 was measured using UCB Particle Monitors, which have photoelec. detectors. CO was measured with Onset HOBO Loggers. In Ghana and Kebribeyah Camp, CO was also measured with Gastec diffusion tubes. In Ghana, av. 24-h PM2.5 concns. decreased 52% from 650 μg/m3 in the before phase to 320 μg/m3 in the after phase (p=0.00), and av. 24-h kitchen CO concns. decreased 40% from 12.3 ppm to 7.4 ppm (p = 0.01). Including all three subgroups in Ethiopia, av. PM2.5 concns. decreased 84% from 1 250 μg/m3 to 200 μg/m3 (p = 0.00) and av. CO concns. decreased 76% from 38.9 ppm to 9.2 ppm (p = 0.00). 24-H av. CO levels in households using both the Gyapa and CleanCook stoves met, or nearly met, the World Health Organization (WHO) 8-h Air Quality Guideline. PM2.5 concns. were well above both the WHO 24-h Guideline and Interim Targets. Therefore, despite the significant improvements assocd. with both of these stoves, further changes in stove or fuel type or household fuel mixing patterns would be required to bring PM to levels that are not considered harmful to health.
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17. 17
  Adkins, E.; Tyler, E.; Wang, J.; Siriri, D.; Modi, V. Field testing and survey evaluation of household biomass cookstoves in rural sub-Saharan Africa Energy Sustainable Dev. 2010, 14 (3) 172– 185
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
18. 18
  MacCarty, N.; Still, D.; Ogle, D. Fuel use and emissions performance of fifty cooking stoves in the laboratory and related benchmarks of performance Energy Sustainable Dev. 2010, 14 (3) 161– 171
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
19. 19
  Smith, K. R.; McCracken, J. P.; Weber, M. W.; Hubbard, A.; Jenny, A.; Thompson, L. M.; Balmes, J.; Diaz, A.; Arana, B.; Bruce, N. Effect of reduction in household air pollution on childhood pneumonia in Guatemala (RESPIRE): A randomised controlled trial Lancet 2011, 378 (9804) 1717– 1726
  19
  Effect of reduction in household air pollution on childhood pneumonia in Guatemala (RESPIRE): a randomised controlled trial
  Smith Kirk R; McCracken John P; Weber Martin W; Hubbard Alan; Jenny Alisa; Thompson Lisa M; Balmes John; Diaz Anaite; Arana Byron; Bruce Nigel
  Lancet (London, England) (2011), 378 (9804), 1717-26 ISSN:.
  BACKGROUND: Pneumonia causes more child deaths than does any other disease. Observational studies have indicated that smoke from household solid fuel is a significant risk factor that affects about half the world's children. We investigated whether an intervention to lower indoor wood smoke emissions would reduce pneumonia in children. METHODS: We undertook a parallel randomised controlled trial in highland Guatemala, in a population using open indoor wood fires for cooking. We randomly assigned 534 households with a pregnant woman or young infant to receive a woodstove with chimney (n=269) or to remain as controls using open woodfires (n=265), by concealed permuted blocks of ten homes. Fieldworkers visited homes every week until children were aged 18 months to record the child's health status. Sick children with cough and fast breathing, or signs of severe illness were referred to study physicians, masked to intervention status, for clinical examination. The primary outcome was physician-diagnosed pneumonia, without use of a chest radiograph. Analysis was by intention to treat (ITT). Infant 48-h carbon monoxide measurements were used for exposure-response analysis after adjustment for covariates. This trial is registered, number ISRCTN29007941. FINDINGS: During 29,125 child-weeks of surveillance of 265 intervention and 253 control children, there were 124 physician-diagnosed pneumonia cases in intervention households and 139 in control households (rate ratio [RR] 0·84, 95% CI 0·63-1·13; p=0·257). After multiple imputation, there were 149 cases in intervention households and 180 in controls (0·78, 0·59-1·06, p=0·095; reduction 22%, 95% CI -6% to 41%). ITT analysis was undertaken for secondary outcomes: all and severe fieldworker-assessed pneumonia; severe (hypoxaemic) physician-diagnosed pneumonia; and radiologically confirmed, RSV-negative, and RSV-positive pneumonia, both total and severe. We recorded significant reductions in the intervention group for three severe outcomes-fieldworker-assessed, physician-diagnosed, and RSV-negative pneumonia--but not for others. We identified no adverse effects from the intervention. The chimney stove reduced exposure by 50% on average (from 2·2 to 1·1 ppm carbon monoxide), but exposure distributions for the two groups overlapped substantially. In exposure-response analysis, a 50% exposure reduction was significantly associated with physician-diagnosed pneumonia (RR 0·82, 0·70-0·98), the greater precision resulting from less exposure misclassification compared with use of stove type alone in ITT analysis. INTERPRETATION: In a population heavily exposed to wood smoke from cooking, a reduction in exposure achieved with chimney stoves did not significantly reduce physician-diagnosed pneumonia for children younger than 18 months. The significant reduction of a third in severe pneumonia, however, if confirmed, could have important implications for reduction of child mortality. The significant exposure-response associations contribute to causal inference and suggest that stove or fuel interventions producing lower average exposures than these chimney stoves might be needed to substantially reduce pneumonia in populations heavily exposed to biomass fuel air pollution. FUNDING: US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and WHO.
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20. 20
  World Health Organization. Global Indoor Air Pollution Database; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2012.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
21. 21
  World Health Organization. Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2009.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
22. 22
  Smith, K. R.; Mehta, S.; Maeusezahl-Feuz, M. Indoor air pollution from household use of solid fuels. In Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Due to Selected Major Risk Factors; Ezzati, M.; Lopez, A. D.; Rodgers, A.; Murray, C. J. L., Eds.; World Health Organization: Geneva, 2004; pp 1435– 1493.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
23. 23
  Dutta, K.; Shields, K. N.; Edwards, R.; Smith, K. R. Impact of improved biomass cookstoves on indoor air quality near Pune, India Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 19– 32
  23
  Impact of improved biomass cookstoves on indoor air quality near Pune, India
  Dutta, Karabi; Shields, Kyra Naumoff; Edwards, Rufus; Smith, Kirk R.
  Energy for Sustainable Development (2007), 11 (2), 19-32CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
  To reduce the impact of indoor air pollution and improve fuel efficiency, the Appropriate Rural Technol. Institute (ARTI), in conjunction with 10 non-governmental organizations, helped establish rural enterprises that subsequently distributed 30,000 improved cement cookstoves in Maharashtra, India, between August 2004 and Dec. 2005. In a subset of these households (n = 110), ARTI undertook a comprehensive assessment of the impact of the improved Laxmi (vented) and Bhagyalaxmi (unvented) stoves on indoor air quality. Measurements of CO and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were taken for a 48-h period in kitchens before and after installation of improved stoves. One year after the installation of the improved stoves, the 48-h mean CO concn. was reduced, on av., by 39% for the Laxmi and 38% for the Bhagyalaxmi. Similarly, the 48-h mean PM2.5 concn. was reduced, on av., by 24% for the Laxmi and 49% for the Bhagyalaxmi. Key challenges during the monitoring were: (i) motivating household members to purchase the improved cookstoves (ICSs); (ii) ensuring that the households made the transition to using the ICSs; and (iii) maintaining high stds. of data quality as a field team. Despite the challenges, the importance of monitoring and evaluation remains crit. in verifying the benefits of improved stove designs. Building on the lessons that we have learned, future efforts will focus on monitoring and evaluating fewer villages to conc. resources, establishing a stronger rapport with study participants, and better understanding the dynamics of stove adoption in each home. Our hope is that this experience will aid other organizations in the design of their own ICS monitoring and evaluation programs.
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24. 24
  Chengappa, C.; Edwards, R.; Bajpai, R.; Shields, K. N.; Smith, K. R. Impact of improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in the Bundelkhand region in India Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 33– 44
  24
  Impact of improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in the Bundelkhand region in India
  Chengappa, Chaya; Edwards, Rufus; Bajpai, Rajesh; Shields, Kyra Naumoff; Smith, Kirk R.
  Energy for Sustainable Development (2007), 11 (2), 33-44CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
  Despite the reach of India's National Program on Improved Chulhas, little quant. monitoring and evaluation of improved stove projects in India has previously been undertaken by non-governmental organizations. Development Alternatives (DA) recently distributed 980 improved chimney cookstoves (Sukhad stoves) in the Bundelkhand region of India. In a subset of these households (n = 60), DA undertook a comprehensive assessment of the impact of the improved Sukhad stove on indoor air quality. Measurements of CO and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were conducted for a 48-h period in 60 rural kitchens in Bundelkhand before and after installation of the Sukhad stove. One year after the installation of the of the Sukhad, 48-h av. CO concns. were reduced, on av., by 70% (p < 0.001) in the homes of regular users of the improved stove. Similarly, 48-h av. PM2.5 concns. were reduced, on av., by 44% (p < 0.01). Given these redns., continued promotion of the Sukhad stove would be warranted, while simultaneously improving stove design. Similar to other Household Energy and Health projects, there were many homes that transitioned to use of the improved stove, while maintaining a traditional stove in the home, which highlights the need for follow-up in stove training after installation of the improved stove. Although challenging, the monitoring and evaluation provided important information about actual use of the stove in communities, and was important in understanding the adoption process for these rural families.
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25. 25
  Masera, O.; Edwards, R.; Arnez, C. A.; Berrueta, V.; Johnson, M.; Bracho, L. R.; Riojas-Rodríguez, H.; Smith, K. R. Impact of Patsari improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in Michoacán, Mexico Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 45– 56
  25
  Impact of Patsari improved cookstoves on indoor air quality in Michoacan, Mexico
  Masera, Omar; Edwards, Rufus; Arnez, Cynthia Armendariz; Berrueta, Victor; Johnson, Michael; Bracho, Leonora Rojas; Riojas-Rodriguez, Horacio; Smith, Kirk R.
  Energy for Sustainable Development (2007), 11 (2), 45-56CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
  Little quant. monitoring and evaluation of the impacts of improved stoves were performed in Mexico. Grupo Interdisciplinario de Tecnologia Rural Apropiada (GIRA) has recently disseminated 4000 improved Patsari cookstoves, most of them in the Purepecha region of Michoacan state, Mexico. In paired comparisons in a subset of kitchens in a single community before and after installation of an improved Patsari cookstove, 48-h av. kitchen concns. of CO and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) were reduced by 66% (n = 32) and 67% (n = 33), resp. Kitchens that had more elevated concns. during the baseline measurements demonstrated more dramatic redns., as the overall variability was reduced when the improved stove was used. Thus, the Patsari stove provides an effective means of reducing kitchen air pollution and potential benefits of installing these stoves are considerable. Although requiring significant addnl. resources, the Household Energy and Health Project catalyzed a much broader investigation into health, climate, environment, and societal impacts of Patsari stoves, which has had a greater impact on public policy than the direct impact of the no. of improved stoves installed in these communities.
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26. 26
  Balakrishnan, K.; Sambandam, S.; Ghosh, S.; Sadasivam, A.; Madhavan, S.; Siva, R.; Samanta, M. Assessing Household Level Exposure Reductions Associated with the use of Market Based Improved Biomass Cook-Stoves in Rural Communities in India: Results from Field Assessments in Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh; Sri Ramachandra University: Chennai, India, 2012.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
27. 27
  Cynthia, A. A.; Edwards, R. D.; Johnson, M.; Zuk, M.; Rojas, L.; Jiménez, R. D.; Riojas-Rodriguez, H.; Masera, O. Reduction in personal exposures to particulate matter and carbon monoxide as a result of the installation of a Patsari improved cook stove in Michoacan Mexico Indoor Air 2008, 18 (2) 93– 105
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
28. 28
  Laumbach, R. J.; Kipen, H. M. Respiratory health effects of air pollution: Update on biomass smoke and traffic pollution J. Allergy Clin. Immun. 2012, 129 (1) 3– 11
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
29. 29
  García-Frapolli, E.; Schilmann, A.; Berrueta, V. M.; Riojas-Rodríguez, H.; Edwards, R. D.; Johnson, M.; Guevara-Sanginés, A.; Armendariz, C.; Masera, O. Beyond fuelwood savings: Valuing the economic benefits of introducing improved biomass cookstoves in the Purépecha region of Mexico Ecol. Econ. 2010, 69 (12) 2598– 2605
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
30. 30
  Pope, C. A.; Burnett, R. T.; Krewski, D.; Jerrett, M.; Shi, Y.; Calle, E. E.; Thun, M. J. Cardiovascular mortality and exposure to airborne fine particulate matter and cigarette smoke shape of the exposure-response relationship Circulation 2009, 120 (11) 941– 948
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
31. 31
  Ramanathan, V.; Chung, C.; Kim, D.; Bettge, T.; Buja, L.; Kiehl, J. T.; Washington, W. M.; Fu, Q.; Sikka, D. R.; Wild, M. Atmospheric brown clouds: Impacts on South Asian climate and hydrological cycle Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 2005, 102 (15) 5326– 5333
  31
  Atmospheric brown clouds: impacts of South Asian climate and hydrological cycle
  Ramanathan, V.; Chung, C.; Kim, D.; Bettge, T.; Buja, L.; Kiehl, J. T.; Washington, W. M.; Fu, Q.; Sikka, D. R.; Wild, M.
  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2005), 102 (15), 5326-5333CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
  South Asian emissions of fossil fuel SO2 and black carbon increased ≈6-fold since 1930, resulting in large atm. concns. of black carbon and other aerosols. This period also witnessed strong neg. trends of surface solar radiation, surface evapn., and summer monsoon rainfall. These changes over India were accompanied by an increase in atm. stability and a decrease in sea surface temp. gradients in the Northern Indian Ocean. We conducted an ensemble of coupled ocean-atm. simulations from 1930 to 2000 to understand the role of atm. brown clouds in the obsd. trends. The simulations adopt the aerosol radiative forcing from the Indian Ocean expt. observations and also account for global increases in greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols. The simulated decreases in surface solar radiation, changes in surface and atm. temps. over land and sea, and decreases in monsoon rainfall are similar to the obsd. trends. We also show that greenhouse gases and sulfates, by themselves, do not account for the magnitude or even the sign in many instances, of the obsd. trends. Thus, our simulations suggest that absorbing aerosols in atm. brown clouds may have played a major role in the obsd. regional climate and hydrol. cycle changes and have masked as much as 50% of the surface warming due to the global increase in greenhouse gases. The simulations also raise the possibility that, if current trends in emissions continue, the subcontinent may experience a doubling of the drought frequency in the coming decades.
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32. 32
  Chung, C. E.; Ramanathan, V.; Decremer, D. Observationally constrained estimates of carbonaceous aerosol radiative forcing Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 2012, 109 (29) 11624– 11629
  32
  Observationally constrained estimates of carbonaceous aerosol radiative forcing
  Chung, Chul E.; Ramanathan, V.; Decremer, Damien
  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2012), 109 (29), 11624-11629, S11624/1-S11624/8CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
  Carbonaceous aerosols (CA) emitted by fossil and biomass fuels consist of black carbon (BC), a strong absorber of solar radiation, and org. matter (OM). OM scatters as well as absorbs solar radiation. The absorbing component of OM, which is ignored in most climate models, is referred to as brown carbon (BrC). Model ests. of the global CA radiative forcing range from 0 to 0.7 Wm-2, to be compared with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's est. for the pre-industrial to the present net radiative forcing of about 1.6 Wm-2. This study provides a model-independent, observationally based est. of the CA direct radiative forcing. Ground-based aerosol network data is integrated with field data and satellite-based aerosol observations to provide a decadal (2001 through 2009) global view of the CA optical properties and direct radiative forcing. The estd. global CA direct radiative effect is about 0.75 Wm-2 (0.5 to 1.0). This study identifies the global importance of BrC, which is shown to contribute about 20% to 550-nm CA solar absorption globally. Because of the inclusion of BrC, the net effect of OM is close to zero and the CA forcing is nearly equal to that of BC. The CA direct radiative forcing is estd. to be about 0.65 (0.5 to about 0.8) Wm-2, thus comparable to or exceeding that by methane. Caused in part by BrC absorption, CAs have a net warming effect even over open biomass-burning regions in Africa and the Amazon.
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33. 33
  Anenberg, S. C.; Schwartz, J.; Shindell, D.; Amann, M.; Faluvegi, G.; Klimont, Z.; Janssens-Maenhout, G.; Pozzoli, L.; Van Dingenen, R.; Vignati, E.; Emberson, L.; Muller, N. Z.; West, J. J.; Williams, M.; Demkine, V.; Hicks, W. K.; Kuylenstierna, J.; Raes, F.; Ramanathan, V. Global Air Quality and Health Co-benefits of Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change through Methane and Black Carbon Emission Controls Environ. Health Perspect 2012, 120 (6) 831– 839
  33
  Global air quality and health co-benefits of mitigating near-term climate change through methane and black carbon emission controls
  Anenberg Susan C; Schwartz Joel; Shindell Drew; Amann Markus; Faluvegi Greg; Klimont Zbigniew; Janssens-Maenhout Greet; Pozzoli Luca; Van Dingenen Rita; Vignati Elisabetta; Emberson Lisa; Muller Nicholas Z; West J Jason; Williams Martin; Demkine Volodymyr; Hicks W Kevin; Kuylenstierna Johan; Raes Frank; Ramanathan Veerabhadran
  Environmental health perspectives (2012), 120 (6), 831-9 ISSN:.
  BACKGROUND: Tropospheric ozone and black carbon (BC), a component of fine particulate matter (PM ≤ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter; PM(2.5)), are associated with premature mortality and they disrupt global and regional climate. OBJECTIVES: We examined the air quality and health benefits of 14 specific emission control measures targeting BC and methane, an ozone precursor, that were selected because of their potential to reduce the rate of climate change over the next 20-40 years. METHODS: We simulated the impacts of mitigation measures on outdoor concentrations of PM(2.5) and ozone using two composition-climate models, and calculated associated changes in premature PM(2.5)- and ozone-related deaths using epidemiologically derived concentration-response functions. RESULTS: We estimated that, for PM(2.5) and ozone, respectively, fully implementing these measures could reduce global population-weighted average surface concentrations by 23-34% and 7-17% and avoid 0.6-4.4 and 0.04-0.52 million annual premature deaths globally in 2030. More than 80% of the health benefits are estimated to occur in Asia. We estimated that BC mitigation measures would achieve approximately 98% of the deaths that would be avoided if all BC and methane mitigation measures were implemented, due to reduced BC and associated reductions of nonmethane ozone precursor and organic carbon emissions as well as stronger mortality relationships for PM(2.5) relative to ozone. Although subject to large uncertainty, these estimates and conclusions are not strongly dependent on assumptions for the concentration-response function. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to climate benefits, our findings indicate that the methane and BC emission control measures would have substantial co-benefits for air quality and public health worldwide, potentially reversing trends of increasing air pollution concentrations and mortality in Africa and South, West, and Central Asia. These projected benefits are independent of carbon dioxide mitigation measures. Benefits of BC measures are underestimated because we did not account for benefits from reduced indoor exposures and because outdoor exposure estimates were limited by model spatial resolution.
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34. 34
  United Nations Environment Programme. Near-term Climate Protection and Clean Air Benefits: Actions for Controlling Short-Lived Climate Forcers; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2011.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
35. 35
  Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G. Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon Nat. Geosci. 2008, 1 (4) 221– 227
  35
  Global and regional climate changes due to black carbon
  Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G.
  Nature Geoscience (2008), 1 (4), 221-227CODEN: NGAEBU; ISSN:1752-0894. (Nature Publishing Group)
  A review concerning regional and global climate changes induced by soot black carbon via visible solar radiation absorption in the atm. is given. Topics discussed include: regional hotspots; climate system radiative forcing; global climate effects; regional climate effects; climate system response and feedbacks; reducing future black carbon emissions; and Asian emissions and future trends.
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36. 36
  Rehman, I.; Ahmed, T.; Praveen, P.; Kar, A.; Ramanathan, V. Black carbon emissions from biomass and fossil fuels in rural India Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011, 11 (14) 7289– 7299
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
37. 37
  Ramanathan, V.; Agrawal, M.; Akimoto, H.; Auffhammer, M.; Devotta, S.; Emberson, L.; Hasnain, S. I.; Iyngararasan, M.; Jayaraman, A.; Lawrence, M.; Nakajima, T.; Oki, T.; Rodhe, H.; Ruchirawat, M.; Tan, S. K.; Vincent, J.; Wang, J. Y.; Yang, D.; Zhang, Y. H.; Autrup, H.; Barregard, L.; Bonasoni, P.; Brauer, M.; Brunekreef, B.; Carmichael, G.; Chung, C. E.; Dahe, J.; Feng, Y.; Fuzzi, S.; Gordon, T.; Gosain, A. K.; Htun, N.; Kim, J.; Mourato, S.; Naeher, L.; Navasumrit, P.; Ostro, B.; Panwar, T.; Rahman, M. R.; Ramana, M. V.; Rupakheti, M.; Settachan, D.; Singh, A. K.; St. Helen, G.; Tan, P. V.; Viet, P. H.; Yinlong, J.; Yoon, S. C.; Chang, W. C.; Wang, X.; Zelikoff, J.; Zhu, A. Atmospheric Brown Clouds: Regional Assessment Report with Focus on Asia; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2008.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
38. 38
  Praveen, P.; Ahmed, T.; Kar, A.; Rehman, I.; Ramanathan, V. Link between local scale BC emissions in the Indo-Gangetic Plains and large scale atmospheric solar absorption Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2012, 12, 1173– 1187
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
39. 39
  Bond, T. C.; Doherty, S. J.; Fahey, D. W.; Forster, P. M.; Berntsen, T.; DeAngelo, B. J.; Flanner, M. G.; Ghan, S.; Kärcher, B.; Koch, D.; Kinne, S.; Knodo, Y.; Quinn, P. K.; Sarofim, M. C.; Schultz, M. G.; Schulz, M.; Venkataraman, C.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, S.; Bellouin, N.; Guttinkunda, S. K.; Hopke, P. K.; Jacobson, M. Z.; Kaiser, J. W.; Klimont, Z.; Lohmann, U.; Schwarz, J. P.; Shindell, D.; Storelvmo, T.; Warren, S. G.; Zender, C. S. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment J. Geophys. Res. 2013, DOI: doi: 10.1002/jgrd.50171
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
40. 40
  Shindell, D.; Kuylenstierna, J. C. I.; Vignati, E.; van Dingenen, R.; Amann, M.; Klimont, Z.; Anenberg, S. C.; Muller, N.; Janssens-Maenhout, G.; Raes, F.; Schwartz, J.; Faluvegi, G.; Pozzoli, L.; Kupiainen, K.; Hoglund-Isakkson, L.; Emberson, L.; Streets, D.; Ramanathan, V.; Hicks, K.; Oahn, N. T. K.; Milly, G.; Williams, M.; Demkine, V.; Fowler, D. Simultaneously mitigating near-term climate change and improving human health and food security Science 2012, 335 (6065) 183– 189
  40
  Simultaneously Mitigating Near-Term Climate Change and Improving Human Health and Food Security
  Shindell, Drew; Kuylenstierna, Johan C. I.; Vignati, Elisabetta; van Dingenen, Rita; Amann, Markus; Klimont, Zbigniew; Anenberg, Susan C.; Muller, Nicholas; Janssens-Maenhout, Greet; Raes, Frank; Schwartz, Joel; Faluvegi, Greg; Pozzoli, Luca; Kupiainen, Kaarle; Hoeglund-Isaksson, Lena; Emberson, Lisa; Streets, David; Ramanathan, V.; Hicks, Kevin; Oanh, N. T. Kim; Milly, George; Williams, Martin; Demkine, Volodymyr; Fowler, David
  Science (Washington, DC, United States) (2012), 335 (6065), 183-189CODEN: SCIEAS; ISSN:0036-8075. (American Association for the Advancement of Science)
  Tropospheric ozone and black carbon (BC) contribute to both degraded air quality and global warming. We considered ~400 emission control measures to reduce these pollutants by using current technol. and experience. We identified 14 measures targeting methane and BC emissions that reduce projected global mean warming ~0.5°C by 2050. This strategy avoids 0.7 to 4.7 million annual premature deaths from outdoor air pollution and increases annual crop yields by 30 to 135 million metric tons due to ozone redns. in 2030 and beyond. Benefits of methane emissions redns. are valued at 700 to 5000 per metric ton, which is well above typical marginal abatement costs (less than 250). The selected controls target different sources and influence climate on shorter time scales than those of carbon dioxide-redn. measures. Implementing both substantially reduces the risks of crossing the 2°C threshold.
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41. 41
  Ramanathan, V.; Xu, Y. The Copenhagen Accord for limiting global warming: Criteria, constraints, and available avenues Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U. S. A. 2010, 107 (18) 8055– 8062
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
42. 42
  Lamarque, J. F.; Bond, T. C.; Eyring, V.; Granier, C.; Heil, A.; Klimont, Z.; Lee, D.; Liousse, C.; Mieville, A.; Owen, B.; Schultz, M. G.; Shindell, D.; Smith, S. J.; Stehfest, E.; Van Aardenne, J. V.; Cooper, O. R.; Kainuma, M.; Mahowald, N.; McConnell, J. R.; Naik, V.; Riahi, K.; van Vuuren, D. P. Historical (1850–2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10 (15) 7017– 7039
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
43. 43
  Janssen, N. A. H.; Gerlofs-Nijland, M. E.; Lanki, T.; Salonen, R. O.; Cassee, F.; Hoek, G.; Fischer, P.; Brunekreef, B.; Krzyzanowski, M. Health Effects of Black Carbon; World Health Organization: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2011.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
44. 44
  MacCarty, N.; Ogle, D.; Still, D.; Bond, T.; Roden, C. A laboratory comparison of the global warming impact of five major types of biomass cooking stoves Energy Sustainable Dev. 2008, 12 (2) 56– 65
  44
  A laboratory comparison of the global warming impact of five major types of biomass cooking stoves
  MacCarty, Nordica; Ogle, Damon; Still, Dean; Bond, Tami; Roden, Christoph
  Energy for Sustainable Development (2008), 12 (2), 56-65CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (International Energy Initiative)
  With over 2 billion of the world's population living in families using biomass to cook every day, the possibility of improved stoves helping to mitigate climate change is generating increasing attention. With their emissions of CO2, methane, and black carbon, among other substances, is there a cleaner, practical option to provide to the families that will need to continue to use biomass for cooking. This study served to help quantify the relative emissions from five common types of biomass combustion in order to investigate if there are cleaner options. The lab. results showed that for situations of sustainable harvesting where CO2 emissions are considered neutral, some improved stoves with rocket-type combustion or fan assistance can reduce overall warming impact from the products of incomplete combustion (PICs) by as much as 50-95%. In non-sustainable situations where fuel and CO2 savings are of greater importance, three types of improved combustion methods were shown to potentially reduce warming by 40-60%. Charcoal-burning may emit less CO2 than traditional wood-burning, but the PIC emissions are significantly greater.
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45. 45
  Johnson, M.; Lam, N.; Pennise, D.; Charron, D.; Bond, T.; Modi, V.; Ndemere, J. A. In-home Emissions of Greenhouse Pollutants from Rocket and Traditional Biomass Cooking Stoves in Uganda; U.S. Agency for International Development: Washington, DC, 2011.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
46. 46
  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report to Congress on Black Carbon; Research Triangle Park, NC, 2012.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
47. 47
  Grieshop, A. P.; Marshall, J. D.; Kandlikar, M. Health and climate benefits of cookstove replacement options Energy Policy 2011, 39 (12) 7530– 7542
  47
  Health and climate benefits of cookstove replacement options
  Grieshop, Andrew P.; Marshall, Julian D.; Kandlikar, Milind
  Energy Policy (2011), 39 (12), 7530-7542CODEN: ENPYAC; ISSN:0301-4215. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  The health and climate impacts of available household cooking options in developing countries vary sharply. Here, we analyze and compare these impacts (health; climate) and the potential co-benefits from the use of fuel and stove combinations. Our results indicate that health and climate impacts span 2 orders of magnitude among the technologies considered. Indoor air pollution is heavily impacted by combustion performance and ventilation; climate impacts are influenced by combustion performance and fuel properties including biomass renewability. Emission components not included in current carbon trading schemes, such as black carbon particles and carbon monoxide, can contribute a large proportion of the total climate impact. Multiple 'improved' stove options analyzed in this paper yield roughly equiv. climate benefits but have different impacts on indoor air pollution. Improvements to biomass stoves can improve indoor air quality, which nonetheless remains significantly higher than for stoves that use liq. or gaseous hydrocarbons. LPG- and kerosene-fueled stoves have unrivaled air quality benefits and their climate impacts are also lower than all but the cleanest stoves using renewable biomass.
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48. 48
  Hanna, R.; Duflo, E.; Greenstone, M., Up in smoke: The influence of household behavior on the long-run impact of improved cooking stoves. In MIT Department of Economics Working Paper Series 12–10, Cambridge, MA, 2012.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
49. 49
  Barnes, D.; Kumar, P. Success factors in improved stoves programmes: Lessons from six states in India J. Environ. Stud. Policy 2002, 5 (2) 99– 112
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
50. 50
  Bailis, R.; Cowan, A.; Berrueta, V.; Masera, O. Arresting the killer in the kitchen: The promises and pitfalls of commercializing improved cookstoves World Dev. 2009, 37 (10) 1694– 1705
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
51. 51
  Masera, O. R.; Navia, J. Fuel switching or multiple cooking fuels? Understanding inter-fuel substitution patterns in rural Mexican households Biomass Bioenergy 1997, 12 (5) 347– 361
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
52. 52
  Joon, V.; Chandra, A.; Bhattacharya, M. Household energy consumption pattern and socio-cultural dimensions associated with it: A case study of rural Haryana, India Biomass Bioenergy 2009, 33 (11) 1509– 1512
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
53. 53
  Heltberg, R. Factors determining household fuel choice in Guatemala Environ. Dev. Econ. 2005, 10 (3) 337– 361
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
54. 54
  Heltberg, R. Fuel switching: Evidence from eight developing countries Energy Econ. 2004, 26 (5) 869– 887
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
55. 55
  Hiemstra-van der Horst, G.; Hovorka, A. J. Reassessing the “energy ladder”: Household energy use in Maun, Botswana Energy Policy 2008, 36 (9) 3333– 3344
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
56. 56
  Mukhopadhyay, R.; Sambandam, S.; Pillarisetti, A.; Jack, D.; Mukhopadhyay, K.; Balakrishnan, K.; Vaswani, M.; Bates, M. N.; Kinney, P. L.; Arora, N.; Smith, K. R. Cooking practices, air quality, and the acceptability of advanced cookstoves in Haryana, India: An exploratory study to inform large-scale interventions Global Health Action 2012, 5, 1– 13
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
57. 57
  The World Bank. Household Cookstoves, Environment, Health, and Climate Change; Washington, DC, 2011.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
58. 58
  Bailis, R.; Berrueta, V.; Chengappa, C.; Dutta, K.; Edwards, R.; Masera, O.; Still, D.; Smith, K. R. Performance testing for monitoring improved biomass stove interventions: Experiences of the Household Energy and Health Project Energy Sustainable Dev. 2007, 11 (2) 57– 70
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
59. 59
  Johnson, M.; Edwards, R.; Alatorre Frenk, C.; Masera, O. In-field greenhouse gas emissions from cookstoves in rural Mexican households Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42 (6) 1206– 1222
  59
  In-field greenhouse gas emissions from cookstoves in rural Mexican households
  Johnson, Michael; Edwards, Rufus; Alatorre Frenk, Claudio; Masera, Omar
  Atmospheric Environment (2008), 42 (6), 1206-1222CODEN: AENVEQ; ISSN:1352-2310. (Elsevier Ltd.)
  The majority of ests. of the greenhouse gas emissions assocd. with changes from traditional to improved cookstoves in developing countries come from water-boiling tests (WBTs) conducted in simulated kitchens. Little is known about the bias in these ests. relative to typical stove use by residents in rural communities. To assess this bias, the redns. in emissions as a result of installation of an improved wood-burning "Patsari" stove were quantified in both simulated kitchens and field conditions in eight homes with open fire stoves and 13 homes with Patsari stoves in Purepecha communities of Michoacan, Mexico. The results demonstrate that nominal combustion efficiencies (NCEs) of open fire cookstoves were significantly lower (p < 0.001) in rural homes during daily cooking activities (89.7 ± 2.0%) compared to WBTs in simulated kitchens (94.2 ± 0.5%), which results in almost a doubling of the products on incomplete combustion (PICs) emitted. Since emissions from the rural residential sector are important in the modeling of atm. trace greenhouse gas concns. in areas that rely on solid fuel use for primary energy provision, if these open fires reflect conditions in other areas of the world, substantial underestimation of emissions from open fires may be present in current emission databases. Conversely, NCEs for the improved Patsari stoves were significantly higher (p < 0.01) in rural homes during daily cooking activities (92.3 ± 1.3%) compared to during WBTs in simulated kitchens (87.2 ± 4.3%), as WBTs do not reflect cooking activities in rural homes. Thus the Patsari emits 25% less PICs per kg fuel-wood used than the open fire, and carbon emission redns. of Patsari and similar improved stoves are also likely underestimated. Finally, in addn. to a redn. in overall particulate emissions for rural homes during daily activities, the ratio of org. carbon (OC) to elemental carbon (EC) within the aerosol fraction decreased between the open fire and improved Patsari stoves. While the overall EC contribution for the brick Patsari was reduced, the fraction of EC increased relative to OC, which makes the overall warming implication more ambiguous given current uncertainties in warming and cooling potentials of these fractions.
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60. 60
  Lam, N. L.; Smith, K. R.; Gauthier, A.; Bates, M. N. Kerosene: A Review of Household Uses and their Hazards in Low-and Middle-Income Countries J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part B 2012, 15 (6) 396– 432
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
61. 61
  Naeher, L. P.; Brauer, M.; Lipsett, M.; Zelikoff, J. T.; Simpson, C. D.; Koenig, J. Q.; Smith, K. R. Woodsmoke health effects: A review Inhalat. Toxicol. 2007, 19 (1) 67– 106
  61
  Woodsmoke health effects: a review
  Naeher, Luke P.; Brauer, Michael; Lipsett, Michael; Zelikoff, Judith T.; Simpson, Christopher D.; Koenig, Jane Q.; Smith, Kirk R.
  Inhalation Toxicology (2007), 19 (1), 67-106CODEN: INHTE5; ISSN:0895-8378. (Informa Healthcare USA, Inc.)
  A review. The sentiment that woodsmoke, being a natural substance, must be benign to humans is still sometimes heard. It is now well established, however, that wood-burning stoves and fireplaces as well as wildland and agricultural fires emit significant quantities of known health-damaging pollutants, including several carcinogenic compds. Two of the principal gaseous pollutants in woodsmoke, CO and NOx, add to the atm. levels of these regulated gases emitted by other combustion sources. Health impacts of exposures to these gases and some of the other woodsmoke constituents (e.g., benzene) are well characterized in thousands of publications. As these gases are indistinguishable no matter where they come from, there is no urgent need to examine their particular health implications in woodsmoke. With this as the backdrop, this review approaches the issue of why woodsmoke may be a special case requiring sep. health evaluation through 2 questions. The first question we address is whether woodsmoke should be regulated and/or managed sep., even though some of its sep. constituents are already regulated in many jurisdictions. The second question we address is whether woodsmoke particles pose different levels of risk than other ambient particles of similar size. To address these 2 key questions, we examine several topics: the chem. and phys. nature of woodsmoke; the exposures and epidemiol. of smoke from wildland fires and agricultural burning, and related controlled human lab. exposures to biomass smoke; the epidemiol. of outdoor and indoor woodsmoke exposures from residential woodburning in developed countries; and the toxicol. of woodsmoke, based on animal exposures and lab. tests. In addn., a short summary of the exposures and health effects of biomass smoke in developing countries is provided as an addnl. line of evidence. In the concluding section, we return to the 2 key issues above to summarize (1) what is currently known about the health effects of inhaled woodsmoke at exposure levels experienced in developed countries, and (2) whether there exists sufficient reason to believe that woodsmoke particles are sufficiently different to warrant sep. treatment from other regulated particles. In addn., we provide recommendations for addnl. woodsmoke research.
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62. 62
  Sahu, M.; Peipert, J.; Singhal, V.; Yadama, G. N.; Biswas, P. Evaluation of mass and surface area concentration of particle emissions and development of emissions indices for cookstoves in rural India Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45 (6) 2428– 2434
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
63. 63
  International Standards Organization. International Workshop Agreement 11:2012: Guidelines for Evaluating Cookstove Performance; Geneva, Switzerland, 2012.
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
64. 64
  Sinton, J. E.; Smith, K. R.; Peabody, J. W.; Yaping, L.; Xiliang, Z.; Edwards, R.; Quan, G. An assessment of programs to promote improved household stoves in China Energy Sustainable Dev. 2004, 8 (3) 33– 52
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
65. 65
  Venkataraman, C.; Sagar, A.; Habib, G.; Lam, N.; Smith, K. The Indian national initiative for advanced biomass cookstoves: The benefits of clean combustion Energy Sustainable Dev. 2010, 14 (2) 63– 72
  65
  The Indian National initiative for advanced Biomass Cookstoves: the benefits of clean combustion
  Venkataraman, C.; Sagar, A. D.; Habib, G.; Lam, N.; Smith, K. R.
  Energy for Sustainable Development (2010), 14 (2), 63-72CODEN: ESDEFY; ISSN:0973-0826. (Elsevier B.V.)
  India has recently launched the National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative (NCI) to develop next-generation cleaner biomass cookstoves and deploy them to all Indian households that currently use traditional cookstoves. The initiative has set itself the lofty aim of providing energy service comparable to clean sources such as LPG but using the same solid biomass fuels commonly used today. Such a clean energy option for the estd. 160 million Indian households now cooking with inefficient and polluting biomass and coal cookstoves could yield enormous gains in health and welfare for the weakest and most vulnerable sections of society. At the same time, cleaner household cooking energy through substitution by advanced-combustion biomass stoves (or other options such as clean fuels) can nearly eliminate the several important products of incomplete combustion that come from today's practices and are important outdoor and greenhouse pollutants. Using national surveys, published literature and assessments, and measurements of cookstove performance solely from India, we find that about 570,000 premature deaths in poor women and children and over 4% of India's estd. greenhouse emissions could be avoided if such an initiative were in place today. These avoided emissions currently would be worth more than US$1 billion on the international carbon market. In addn., about one-third of India's black carbon emissions can be reduced along with a range of other health- and climate-active pollutants that affect regional air quality and climate. Although current advanced biomass stoves show substantial emissions redns. over traditional stoves, there is still addnl. improvement needed to reach LPG-like emission levels. We recognize that the technol. development and deployment challenges to meet NCI goals of this scale are formidable and a forthcoming companion paper focuses on what program design elements might best be able to overcome these challenges.
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66. 66
  Ramanathan, N.; Lukac, M.; Ahmed, T.; Kar, A.; Praveen, P.; Honles, T.; Leong, I.; Rehman, I.; Schauer, J.; Ramanathan, V. A cellphone based system for large-scale monitoring of black carbon Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45 (26) 4481– 4487
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.
67. 67
  Ruiz-Mercado, I.; Canuz, E.; Smith, K. R. Temperature dataloggers as stove use monitors (SUMs): Field methods and signal analysis Biomass Bioenergy 2012, 47, 459– 468
  There is no corresponding record for this reference.

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Cleaner Cooking Solutions to Achieve Health, Climate, and Economic CobenefitsClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!

Environmental Science & Technology

Abstract

Synopsis

Introduction

Figure 1

Evaluating Performance for Varied Policy Priorities

Figure 2

Challenges and Research Priorities

Opportunities for Transformational Change

Author Information

Biographies

Susan C. Anenberg

Kalpana Balakrishnan

James Jetter

Omar Masera

Sumi Mehta

Jacob Moss

Veerabhadran Ramanathan

Acknowledgment

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Environmental Science & Technology

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Cleaner Cooking Solutions to Achieve Health, Climate, and Economic Cobenefits
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