ACS Publications. Most Trusted. Most Cited. Most Read
Quick View

OR SEARCH CITATIONS

My Activity
Recently Viewed
You have not visited any articles yet, Please visit some articles to see contents here.
Publications
CONTENT TYPES

Figure 1Loading Img
Download Hi-Res ImageDownload to MS-PowerPointCite This:Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 11, 5562-5569
RETURN TO ISSUEPREVArticleNEXT

Viewing Nature Scenes Positively Affects Recovery of Autonomic Function Following Acute-Mental Stress

View Author Information
School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom
*E-mail: [email protected]; tel: 07938 683355; fax: 01206 872592.
Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 11, 5562–5569
Publication Date (Web):April 16, 2013
https://doi.org/10.1021/es305019p
Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society
RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS
with CC-BYlicense
Article Views
12210
Altmetric
-
Citations
185
LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICS
PDF (3 MB)
Get e-Alerts
SUBJECTS:

Abstract

High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide

A randomized crossover study explored whether viewing different scenes prior to a stressor altered autonomic function during the recovery from the stressor. The two scenes were (a) nature (composed of trees, grass, fields) or (b) built (composed of man-made, urban scenes lacking natural characteristics) environments. Autonomic function was assessed using noninvasive techniques of heart rate variability; in particular, time domain analyses evaluated parasympathetic activity, using root-mean-square of successive differences (RMSSD). During stress, secondary cardiovascular markers (heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure) showed significant increases from baseline which did not differ between the two viewing conditions. Parasympathetic activity, however, was significantly higher in recovery following the stressor in the viewing scenes of nature condition compared to viewing scenes depicting built environments (RMSSD; 50.0 ± 31.3 vs 34.8 ± 14.8 ms). Thus, viewing nature scenes prior to a stressor alters autonomic activity in the recovery period. The secondary aim was to examine autonomic function during viewing of the two scenes. Standard deviation of R-R intervals (SDRR), as change from baseline, during the first 5 min of viewing nature scenes was greater than during built scenes. Overall, this suggests that nature can elicit improvements in the recovery process following a stressor.

Introduction

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To
Since the 19th century, the natural environment has been considered important for ensuring a greater level of physical and mental health. (1) Theories suggest that, due to our hunter–gatherer past, present day humans have an innate affiliation with nature and living things. (2) Consequentially, nature is conducive to involuntary attention and does not require our directed attention, allowing recovery from mental fatigue (3) and facilitating attention restoration. (4) In the past decade, epidemiological studies in The Netherlands have identified a positive correlation between improved health outcomes and amount of surrounding green space. (5, 6) Subsequently, the diverse health benefits that maybe engendered by nature have become a focal point for research.
Two recent systematic reviews have concluded that exposure to nature is associated with improved mental well-being in comparison to indoor environments (7) and synthetic or built environments. (8) Further support of these conclusions has been found in single studies where improvements in self-esteem, (9, 10) positive and negative mood, (9-12) anxiety levels, (13) and feelings of calmness and comfort (14) have been observed. Similar findings have also been observed using simulated environments in controlled laboratory conditions. (15) The studies reviewed by Thompson-Coon et al. did not report physiological variables, and Bowler et al. found only limited evidence for physiological changes. Both systematic reviews conclude that investigation regarding physiological changes during experiencing nature is lacking. However, there are individual studies investigating exposure to nature that identify changes in physiological health markers (16-20) including decreased heart rate (HR) (17) and decreased systolic (SBP) (17, 18) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). (17, 18) Further, changes in endocrine markers such as reduced adrenaline, (17) noradrenaline, (18) and cortisol, (17, 21) as well as enhanced autonomic control (indirectly measured using heart rate variability, HRV) (17) have also been reported. These findings have also been observed in a controlled and simulated environment indoors (16, 19, 20) where potential confounding factors such as weather, climate, sounds, and smells are eliminated. The physiological changes that are noted are all suggestive of potential systemic relaxation. There is, however, a lack of rigorous research providing empirical evidence of the physiological mechanisms that exist with exposure to nature. (7) Thus, the impact of environment on cardiovascular health needs to be explored further using controlled environments and outcome measures which reflect such physiological changes, e.g., autonomic control.
HRV provides a measure of autonomic nervous system (ANS) functioning (22) and can be used to explore physiological changes associated with nature exposure. The ANS is important in controlling many bodily functions, and alterations are prevalent during relaxation and arousal. HRV is an easy to obtain, established noninvasive scientific and clinical measure (22) and has prognostic value regarding cardiovascular health. (23) It requires the measurement of interbeat differences in HR using either electrocardiogram (ECG) or mobile R-R interval monitors. The analysis of HRV reflects ANS function by assessing the parasympathetic and sympathetic contributions to sino-atrial node regulation of HR. (22) A higher HRV suggests an increased adaptability of the ANS and is associated with better health. Previous work that has observed HRV indicates that there is a tendency for higher HRV when nature is viewed in situ (17) or simulated using projected images. (16)
The ANS plays a central role in governing the response to stress and how the body recovers following a stressor. (24) Indeed, Lane and Thayer utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the hypothesized heart–brain connection and found concurrent associations between vagal influenced HRV and changes in blood flow through areas of the brain known to be involved in emotional responses, attention, and working memory. (25) Additionally, the prefrontal cortex has been observed to play a role in the top-down regulation of HRV, as demonstrated using direct current stimulation of the dorsolateral area of the prefrontal cortex during viewing of negative images compared to neutral images (26) (images of nature were not used in this study). The relaxation and restorative effect of nature might help combat the rising incidence of psychological stress (27) by providing a potential resilience tool. (28) Previous analysis of the restorative effects of nature suggest that participants recover faster from induced stress (in terms of HR) when, during the recovery, they view nature through a window (29) or view projected scenes of natural environments. (30) HR recovery in the latter study was purported to occur due to, in part, an enhanced recovery of parasympathetic activity. (30) It is, however, unknown whether the benefits of nature on cardiovascular reactivity continue to occur after exposure has ceased.
It is further unknown whether a longer exposure to nature elicits greater responses during the exposure. During nature exposure, the first 5 min elicits the greatest improvements in mood and self-esteem. (31) Physiological alterations in HRV also occur during the first 5 min of viewing slides simulating nature. (16) To date, there is no evidence to suggest that longer exposure times elicit better physiological responses and in particular greater changes in HRV during nature exposure. This time course is important to establish; nature could be potentially used prior to a stressor and thus alter physiological outcomes in recovery from a stressor without the need of exposure to nature during the recovery period; i.e., nature could improve cardiovascular reactivity following a stressor by speeding the recovery process.
The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effect that prior viewing of nature scenes had on ANS function during recovery from a stressor. The hypothesis was that viewing nature scenes (composed of trees, grass, fields) prior to a stressor will lead to higher HRV in recovery when compared to viewing scenes of built environments (composed of man-made, urban scenes lacking natural characteristics). A secondary aim was to compare ANS function during the first and second 5 min of a 10 min exposure to nature images to see if HRV changes were sustained.

Materials and Methods

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To

Participants and Design

Ethical approval from the University ethics committee was granted, and participants (n = 25, 7 males, 18 females) were recruited from University support staff who were independent from the research group conducting the study. Informed consent was obtained from all participants who ranged in age from 19 to 65 years (mean ± SD, 36.08 ± 10.42), with stature 169.05 ± 7.33 cm (mean ± SD) and mass 71.66 ± 13.11 kg (mean ± SD). Due to a technical problem, data were not recorded for two participants (1 female, 1 male) during the stressor segment. Therefore, they are not included in further analysis of data. The participants remaining (n = 23) were aged 36.91 ± 11.09 years (mean ± SD), with stature 168.35 ± 7.52 cm (mean ± SD) and mass 70.38 ± 12.42 kg (mean ± SD). The study was a within-subject randomized crossover design with all participants visiting the laboratory on two occasions one week apart. Visits were at the same time of day to eliminate any effect of circadian rhythm on the dependent variables. Participants were free from symptoms of disease and were not using medication that would affect the cardiovascular or ANS.

Protocol

Laboratory environmental conditions were kept consistent throughout both visits. Room temperature was set at 21 °C; artificial lighting was used, and blinds were drawn to avoid direct sunlight entering the room. Noise disturbance was kept to a minimum.
Each visit consisted of viewing one of two different groups of slides before being exposed to a mental stressor. Participants were randomly assigned an order to either view the built scenes first or the nature scenes first. On arrival, participants completed a battery of psychological questionnaires (described below). Following this, participants were told to rest for 15 min in the semisupine position, allowing HR and blood pressure (BP) measures to stabilize. The participants remained in this position for the duration of the protocol. Following the period of rest, participants viewed a set of slides (either nature or built environment scenes) for a 10 min period. Participants were then required to partake in a 5 min mental stressor. Immediately poststressor, a further 5 min of physiological data were recorded to capture recovery. After recovery, participants completed the same set of psychological questionnaires. At the next visit, a week later, participants repeated this protocol and viewed the other set of slides.

Scenes of Nature and Built Environments

The slideshows depicting scenes of nature and built environments involved still photographs representing each of the environments. The photographs were chosen from a central pool of photographs used within the research group. (15, 16) The photographs (Figure 1) depicting natural environments included natural elements, e.g., trees, grass, or plant life, and were devoid of any man-made structures, e.g., buildings, vehicles, roads. In contrast, the photographs depicting built environments contained man-made structures, e.g., houses, flats, office buildings, brick walls. A critical element of the scenes of built environments was the lack of natural features. Twenty photographs were selected and collated in a Microsoft PowerPoint slideshow, with each slide being shown for 30 s. Each slideshow lasted a total of 10 min, and photographs were shown in the same order for every participant. Before viewing the slideshow, participants were given the instructions to try and imagine they were in the environment depicted on the screen. The term “condition” will be used from this point to describe the viewing of either the nature or built area slide sets. The two slide sets will be referred to individually as the nature condition and built condition.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Examples of images used in the slideshows to depict scenes of nature environments (A and B) and scenes of built environments (C and D). Copyright Jules Pretty (Photographs A and C).

High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide

Mental Stressor

The mental stressor comprised a forward digit span test with an accompanying socio-evaluative threat and was designed specifically to elicit cardiovascular stress responses. A series of six numbers were displayed on a screen in front of the participant. Each number was shown individually for one second. After each series of six numbers, the participant had 10 s to write the numbers down in the correct order. The test is cognitively demanding (32) and was designed to cause a stress response by adding a socio-evaluative component (33) which has previously been reported to cause a stress response. (34) To ensure a socio-evaluative threat, participants were informed that they would be carefully monitored during the test by the experimenter and a buzzer would sound when an incorrect answer was given. (33) The buzzer was used twice in each session in order to achieve consistency irrespective of whether the participant had provided an incorrect answer. Participants were informed at the end of the study that this was the case. They were asked if they were aware that they had in fact got the answer correct. All participants reported that they could not be sure that they had and had assumed they had answered incorrectly.

Physiological Measures

Heart Rate

An ECG modified lead II configuration was used to record interbeat data throughout the protocol.

Blood Pressure

BP oscillations were measured continuously throughout the protocol from a finger BP cuff attached to the middle finger of the nondominant hand (Portapres, FMS, Finapres Medical Systems BV, Netherlands). Continuous recording of blood pressure in this manner allows mean blood pressure to be calculated and is advantageous over using momentary measures which are susceptible to white coat syndrome or cuff response. (35) SBP and DBP were calculated using LabChart 7 software (ADInstruments, UK) to transform the waveform data. SBP is recorded as the highest pressure and DBP as the lowest pressure during a single cardiac cycle. These values were averaged for each 5 min segment.

Respiration

Respiratory frequency and depth were measured using a respiratory strap (Pneumotrace, ADInstruments, UK) fitted around the participant’s chest. Changes in electrical output reflect stretch changes in the respiratory strap. Respiratory frequency and depth were computed from the resultant changes in waveform. All data were measured at 1000 Hz and collected by a Powerlab 8SP (model ML785, ADInstruments, UK) using LabChart 7 software.

Heart Rate Variability Measures

ECG data were analyzed using Kubios HRV software. (36) Data were examined for ectopic beats, but none were found. Data were then analyzed and averaged out into 5 min segments as it is most appropriate for HRV comparison that sections are equal in duration. (22) These segments are categorized into: baseline (Base), first 5 min of viewing slides (Slides 1), second 5 min of viewing slides (Slides 2), mental stressor (Stress), and in recovery (Recv).
In the time-domain, HR was calculated as number of beats per minute. Standard deviation of R-R intervals (SDRR) was chosen to reflect overall HRV contributed to by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. To reflect parasympathetic system activity alone, the root-mean-square of successive differences (RMSSD) was used. (22)

Psychological Questionnaires

Self-esteem was assessed using Rosenberg’s scale. (37) Responses were coded on a 0–3 scale giving a range for total self-esteem score of 0, representing the lowest level of self-esteem, and 30, the highest level of self-esteem. Although designed as a trait measure of self-esteem, Rosenberg’s scale has previously demonstrated changes as a state measure of self-esteem due to exposure to natural environments. (15, 31) Mood was assessed using the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). (38) Mood-related adjectives (e.g., enthusiastic, inspired, hostile, afraid) were rated on a scale of 1 to 5 for how well each adjective described participants’ current mood (1 = very slightly or not at all, 5 = extremely). Both positive and negative scales were analyzed. Self-esteem and mood were measured at the start and end of the protocol immediately after the recovery period.

Statistical Analysis

Baseline data were compared using paired student’s t tests. To test the primary hypothesis, a repeated measures ANOVA was used to identify whether recovery relative to baseline differed between conditions for RMSSD, SDRR, HR, SBP and DBP. For the secondary question, changes from baseline values were first calculated to explore if the expected short-term effect during the first 5 min of viewing is repeated in the second 5 min. Data were not normally distributed (assessed by Kolomogorov-Smirnov test for normality); therefore, the Friedman’s test was performed with posthoc Wilcoxon tests to explore significant differences. Repeated measures ANOVA was also used to examine whether the stress response (HR and BP only) compared to baseline differed between conditions. To assess if breathing frequency and depth was kept constant throughout the protocol, repeated measures ANOVA was used.
To identify whether changes in psychological measures changed from baseline to poststress and whether this differed between viewing condition, repeated measures ANOVA was used. Paired t tests were used to identify if performance in the mental stress task differed between condition and visit order. Significance was set at an alpha of 0.05, where appropriate posthoc paired t tests were used to investigate significant effects between conditions with a Bonferroni corrected alpha level. All data are normally distributed except for RMSSD (assessed by Kolomogorov-Smirnov test for normality). RMSSD went through natural log transformation before statistical analysis. Nonsignificant results for all analyses are not reported. The statistical package PASW SPSSv18 was used for all statistical analysis.

Results

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To

Baseline Measurements

Planned paired t tests on baseline data (Table 1) showed there were no differences between the viewing conditions at baseline for RMSSD, SDRR, HR, SBP, DBP, or breathing frequency or depth (p > 0.05). Therefore, any subsequent differences are likely attributed to interventions and actions within the protocol. In all analyses, there were no order effects of condition on any of the dependent variables.
Table 1. Baseline Measurements in the Nature and Built Conditions (Mean ± SD)a
 naturebuilt
 meanSDmeanSD
cardiovascular measures    
heart rate, bpm67.59.668.08.7
systolic blood pressure, mmHg117.013.9118.314.8
diastolic blood pressure, mmHg59.88.660.47.6
heart rate variability measures    
RMSSD, ms239.719.737.915.8
SDRR, ms248.618.543.815.2
psychological measures    
self-esteem19.45.119.84.4
negative mood12.23.912.52.6
positive mood27.76.428.27.3
a

RMSSD, root mean square of successive differences; SDRR, standard deviation of R-R intervals; self-esteem quantified using Rosenberg’s self-esteem, low scores = low self-esteem, range 0–30; negative and positive mood taken from the positive and negative affect scale (PANAS), low scores = low negative or positive mood, range 0–40.

Effect of Nature Views on Recovery

For the primary research question, repeated measures ANOVA revealed an interaction effect for RMSSD between the nature condition and the built condition over time (F1, 22 = 8.72, p = 0.007, ηp2 = 0.28). This demonstrates increased levels above baseline during recovery for the nature condition compared to recovery in the built condition (Figure 2) where levels dropped below baseline. Repeated measures ANOVA on SDRR determined a main effect of view (F1, 22 = 11, p = 0.003, ηp2 = 0.33) and time (F1, 22 = 7.7, p = 0.011, ηp2 = 0.26), with levels increasing during recovery irrespective of view and higher SDRR in the nature condition irrespective of time.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Mean (±SD) heart rate and heart rate variability recovery from stress compared to baseline: ∗, main effect for time (p < 0.05); †, interaction effect (p < 0.05); ∗∗, main effect for view (p < 0.05).

High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide

During Views

For the secondary research question, exposure time was split in half to see if ANS function during the first 5 min differed to the last 5 min according to condition (Figure 3). Friedman’s test for multiple comparisons identified significant differences for SDRR during views (χ2 (3) = 8.06, p = 0.045). Posthoc Wilcoxon tests were performed with a Bonferroni correction factor of 0.013. Change in SDRR from baseline was found to be significantly greater in the nature condition (median = 1.20) compared to the built condition (median = −2.44) during the first 5 min (z = −2.56, p = 0.011).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Heart rate and heart rate variability means ± SD as change from baseline for the first 5 min and last 5 min of viewing: ∗, significant difference between conditions.

High Resolution Image
Download MS PowerPoint Slide

During Mental Stress Task

Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a main effect for time on HR (F1, 22 = 27.3, p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.10) describing an increase from baseline to stress period (67.8 ± 1.8 vs 73.4 ± 1.8 bpm). There was also a main effect of time on SBP (F1,22 = 34.1, p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.61) and DBP (F1,22 = 9.7, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.31) both revealing an increase from baseline to stress period (117.6 ± 2.6 vs 128.8 ± 3.1 mmHg and 60.1 ± 1.4 vs 63.1 ± 1.5 mmHg, respectively). Change in these parameters supports the effectiveness of the mental stressor. Repeated measures ANOVA determined that time had an effect on breathing rate (F4, 84 = 6.2, p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.23). Pairwise comparisons revealed that only the stress period was different from baseline (18.3 ± 0.7 vs 14.3 ± 0.7, p < 0.0001). Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no main effect for condition on HR (F1, 22 = 1.9, p = 0.187, ηp2 = 0.08), SBP (F1, 22 = 1.5, p = 0.231, ηp2 = 0.07), DBP (F1, 22 = 0.0003, p = 0.985, ηp2 = 0.00001), or breathing rate (F1, 21 = 0.9, p = 0.356, ηp2 = 0.04) suggesting that viewing condition did not influence the stress responses. A paired t test showed no difference was observed in the scores for the mental task between the conditions. However, a paired t test revealed that the second visit showed a significant improvement in the population mean score from 91.1 to 97.7, (t22 = 4.12, p = 0.001) out of a possible 102.

Self-Esteem and Mood

A repeated measures ANOVA determined an interaction effect on self-esteem (F1, 21 = 5.4, p = 0.03, ηp2 = 0.21) describing an enhanced self-esteem from baseline to poststress for the nature condition (Table 2). Conversely, the built condition showed deterioration in self-esteem from baseline to poststress values. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed a main effect of time on negative mood scores (F1, 21 = 7.3, p = 0.013, ηp2 = 0.26) describing a decrease in negative mood from baseline to poststress (Table 2). There was no detectable effect on positive mood.
Table 2. Psychological Measures at the Beginning and End of the Protocol for Both Nature and Built Conditions (Mean ± SD)a
 naturebuilt
 prepostprepost
 meanSDmeanSDmeanSDmeanSD
self-esteemb19.45.119.85.119.84.419.54.9
positive mood27.76.427.07.428.27.327.57.2
negative moodc12.23.911.01.712.52.611.92.4
a

Self-esteem, quantified using Rosenberg’s self-esteem, low scores = low self-esteem, range 0–30; both positive and negative mood quantified using positive and negative affect scale (PANAS), low scores = low positive or negative mood, range 10–50.

b

Significant interaction effect (p < 0.05).

c

Significant main effect for time, pre to post (p < 0.05).

Discussion

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To
The majority of research exploring the impact of nature on ANS mechanisms has included an exercise component which limits the conclusions drawn about the contribution of the “nature” component. (15, 17, 39) As exercise has such positive effects on health parameters, it is often hard to isolate the effects solely from the nature component. Therefore, this study looks at the nature contribution to ANS function without complicating the effects by combining it with exercise.
The main finding of this study was that HRV as a marker of ANS function increased during stress recovery, if nature scenes were viewed prior to a stressor, compared to built scenes. This is the first study to suggest that simply viewing scenes of nature prior to a stressor enhances recovery of ANS function poststressor.
The interaction of nature and recovery from stress has been studied previously. (30, 32) However, previous research has assessed the restorative effects of viewing or interacting with nature during the actual recovery period following a stressor. (29, 30, 32) For example, viewing video footage of nature scenes for 10 min directly after being exposed to a film of stressful images increased heart period (i.e., decreased HR), suggested to be due to enhanced parasympathetic system activity. (30) Viewing nature through a window during a 5 min rest period following cognitive tasks was also more effective at reducing HR. (29) Both authors postulate that these observations are a consequence of cognitive recovery or attention restoration occurring while nature scenes are viewed. The results of the present study suggest greater HRV during viewing nature scenes as contributed to by both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. It is only during the recovery period that parasympathetic activity alone is greater in the nature views condition. Therefore, viewing nature scenes may encourage future healthy stress responses and recovery patterns and could act as a vital tool in preventive health.
The secondary research question relates to the duration of the nature dose. Research shows that a 5 min dose of nature offers the greatest increases in self-esteem and mood. (31) Physiologically, 5 min of viewing images of nature is known to increase HRV. (16) However, it is unknown whether an additional 5 min would enhance the initial changes that occur in the first 5 min dose. Within a laboratory setting, it appears that the second 5 min of exposure is less effective in inducing HRV changes. The strength of the current study is the use of 5 min segments for HRV analysis which is recommended in short-term analysis, i.e., less than 24 h. (22) Furthermore, the division of exposure to nature images into 5 min segments enabled the observation of increased HRV as anticipated in an initial 5 min dose, thus supporting previous work. (16) Comparisons in the current study suggest an additional 5 min of exposure to nature does not enhance the greater HRV seen during the initial 5 min dose.
In agreement with previous research, (10, 31) the current study observed improvements in self-esteem with exposure to nature. This finding suggests enhanced self-esteem associated with viewing nature shows robustness against exposure to a mild stress. In the current study, there was no change in mood associated with condition although this has been shown in previous studies. (10, 31, 39) The changes in mood observed in these studies were measured using the profile of mood states (POMS). (10, 31, 39) POMS contains 5 subscales associated with negative mood and 1 subscale for positive mood. This restricts POMS to predominantly reflect changes of negative mood rather than positive mood. In the current study, negative affect, measured using PANAS, showed negative mood improved irrespective of condition, therefore not replicating previous observations using POMS. The use of positive affect scores from PANAS was to ascertain if changes in positive mood occur that may not be so clearly identified using POMS. Positive mood did not differ between conditions nor did it change over time. In contrast, a meta-analysis of five studies did observe improvements in positive affect (8) suggesting the manipulation in the current study was not strong enough to elicit positive changes. The use of PANAS in laboratory research of this nature might not be appropriate.
Previous literature lacks discussion as to the potential mechanisms behind observed changes in physiological function while viewing nature. One potential mechanism to explain alterations in physiological measures could be attributable to the restorative properties of the nature scenes. The concept of attention restoration occurring after exposure to nature has previously been demonstrated by way of improved performance in attention related cognitive tasks. (20, 32) Viewing scenes of nature for 10 min, following a period of mentally fatiguing tasks, improved performance in a backward digit-span memory task. (32) In the current study, there were no such observations of altered cognitive ability, i.e., performance in the mental task, with different viewing conditions. This may be attributable to the lack of a mentally fatiguing task prior to the intervention, but the nature scenes acted as an effective buffer to ANS function during recovery.
To date, there are only a handful of studies that have measured or inferred changes in the ANS (14, 16-18) associated with nature. We suggest that the different components of the environmental stimulus, e.g., visual, cognitive, emotional, and restorative properties, induce changes in the regulation of different areas throughout the brain thus altering ANS function. The findings of this study, alongside previous studies, (14, 16-18) suggest a top-down mechanism originating in higher centers of the brain. Evidence for this was in part obtained from a study which utilized fMRI while viewing urban scenes. (40) The urban scenes caused increased activity in the amygdala compared to viewing nature scenes. (40) This action is likely to cause alterations in ANS control such as those seen in the current study, (41) through changes in parasympathetic and sympathetic outputs. Inhibition of the parasympathetic nervous system arises from the frontal cortex, and the pathways pass through the amygdala and then to the nucleus tractus solitarii and nucleus ambiguus. (41) The prefrontal cortex is prominent in threat-avoidance situations, causing inhibition on HR via the vagus nerve. (42) Therefore, during periods of threat, parasympathetic activity is decreased (increasing HR). The results of the current study suggest the absence of threat during nature viewing, without decreases in parasympathetic activity, while during built views overall variability decreased in the first 5 min. This interaction may be primarily due to alterations in both the frontal cortex and the amygdala.
Visual properties of an image may also play a role, as the composition of a picture can alter activity in the visual cortex. Images of nature are less aversive and uncomfortable when examining their spectral properties compared to built images. (43) Indeed, recent research suggests that the primitive characteristic of color, in particular the “greenness”, of a nature image is associated with improved mood. (39) Through color perception and reduced impact on the visual system, images of nature may evoke lower activity in the amygdala and visual cortex (40) culminating in increased parasympathetic activity as seen in the current study.
It is unknown how long the physiological changes that nature evokes are maintained, but it will be vital to explore this further, especially if nature is to be considered as a therapy. In the current study, unlike previous studies, nature exposure was experienced 10 min before the stressor, not during the stressor or immediately following the stressor. The evidence from this study suggests that there does indeed appear to be a buffering effect of nature. A stronger stimulus, i.e., within the environment itself, may prolong the buffering effect and also induce greater changes in cardiovascular measures. This may also be the case when nature is combined with exercise (“green exercise”). Exercising while viewing nature reduces BP in the 5 min following the exercise period in comparison to viewing built images. (15) These effects again may be even greater following “real” exposure to nature. Indeed, recent research suggests that adrenaline, noradrenaline, and BP still remain reduced in the evening following a daytime walk in a forest field. (18) Interestingly, forest walking increases natural killer cell activity for a period of 30 days in males and 7 days in females. (44)
This study has some limitations that should be addressed in future research. The impact of individual beliefs on the regulation of emotions when viewing the different environments, and how this effects physiological modulations, is unknown and could pose a mediating factor to the effectiveness of viewing nature on improving stress recovery. In order to quantify individual relationships with nature, the nature relatedness scale (46) could be used to indicate experience, beliefs, and contact with nature. Complementary information could be gained by noting home postcode, and thus, the surrounding area could be assessed in terms of land usage to explore the potential impact it may have on participants’ perception of nature. The present study collected postcode data but does not have a sufficient population size to draw conclusions about all potential subsets. The majority of studies to date, including the present study, use extreme examples to depict natural and urban environments in order to examine the influence of nature. Investigating a greater variety of environments (including more urban green spaces) would add population level validity to the results and account for individual landscape preferences. The restorative properties of nature (images or within the location itself) may evoke different psychological, cognitive, and physiological responses. Further studies would benefit from the inclusion of a questionnaire to assess how restorative the scenes or places are perceived to be, as suggested by Hartig, Mang, and Evans, (47) in combination with physiological and psychological responses to these different images.
The current study suggests that nature itself may evoke physiological responses, which may be in part driven by psychological reactions and restorative properties of nature. Furthermore, the increase in parasympathetic activity in the recovery from a stressor may help to counteract a buildup of psychological stress and thus reduce the impact of stress on physical and mental health. This would likely occur by nature images encouraging a healthier stress recovery pattern. (45) If nature increases autonomic recovery to stress and thus is an effective coping mechanism, this provides an argument for the need for more nearby nature. A green view through a workplace window, small pockets of greenspace in the home and workplace, and accessible local parks could be effective tools in altering ANS control of the heart. The buffering effect of nature could have particular relevance for the workplace where it may be beneficial to utilize nature during the lunch break, prior to a stressful afternoon, to help enhance recovery of autonomic function.

Author Information

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To
  • Corresponding Author
    • Daniel K. Brown - School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Jo L. Barton - School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom
    • Valerie F. Gladwell - School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgment

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To

This work was supported by a British Heart Foundation Non-clinical PhD Studentship (FS/10/32/28204) and an ESRC research fellowship (project number RES-064-27-0019).

Abbreviations

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To
ANS

autonomic nervous system

HR

heart rate

SBP

systolic blood pressure

DBP

diastolic blood pressure

HRV

heart rate variability

SDRR

standard deviation of R-R intervals

RMSSD

root-mean-square of successive differences

References

ARTICLE SECTIONS
Jump To

This article references 47 other publications.

  1. 1
    Li, Q. Forest Medicine; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, 2012.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  2. 2
    Wilson, E. O. Biophilia: The Human bond with other species; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Masschusetts, 1984.
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  3. 3
    Herzog, T. R.; Maguire, P.; Nebel, M. B. Assessing the restorative components of environments J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23 (2) 159– 170
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  4. 4
    Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S. The experience of nature: A psychological perspective; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1989.
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  5. 5
    Maas, J.; Verheij, R. A.; Groenewegen, P. P.; de Vries, S.; Spreeuwenberg, P. Green space, urbanity, and health: How strong is the relation? J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2006, 60 (7) 587– 592
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    5
    Green space, urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation?
    Maas Jolanda; Verheij Robert A; Groenewegen Peter P; de Vries Sjerp; Spreeuwenberg Peter
    Journal of epidemiology and community health (2006), 60 (7), 587-92 ISSN:0143-005X.
    STUDY OBJECTIVES: To investigate the strength of the relation between the amount of green space in people's living environment and their perceived general health. This relation is analysed for different age and socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it is analysed separately for urban and more rural areas, because the strength of the relation was expected to vary with urbanity. DESIGN: The study includes 250 782 people registered with 104 general practices who filled in a self administered form on sociodemographic background and perceived general health. The percentage of green space (urban green space, agricultural space, natural green space) within a one kilometre and three kilometre radius around the postal code coordinates was calculated for each household. METHODS: Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed at three levels-that is, individual level, family level, and practice level-controlled for sociodemographic characteristics. MAIN RESULTS: The percentage of green space inside a one kilometre and a three kilometre radius had a significant relation to perceived general health. The relation was generally present at all degrees of urbanity. The overall relation is somewhat stronger for lower socioeconomic groups. Elderly, youth, and secondary educated people in large cities seem to benefit more from presence of green areas in their living environment than other groups in large cities. CONCLUSIONS: This research shows that the percentage of green space in people's living environment has a positive association with the perceived general health of residents. Green space seems to be more than just a luxury and consequently the development of green space should be allocated a more central position in spatial planning policy.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD28znsFarsg%253D%253D&md5=27f62b37cc779247bd55386f3065ea33
  6. 6
    Maas, J.; Verheij, R. A.; de Vries, S.; Spreeuwenberg, P.; Schellevis, F. G.; Groenewegen, P. P. Morbidity is related to a green living environment J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2009, 63, 967– 973
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    6
    Morbidity is related to a green living environment
    Maas J; Verheij R A; de Vries S; Spreeuwenberg P; Schellevis F G; Groenewegen P P
    Journal of epidemiology and community health (2009), 63 (12), 967-73 ISSN:.
    BACKGROUND: As a result of increasing urbanisation, people face the prospect of living in environments with few green spaces. There is increasing evidence for a positive relation between green space in people's living environment and self-reported indicators of physical and mental health. This study investigates whether physician-assessed morbidity is also related to green space in people's living environment. METHODS: Morbidity data were derived from electronic medical records of 195 general practitioners in 96 Dutch practices, serving a population of 345,143 people. Morbidity was classified by the general practitioners according to the International Classification of Primary Care. The percentage of green space within a 1 km and 3 km radius around the postal code coordinates was derived from an existing database and was calculated for each household. Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: The annual prevalence rate of 15 of the 24 disease clusters was lower in living environments with more green space in a 1 km radius. The relation was strongest for anxiety disorder and depression. The relation was stronger for children and people with a lower socioeconomic status. Furthermore, the relation was strongest in slightly urban areas and not apparent in very strongly urban areas. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that the previously established relation between green space and a number of self-reported general indicators of physical and mental health can also be found for clusters of specific physician-assessed morbidity. The study stresses the importance of green space close to home for children and lower socioeconomic groups.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1Mjms1Kisw%253D%253D&md5=1718197768a9603a60b8d62de4075976
  7. 7
    Thompson Coon, J.; Boddy, K.; Stein, K.; Whear, R.; Barton, J.; Depledge, M. H. Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45 (5) 1761– 1772
    [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  8. 8
    Bowler, D. E.; Buyung-Ali, L. M.; Knight, T. M.; Pullin, A. S. A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments BMC Public Health 2010, 10, 456
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  9. 9
    Barton, J.; Hine, R. E.; Pretty, J. The health benefits of walking in greenspaces of high natural and heritage value J. Integr. Environ. Sci. 2009, 6 (4) 261– 278
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  10. 10
    Barton, J.; Griffin, M.; Pretty, J. Exercise, nature and socially interactive based initiatives improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population Perspect. Public Health 2012, 132 (2) 89– 96
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    10
    Exercise-, nature- and socially interactive-based initiatives improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population
    Barton Jo; Griffin Murray; Pretty Jules
    Perspectives in public health (2012), 132 (2), 89-96 ISSN:1757-9139.
    AIMS: This study evaluated two existing group-based health promotion initiatives (a social club and a swimming group) and compared these to a new green exercise programme (weekly countryside and urban park walks). METHODS: Participants represented a clinical population (N = 53) and were all experiencing a range of mental health problems. They only attended one of the three programmes and sessions were held once a week for six weeks in all initiatives. Composite questionnaires incorporating two standardized measures to analyse changes in self-esteem and mood were completed before and after all sessions. RESULTS: A significant main effect for self-esteem and mood pre and post activity (p < 0.001) was reported after participating in a single session. The change in self-esteem was significantly greater in the green exercise group compared with the social activities club (p < 0.001). Dose responses showed that both self-esteem and mood levels improved over the six-week period and improvements were related to attendance in the green exercise group. CONCLUSIONS: Green exercise as a health-promoting initiative for people experiencing mental ill health is equally as effective as existing programmes. Combining exercise, nature and social components in future initiatives may play a key role in managing and supporting recovery from mental ill health, suggesting a potential 'green' approach to mental healthcare and promotion.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC38nlt1Giug%253D%253D&md5=568e3d70b66d336a6a50d4567844c420
  11. 11
    Van den Berg, A.; Custers, M. Gardening promotes neuroendocrine and affective restoration from stress J. Health Psychol. 2011, 16, 3– 11
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    11
    Gardening promotes neuroendocrine and affective restoration from stress
    Van Den Berg Agnes E; Custers Mariette H G
    Journal of health psychology (2011), 16 (1), 3-11 ISSN:.
    Stress-relieving effects of gardening were hypothesized and tested in a field experiment. Thirty allotment gardeners performed a stressful Stroop task and were then randomly assigned to 30 minutes of outdoor gardening or indoor reading on their own allotment plot. Salivary cortisol levels and self-reported mood were repeatedly measured. Gardening and reading each led to decreases in cortisol during the recovery period, but decreases were significantly stronger in the gardening group. Positive mood was fully restored after gardening, but further deteriorated during reading. These findings provide the first experimental evidence that gardening can promote relief from acute stress.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3M%252Foslyhtw%253D%253D&md5=5c6296a5c1f27c86f673de359b8edd4d
  12. 12
    Pretty, J.; Peacock, J.; Hine, R.; Sellens, M.; South, N.; Griffin, M. Green exercise in the UK countryside: Effects on health and psychological well-being J. Environ. Plann. Manage. 2007, 50 (2) 211– 231
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  13. 13
    Mackay, G.; Neill, J. The effect of “green exercise” on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity, and greenness: A quasi-experimental study Psychol. Sport Exercise 2010, 11 (3) 238– 245
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  14. 14
    Park, B.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Morikawa, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological effects of forest recreation in a young conifer forest in Hinokage Town, Japan Silva Fenn 2009, 43 (2) 291– 301
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  15. 15
    Pretty, J.; Peacock, J.; Sellens, M.; Griffin, M. The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2005, 15 (5) 319– 337
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    15
    The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise
    Pretty Jules; Peacock Jo; Sellens Martin; Griffin Murray
    International journal of environmental health research (2005), 15 (5), 319-37 ISSN:0960-3123.
    Both physical activity and exposure to nature are known separately to have positive effects on physical and mental health. We have investigated whether there is a synergistic benefit in adopting physical activities whilst being directly exposed to nature ('green exercise'). Five groups of 20 subjects were exposed to a sequence of 30 scenes projected on a wall whilst exercising on a treadmill. Four categories of scenes were tested: rural pleasant, rural unpleasant, urban pleasant and urban unpleasant. The control was running without exposure to images. Blood pressure and two psychological measures (self-esteem and mood) were measured before and after the intervention. There was a clear effect of both exercise and different scenes on blood pressure, self-esteem and mood. Exercise alone significantly reduced blood pressure, increased self-esteem, and had a positive significant effect on 4 of 6 mood measures. Both rural and urban pleasant scenes produced a significantly greater positive effect on self-esteem than the exercise-only control. This shows the synergistic effect of green exercise in both rural and urban environments. By contrast, both rural and urban unpleasant scenes reduced the positive effects of exercise on self-esteem. The rural unpleasant scenes had the most dramatic effect, depressing the beneficial effects of exercise on three different measures of mood. It appears that threats to the countryside depicted in rural unpleasant scenes have a greater negative effect on mood than already urban unpleasant scenes. We conclude that green exercise has important public and environmental health consequences.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD28%252FivFGjtA%253D%253D&md5=fb076bfa2272a9e13d8797c9de8676fb
  16. 16
    Gladwell, V. F.; Brown, D. K.; Barton, J. L.; Tarvainen, M. P.; Kuoppa, P.; Pretty, J.; Suddaby, J. M.; Sandercock, G. R. H. The effects of views of nature on autonomic control Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2012, 1– 8
    Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  17. 17
    Park, B.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): Evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2010, 15 (1) 18– 26
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  18. 18
    Li, Q.; Otsuka, T.; Kobayashi, M.; Wakayama, Y.; Inagaki, H.; Katsumata, M.; Hirata, Y.; Li, Y.; Hirata, K.; Shimizu, T.; Suzuki, H.; Kawada, T.; Kagawa, T. Acute effects of walking in forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2011, 111 (11) 2845– 2853
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    18
    Acute effects of walking in forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters
    Li, Qing; Otsuka, Toshiaki; Kobayashi, Maiko; Wakayama, Yoko; Inagaki, Hirofumi; Katsumata, Masao; Hirata, Yukiyo; Li, YingJi; Hirata, Kimiko; Shimizu, Takako; Suzuki, Hiroko; Kawada, Tomoyuki; Kagawa, Takahide
    European Journal of Applied Physiology (2011), 111 (11), 2845-2853CODEN: EJAPFN; ISSN:1439-6319. (Springer)
    We previously found that forest environments reduced stress hormones such as adrenaline and noradrenaline and showed the relaxing effect both in male and female subjects. In the present study, we investigated the effects of walking under forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters. Sixteen healthy male subjects (mean age 57.4 ± 11.6 years) were selected after obtaining informed consent. The subjects took day trips to a forest park in the suburbs of Tokyo and to an urban area of Tokyo as a control in Sept. 2010. On both trips, they walked for 2 h in the morning and afternoon on a Sunday. Blood and urine were sampled on the morning before each trip and after each trip. Blood pressure was measured on the morning (0800) before each trip, at noon (1300), in the afternoon (1600) during each trip, and on the morning (0800) after each trip. The day trip to the forest park significantly reduced blood pressure and urinary noradrenaline and dopamine levels and significantly increased serum adiponectin and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) levels. Walking exercise also reduced the levels of serum N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and urinary dopamine. Taken together, habitual walking in forest environments may lower blood pressure by reducing sympathetic nerve activity and have beneficial effects on blood adiponectin and DHEA-S levels, and habitual walking exercise may have beneficial effects on blood NT-proBNP levels.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhtlShur7P&md5=38d4e125d432858f0ae85b21fac78e13
  19. 19
    Ulrich, R. S. Natural versus urban scenes some psychophysiological effects Environ. Behav. 1981, 13 (5) 523– 556
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  20. 20
    Laumann, K.; Garling, T.; Stormark, K. Selective attention and heart rate responses to natural and urban environments J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23, 125– 134
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  21. 21
    Park, B.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Hirano, H.; Kagawa, T.; Sato, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)—Using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2007, 26 (2) 123– 128
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    21
    Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)--using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators
    Park Bum-Jin; Tsunetsugu Yuko; Kasetani Tamami; Hirano Hideki; Kagawa Takahide; Sato Masahiko; Miyazaki Yoshifumi
    Journal of physiological anthropology (2007), 26 (2), 123-8 ISSN:1880-6791.
    The purpose of this study is to examine the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest). The subjects were 12 male students (22.8+/-1.4 yr). On the first day of the experiments, one group of 6 subjects was sent to a forest area, and the other group of 6 subjects was sent to a city area. On the second day, each group was sent to the opposite area for a cross check. In the forenoon, the subjects were asked to walk around their given area for 20 minutes. In the afternoon, they were asked to sit on chairs and watch the landscapes of their given area for 20 minutes. Cerebral activity in the prefrontal area and salivary cortisol were measured as physiological indices in the morning at the place of accommodation, before and after walking in the forest or city areas during the forenoon, and before and after watching the landscapes in the afternoon in the forest and city areas, and in the evening at the place of accommodation. The results indicated that cerebral activity in the prefrontal area of the forest area group was significantly lower than that of the group in the city area after walking; the concentration of salivary cortisol in the forest area group was significantly lower than that of the group in the city area before and after watching each landscape. The results of the physiological measurements show that Shinrin-yoku can effectively relax both people's body and spirit.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2s3is1Wrug%253D%253D&md5=6bf54b7b8bc36388046c45a3adec6869
  22. 22
    TaskForce Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use Eur. Heart J. 1996, 17, 354– 381
    [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  23. 23
    Tsuji, H.; Larson, M. G.; Venditti, F. J., Jr.; Manders, E. S.; Evans, J. C.; Feldman, C. L.; Levy, D. Impact of reduced heart rate variability on risk for cardiac events. The Framingham Heart Study Circulation 1996, 94 (11) 2850– 2855
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  24. 24
    Ulrich-Lai, Y. M.; Herman, J. P. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009, 10 (6) 397– 409
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    24
    Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses
    Ulrich-Lai, Yvonne M.; Herman, James P.
    Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2009), 10 (6), 397-409CODEN: NRNAAN; ISSN:1471-003X. (Nature Publishing Group)
    A review. The survival and well-being of all species requires appropriate physiol. responses to environmental and homeostatic challenges. The re-establishment and maintenance of homeostasis entails the coordinated activation and control of neuroendocrine and autonomic stress systems. These collective stress responses are mediated by largely overlapping circuits in the limbic forebrain, the hypothalamus and the brainstem, so that the resp. contributions of the neuroendocrine and autonomic systems are tuned in accordance with stressor modality and intensity. Limbic regions that are responsible for regulating stress responses intersect with circuits that are responsible for memory and reward, providing a means to tailor the stress response with respect to prior experience and anticipated outcomes.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXlslGnsLc%253D&md5=a02d62e0628d0870edaff07e884cd633
  25. 25
    Lane, R. D.; McRae, K.; Reiman, E. M.; Chen, K.; Ahern, G. L.; Thayer, J. F. Neural correlates of heart rate variability during emotion Neuroimage 2009, 44 (1) 213– 222
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  26. 26
    Brunoni, A. R.; Vanderhasselt, M.-A.; Boggio, P. S.; Fregni, F.; Dantas, E. M.; Mill, J. G.; Lotufo, P. A.; Benseñor, I. M. Polarity- and valence-dependent effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation on heart rate variability and salivary cortisol Psychoneuroendocrino 2013, 38 (1) 58– 66
    [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  27. 27
    Chandola, T.; Britton, A.; Brunner, E.; Hemingway, H.; Malik, M.; Kumari, M.; Badrick, E.; Kivimaki, M.; Marmot, M. Work stress and coronary heart disease: What are the mechanisms? Eur. Heart J. 2008, 29, 640– 648
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    27
    Work stress and coronary heart disease: what are the mechanisms?
    Chandola Tarani; Britton Annie; Brunner Eric; Hemingway Harry; Malik Marek; Kumari Meena; Badrick Ellena; Kivimaki Mika; Marmot Michael
    European heart journal (2008), 29 (5), 640-8 ISSN:0195-668X.
    AIMS: To determine the biological and behavioural factors linking work stress with coronary heart disease (CHD). METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 10 308 London-based male and female civil servants aged 35-55 at phase 1 (1985-88) of the Whitehall II study were studied. Exposures included work stress (assessed at phases 1 and 2), and outcomes included behavioural risk factors (phase 3), the metabolic syndrome (phase 3), heart rate variability, morning rise in cortisol (phase 7), and incident CHD (phases 2-7) on the basis of CHD death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, or definite angina. Chronic work stress was associated with CHD and this association was stronger among participants aged under 50 (RR 1.68, 95% CI 1.17-2.42). There were similar associations between work stress and low physical activity, poor diet, the metabolic syndrome, its components, and lower heart rate variability. Cross-sectionally, work stress was associated with a higher morning rise in cortisol. Around 32% of the effect of work stress on CHD was attributable to its effect on health behaviours and the metabolic syndrome. CONCLUSION: Work stress may be an important determinant of CHD among working-age populations, which is mediated through indirect effects on health behaviours and direct effects on neuroendocrine stress pathways.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1c7lt1Sgsg%253D%253D&md5=e2a60d71d4ca4e8e8026b8aa2a82010f
  28. 28
    Parsons, R.; Tassinary, L. G.; Ulrich, R. S.; Hebl, M. R.; Grossman-Alexander, M. The view from the road: Implications for stress recovery and immunisation J. Environ. Psychol. 1998, 18, 113– 139
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  29. 29
    Kahn, P. H., Jr.; Friedman, B.; Gill, B.; Hagman, J.; Severson, R. L.; Freier, N. G.; Feldman, E. N.; Carrère, S.; Stolyar, A. A plasma display window?--The shifting baseline problem in a technologically mediated natural world J. Environ. Psychol. 2008, 28 (2) 192– 199
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  30. 30
    Ulrich, R. S.; Simons, R. F.; Fiorito, E.; Miles, M. A.; Zelson, M. Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments J. Environ. Psychol. 1991, 11, 201– 230
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  31. 31
    Barton, J.; Pretty, J. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44 (10) 3947– 3955
    [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  32. 32
    Berman, M. G.; Jonides, J.; Kaplan, S. The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature Psychol. Sci. 2008, 19 (12) 1207– 1212
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    32
    The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature
    Berman Marc G; Jonides John; Kaplan Stephen
    Psychological science (2008), 19 (12), 1207-12 ISSN:.
    We compare the restorative effects on cognitive functioning of interactions with natural versus urban environments. Attention restoration theory (ART) provides an analysis of the kinds of environments that lead to improvements in directed-attention abilities. Nature, which is filled with intriguing stimuli, modestly grabs attention in a bottom-up fashion, allowing top-down directed-attention abilities a chance to replenish. Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car), making them less restorative. We present two experiments that show that walking in nature or viewing pictures of nature can improve directed-attention abilities as measured with a backwards digit-span task and the Attention Network Task, thus validating attention restoration theory.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1M%252FltV2rtQ%253D%253D&md5=bff2b5419a3b4248423daaf7df0ff708
  33. 33
    Dickerson, S.; Kemeny, M. Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research Psychol. Bull. 2004, 130 (3) 355– 391
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    33
    Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research
    Dickerson Sally S; Kemeny Margaret E
    Psychological bulletin (2004), 130 (3), 355-91 ISSN:0033-2909.
    This meta-analysis reviews 208 laboratory studies of acute psychological stressors and tests a theoretical model delineating conditions capable of eliciting cortisol responses. Psychological stressors increased cortisol levels; however, effects varied widely across tasks. Consistent with the theoretical model, motivated performance tasks elicited cortisol responses if they were uncontrollable or characterized by social-evaluative threat (task performance could be negatively judged by others), when methodological factors and other stressor characteristics were controlled for. Tasks containing both uncontrollable and social-evaluative elements were associated with the largest cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone changes and the longest times to recovery. These findings are consistent with the animal literature on the physiological effects of uncontrollable social threat and contradict the belief that cortisol is responsive to all types of stressors.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2c3isFekug%253D%253D&md5=8b9b4f0d18e1bc01e56fc325b141bfd0
  34. 34
    Condren, R. M.; O’Neill, A.; Ryan, M. C. M.; Barrett, P.; Thakore, J. H. HPA axis response to a psychological stressor in generalised social phobia Psychoneuroendocrino 2002, 27 (6) 693– 703
    [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  35. 35
    Langewouters, G. J.; Settels, J. J.; Roelandt, R.; Wesseling, K. H. Why use Finapres or Portapres rather than intra-arterial or intermittent non-invasive techniques of blood pressure measurement? J. Med. Eng. Technol. 1998, 22 (1) 37– 43
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    35
    Why use Finapres or Portapres rather than intra-arterial or intermittent non-invasive techniques of blood pressure measurement?
    Langewouters G J; Settels J J; Roelandt R; Wesseling K H
    Journal of medical engineering & technology (1998), 22 (1), 37-43 ISSN:0309-1902.
    In the clinic, blood pressure is measured almost exclusively using non-invasive intermittent techniques, of which the auscultatory (Riva-Rocci/Korotkoff, RRK) and the computerized oscillometric method are most often used. However, both methods only provide a momentary value. In addition, the accuracy is hampered by phenomena such as cuff response and white coat hypertension, thus providing artefactually increased values. The vascular unloading technique of Penaz together with the Physiocal criteria of Wesseling provide reliable, non-invasive and continuous estimates of blood pressure. This technique is thus an alternative to the invasive intra-arterial measurements in many cases, without the risks and ethical questions inherent to invasive measurements. Since the pressure waveform is available continuously, computations such as pulse contour and Modelflow cardiac output, spectral analysis and baroreflex sensitivity provide further information on the dynamics of the cardiovascular system on a beat-to-beat basis, similar to intra-arterial measurements.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaK1c7lt1SmtQ%253D%253D&md5=76e246dac95beb7f108cbf003680d1c3
  36. 36
    Niskanen, J. P.; Tarvainen, M. P.; Ranta-Aho, P. O.; Karjalainen, P. A. Software for advanced HRV analysis Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 2004, 76 (1) 73– 81
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    36
    Software for advanced HRV analysis
    Niskanen Juha-Pekka; Tarvainen Mika P; Ranta-Aho Perttu O; Karjalainen Pasi A
    Computer methods and programs in biomedicine (2004), 76 (1), 73-81 ISSN:0169-2607.
    A computer program for advanced heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is presented. The program calculates all the commonly used time- and frequency-domain measures of HRV as well as the nonlinear Poincare plot. In frequency-domain analysis parametric and nonparametric spectrum estimates are calculated. The program generates an informative printable report sheet which can be exported to various file formats including the portable document format (PDF). Results can also be saved as an ASCII file from which they can be imported to a spreadsheet program such as the Microsoft Excel. Together with a modern heart rate monitor capable of recording RR intervals this freely distributed program forms a complete low-cost HRV measuring and analysis system.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2cvgvVaksA%253D%253D&md5=39e0aa5fd99cc111148fa10ed98e9f57
  37. 37
    Rosenberg, M. Society and the adolescent self-image; Wesleyan University Press: Middletown, CT, 1965.
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  38. 38
    Watson, D.; Clark, L.; Tellegen, A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1988, 54 (6) 1063– 1070
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    38
    Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales
    Watson D; Clark L A; Tellegen A
    Journal of personality and social psychology (1988), 54 (6), 1063-70 ISSN:0022-3514.
    In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaL1c3os1ersA%253D%253D&md5=9e1fd741993ec44ea6d0242408020fd7
  39. 39
    Akers, A.; Barton, J.; Cossey, R.; Gainsford, P.; Griffin, M.; Micklewright, D. Visual color perception in green exercise: Positive effects on mood and perceived exertion Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (16) 8661– 8666
    [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  40. 40
    Kim, G. W.; Jeong, G. W.; Kim, T. H.; Baek, H. S.; Oh, S. K.; Kang, H. K.; Lee, S. G.; Kim, Y. S.; Song, J. K. Functional neuroanatomy associated with natural and urban scenic views in the human brain: 3.0T functional MR imaging Korean J. Radiol. 2010, 11 (5) 507– 513
    [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
    40
    Functional neuroanatomy associated with natural and urban scenic views in the human brain: 3.0T functional MR imaging
    Kim Gwang-Won; Jeong Gwang-Woo; Kim Tae-Hoon; Baek Han-Su; Oh Seok-Kyun; Kang Heoung-Keun; Lee Sam-Gyu; Kim Yoon Soo; Song Jin-Kyu
    Korean journal of radiology : official journal of the Korean Radiological Society (2010), 11 (5), 507-13 ISSN:.
    OBJECTIVE: By using a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique we assessed brain activation patterns while subjects were viewing the living environments representing natural and urban scenery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 28 healthy right-handed subjects underwent an fMRI on a 3.0 Tesla MRI scanner. The stimulation paradigm consisted of three times the rest condition and two times the activation condition, each of which lasted for 30 and 120 seconds, respectively. During the activation period, each subject viewed natural and urban scenery, respectively. RESULTS: The predominant brain activation areas observed following exposure to natural scenic views in contrast with urban views included the superior and middle frontal gyri, superior parietal gyrus, precuneus, basal ganglia, superior occipital gyrus, anterior cingulate gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, and insula. On the other hand, the predominant brain activation areas following exposure to urban scenic views in contrast with natural scenes included the middle and inferior occipital gyri, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, anterior temporal pole, and inferior frontal gyrus. CONCLUSION: Our findings support the idea that the differential functional neuroanatomies for each scenic view are presumably related with subjects' emotional responses to the natural and urban environment, and thus the differential functional neuroanatomy can be utilized as a neural index for the evaluation of friendliness in ecological housing.
    >> More from SciFinder ®
    https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3cjptVOntA%253D%253D&md5=421b0c5779ae776d344754ab2f09b48a
  41. 41
    Thayer, J. F.; Lane, R. D. Claude Bernard and the heart-brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2009, 33 (2) 81– 88
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  42. 42
    Thayer, J. F.; Brosschot, J. F. Psychosomatics and psychopathology: Looking up and down from the brain Psychoneuroendocrino 2005, 30 (10) 1050– 1058
    [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  43. 43
    Fernandez, D.; Wilkins, A. J. Uncomfortable images in art and nature Perception 2008, 37 (7) 1098– 1113
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  44. 44
    Li, Q. Effect of forest bathing trips on human immune function Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2010, 15, 9– 17
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  45. 45
    Juster, R.; McEwen, B.; Lupien, S. Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 35, 2– 16
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  46. 46
    Nisbert, E. K.; Zelenski, J. M.; Murphy, S. A. The Nature Relatedness Scale: Linking individuals’ connection with nature to environmental concern and behavior Environ. Behav. 2009, 41 (5) 715– 740
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.
  47. 47
    Hartig, T.; Mang, M.; Evans, G. W. Restorative effects of natural environment experiences Environ. Behav. 1991, 23, 3– 26
    [Crossref], Google Scholar
    There is no corresponding record for this reference.

Cited By

This article is cited by 185 publications.

  1. Raquel A. Silva, Kim Rogers, Timothy J. Buckley. Advancing Environmental Epidemiology to Assess the Beneficial Influence of the Natural Environment on Human Health and Well-Being. Environmental Science & Technology 2018, 52 (17) , 9545-9555. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01781
  2. Kelly T. Sanders . Critical Review: Uncharted Waters? The Future of the Electricity-Water Nexus. Environmental Science & Technology 2015, 49 (1) , 51-66. https://doi.org/10.1021/es504293b
  3. Kirsti A. Dyer. Using daily digital photography as a form of self care: Cameras to calm, create, connect, & care. Journal of Interprofessional Education & Practice 2023, 30 , 100582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xjep.2022.100582
  4. Heather Firby, Rosi Raine. Engaging with nature and the outdoors: A scoping review of therapeutic applications in contemporary occupational therapy. British Journal of Occupational Therapy 2023, 86 (2) , 101-115. https://doi.org/10.1177/03080226221126893
  5. Yi Sun, Fu Li, Tao He, Yaohan Meng, Jie Yin, Ilona S. Yim, Liyan Xu, Jun Wu. Physiological and affective responses to green space virtual reality among pregnant women. Environmental Research 2023, 216 , 114499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114499
  6. Menno van Oordt, Kim Ouwehand, Fred Paas. Restorative Effects of Observing Natural and Urban Scenery after Working Memory Depletion. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2023, 20 (1) , 188. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010188
  7. Ljudmila Koprivec, Martina Zbašnik-Senegačnik, Živa Kristl. A STUDY OF RESTORATIVE POTENTIAL IN WINDOW VIEWS ADOPTING KAPLAN’S ATTENTION RESTORATION THEORY AND URBAN VISUAL PREFERENCES DEFINED BY LYNCH. JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBANISM 2022, 46 (2) , 148-159. https://doi.org/10.3846/jau.2022.16158
  8. Jean C. Bikomeye, Joanna S. Balza, Jamila L. Kwarteng, Andreas M. Beyer, Kirsten M. M. Beyer, . The impact of greenspace or nature-based interventions on cardiovascular health or cancer-related outcomes: A systematic review of experimental studies. PLOS ONE 2022, 17 (11) , e0276517. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276517
  9. Emily Witten, Jasmiina Ryynanen, Stella Wisdom, Cheryl Tipp, Stella W. Y. Chan. Effects of soothing images and soothing sounds on mood and well‐being. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 2022, 118 https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12400
  10. Zhaoming Li, Yujin Wang, Hui Liu, Hong Liu. Physiological and psychological effects of exposure to different types and numbers of biophilic vegetable walls in small spaces. Building and Environment 2022, 225 , 109645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109645
  11. Gulsah Dogan Karaman, Ayse Nihan Avci. Analyzing Natural Lighting Conditions from the Perspective of Biophilic Design in Indoor Office Environments. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 2022, 1099 (1) , 012034. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1099/1/012034
  12. Ahmad Bolouki. The impact of virtual reality natural and built environments on affective responses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Health Research 2022, 26 , 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2022.2130881
  13. Reo J. F. Jones, Chloé O. R. Littzen. An Analysis of Theoretical Perspectives in Research on Nature-Based Interventions and Pain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022, 19 (19) , 12740. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912740
  14. Zhixian Li, Xiaoran Huang, Marcus White. Effects of the Visual Character of Transitional Spaces on Human Stress Recovery in a Virtual Reality Environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022, 19 (20) , 13143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013143
  15. Małgorzata Hanzl, Magdalena Rembeza. Greenery and Urban Form vs. Health of Residents: Evaluation of Modernist Housing in Lodz and Gdansk. Urban Planning 2022, 7 (4) https://doi.org/10.17645/up.v7i4.5831
  16. Gerhard Reese, Jasmin Stahlberg, Claudia Menzel. Digital shinrin-yoku: do nature experiences in virtual reality reduce stress and increase well-being as strongly as similar experiences in a physical forest?. Virtual Reality 2022, 26 (3) , 1245-1255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-022-00631-9
  17. Ruoyu Wang, Pengxin Dong, Guoping Dong, Xiang Xiao, Jingwen Huang, Linchuan Yang, Yunjiang Yu, Guang-Hui Dong. Exploring the impacts of street-level greenspace on stroke and cardiovascular diseases in Chinese adults. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2022, 243 , 113974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113974
  18. Nathalie Michels, Gillian Debra, Louise Mattheeuws, Alexander Hooyberg. Indoor nature integration for stress recovery and healthy eating: A picture experiment with plants versus green color. Environmental Research 2022, 212 , 113643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113643
  19. Izhak Schnell, Basem Hijazi, Diana Saadi, Emanuel Tirosh. Women Emotional, Cognitive and Physiological Modes of Coping with Daily Urban Environments: A Pilot Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022, 19 (13) , 8190. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19138190
  20. Neşe GENÇ, Zehra BULUT, Gülsüm YILMAZ. Açık Alan Rekreasyonu ve Sürdürülebilirlik Kavramlarını Bir Arada Kullanan Uluslararası Çalışmaların Bibliyometrik Analizi. Tourism and Recreation 2022, https://doi.org/10.53601/tourismandrecreation.1130460
  21. Annika B. E. Benz, Raphaela J. Gaertner, Maria Meier, Eva Unternaehrer, Simona Scharndke, Clara Jupe, Maya Wenzel, Ulrike U. Bentele, Stephanie J. Dimitroff, Bernadette F. Denk, Jens C. Pruessner. Nature-Based Relaxation Videos and Their Effect on Heart Rate Variability. Frontiers in Psychology 2022, 13 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.866682
  22. Simone Grassini, Giulia Virginia Segurini, Mika Koivisto. Watching Nature Videos Promotes Physiological Restoration: Evidence From the Modulation of Alpha Waves in Electroencephalography. Frontiers in Psychology 2022, 13 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.871143
  23. Kunjoon Byun, Sara Aristizabal, Yihan Wu, Aidan F. Mullan, Jeremiah D. Carlin, Colin P. West, Kevin A. Mazurek. Investigating How Auditory and Visual Stimuli Promote Recovery After Stress With Potential Applications for Workplace Stress and Burnout: Protocol for a Randomized Trial. Frontiers in Psychology 2022, 13 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.897241
  24. Andrew Wold, Rebecca Boehme, Magnus Thordstein. Just Breathe: Improving LEP Outcomes through Long Interval Breathing. Clinical and Translational Neuroscience 2022, 6 (2) , 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ctn6020013
  25. Iana A. Castro, Heather Honea, Erlinde Cornelis, Anuja Majmundar. The friluftsliv response: Connection, drive, and contentment reactions to biophilic design in consumer environments. International Journal of Research in Marketing 2022, 39 (2) , 364-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2021.09.007
  26. Giuliana Brancato, Kathryne Van Hedger, Marc G. Berman, Stephen C. Van Hedger. Simulated nature walks improve psychological well-being along a natural to urban continuum. Journal of Environmental Psychology 2022, 81 , 101779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101779
  27. Claudia Menzel, Gerhard Reese. Seeing nature from low to high levels: Mechanisms underlying the restorative effects of viewing nature images. Journal of Environmental Psychology 2022, 81 , 101804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101804
  28. P. Rajski, A. J. Sicko, P. Y. Papalambros. Modeling Social Benefits in System Design Optimization of Integrated Natural Resources Conservation and Development (INRCD) Projects: Identification and Quantification of Design Attributes from Extant Literature. Proceedings of the Design Society 2022, 2 , 1099-1108. https://doi.org/10.1017/pds.2022.112
  29. Srini Pillay, Patrick Candela, Erik Christensen. Managing Workplace Anxiety during the Pandemic: A Pilot Study of Natural Imagery through 4K Video and Virtual Reality. European Journal of Marketing and Economics 2022, 5 (1) , 16-37. https://doi.org/10.26417/672til46
  30. Francesca Federico, Michela Mellone. Executive Function Development. 2022, 23-49. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-9075-1.ch002
  31. Petr Kupec, Jana Marková, Petr Pelikán, Martina Brychtová, Sabina Autratová, Jitka Fialová. Urban Parks Hydrological Regime in the Context of Climate Change—A Case Study of Štěpánka Forest Park (Mladá Boleslav, Czech Republic). Land 2022, 11 (3) , 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11030412
  32. Zhaoming Li, Wenzhu Zhang, Lingshan Wang, Hui Liu, Hong Liu. Regulating effects of the biophilic environment with strawberry plants on psychophysiological health and cognitive performance in small spaces. Building and Environment 2022, 212 , 108801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.108801
  33. Joshua Baur. Campus community gardens and student health: A case study of a campus garden and student well-being. Journal of American College Health 2022, 70 (2) , 377-384. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2020.1751174
  34. Daniel Masterson, Margarita Triguero-Mas, Sandra Marquez, Wilma Zijlema, David Martinez, Christopher Gidlow, Graham Smith, Gemma Hurst, Marta Cirach, Regina Grazuleviciene, Magdalena Van den Berg, Hanneke Kruize, Jolanda Maas, Mark Nieuwenhuijsen. Use of the Natural Outdoor Environment in Different Populations in Europe in Relation to Access: Implications for Policy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2022, 19 (4) , 2226. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042226
  35. Samo Drobne, Martina Zbašnik-Senegačnik, Živa Kristl, Ljudmila Koprivec, Alenka Fikfak. Analysis of the Window Views of the Nearby Façades. Sustainability 2022, 14 (1) , 269. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010269
  36. Bonnie Carter King. The Biophilia Hypothesis and Mental Health. 2022, 253-265. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-6725-8.ch011
  37. Ivana T. Croghan, Ryan T. Hurt, Christopher A. Aakre, Shawn C. Fokken, Karen M. Fischer, Stephanie A. Lindeen, Darrell R. Schroeder, Ravindra Ganesh, Karthik Ghosh, Brent A. Bauer. Virtual Reality for Health Care Professionals During a Pandemic: A Pilot Program. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health 2022, 13 , 215013192210867. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501319221086716
  38. Virginie Gargano. Les pratiques centrées sur la nature et l’aventure et le travail social : perspectives disciplinaires et théoriques. Intervention 2022, (155) , 151. https://doi.org/10.7202/1089312ar
  39. Małgorzata Hanzl. Modernist Housing Estates – Examining the Conditions of Redevelopment of Outdoor Space. The Case Study from Łódź, Bałuty. 2022, 363-378. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10592-0_27
  40. JuZhe Xi, YuHan Gao, Na Lyu, Zhuang She, XinYue Wang, Xin-An Zhang, XiaoYu Yu, WeiDong Ji, MengSheng Wei, WeiHui Dai, Xuesheng Qian. Effect of the “Art Coloring” Online Coloring Game on Subjective Well-Being Increase and Anxiety Reduction During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Development and Evaluation. JMIR Serious Games 2022, 10 (3) , e37026. https://doi.org/10.2196/37026
  41. Hiroyuki Kuraoka, Mitsuo Hinoue. Effects of Different Instructions on Subjective Flow State and Physiological Responses Induced by the Same Mental Task. 2022, 552-562. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17615-9_39
  42. Ruitao Xie, Connor Qiu, Guoping Qiu. Finding Beautiful and Happy Images for Mental Health and Well-Being Applications. 2022, 704-717. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18913-5_54
  43. Yasemin Afacan. Impacts of biophilic design on the development of gerotranscendence and the Profile of Mood States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Ageing and Society 2021, 43 , 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X21001860
  44. Zhongzhe Li, Meihui Ba, Jian Kang. Physiological indicators and subjective restorativeness with audio-visual interactions in urban soundscapes. Sustainable Cities and Society 2021, 75 , 103360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103360
  45. Eun Yeong Choe, Anna Jorgensen, David Sheffield. Examining the effectiveness of mindfulness practice in simulated and actual natural environments: Secondary data analysis. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2021, 66 , 127414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127414
  46. Wenzhu Zhang, Zhaoming Li, Lingshan Wang, Hui Liu, Hong Liu. Effect of Coriander Plants on Human Emotions, Brain Electrophysiology, and Salivary Secretion. Biology 2021, 10 (12) , 1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10121283
  47. Sahar Ismail Mohamed Abdel Hady. Activating biophilic design patterns as a sustainable landscape approach. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science 2021, 68 (1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-021-00031-x
  48. Keren Kaplan Mintz, Ofira Ayalon, Orly Nathan, Tzipi Eshet. See or Be? Contact with nature and well-being during COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of Environmental Psychology 2021, 78 , 101714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101714
  49. Sarah Hian May Chan, Lin Qiu, Gianluca Esposito, Ky Phong Mai, Kim-Pong Tam, Jian Cui. Nature in virtual reality improves mood and reduces stress: evidence from young adults and senior citizens. Virtual Reality 2021, 131 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-021-00604-4
  50. Yameena T. Jawed, Dmitriy Golovyan, David Lopez, Sikandar H. Khan, Sophia Wang, Chauncey Freund, Sundus Imran, Usman Bin Hameed, Joseph P. Smith, Lotte Kok, Babar A. Khan. Feasibility of a virtual reality intervention in the intensive care unit. Heart & Lung 2021, 50 (6) , 748-753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrtlng.2021.05.007
  51. Seungkeun Yeom, Hakpyeong Kim, Taehoon Hong. Psychological and physiological effects of a green wall on occupants: A cross-over study in virtual reality. Building and Environment 2021, 204 , 108134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108134
  52. Junfang Xie, Binyi Liu, Mohamed Elsadek. How Can Flowers and Their Colors Promote Individuals’ Physiological and Psychological States during the COVID-19 Lockdown?. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18 (19) , 10258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910258
  53. Sara Aristizabal, Kunjoon Byun, Paige Porter, Nicholas Clements, Carolina Campanella, Linhao Li, Aidan Mullan, Shaun Ly, Araliya Senerat, Ivan Z. Nenadic, William D. Browning, Vivian Loftness, Brent Bauer. Biophilic office design: Exploring the impact of a multisensory approach on human well-being. Journal of Environmental Psychology 2021, 77 , 101682. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101682
  54. Mohamed Elsadek, Yuhan Shao, Binyi Liu. Benefits of Indirect Contact With Nature on the Physiopsychological Well-Being of Elderly People. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal 2021, 14 (4) , 227-241. https://doi.org/10.1177/19375867211006654
  55. Marco Helbich, Ronald Poppe, Daniel Oberski, Maarten Zeylmans van Emmichoven, Raoul Schram. Can’t see the wood for the trees? An assessment of street view- and satellite-derived greenness measures in relation to mental health. Landscape and Urban Planning 2021, 214 , 104181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104181
  56. Antonio Baena-Extremera, Julio F. García, Andrés C. Martínez, Cristina Martín-Pérez. Sports in Natural Environment, Sports in Urban Environment: An fMRI Study about Stress and Attention/Awareness. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 2021, , 789-798. https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2021.789
  57. Banu KARAŞAH. Botanik Bahçelerinin Biyofilik Tasarım Kriterleri Doğrultusunda Değerlendirilmesi: Nezahat Gökyiğit Botanik Bahçesi Örneği. Kent Akademisi 2021, , 545-559. https://doi.org/10.35674/kent.981889
  58. Nihal Arda AKYILDIZ, Tuba Nur OLĞUN. Darende/Balaban Geleneksel Yerleşim Dokusunda Biyofilik Tasarım İzlerinin Koruma Bağlamında İrdelenmesi. Kent Akademisi 2021, https://doi.org/10.35674/kent.983117
  59. Amber L. Pearson, Victoria Breeze, Aaron Reuben, Gwen Wyatt. Increased Use of Porch or Backyard Nature during COVID-19 Associated with Lower Stress and Better Symptom Experience among Breast Cancer Patients. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18 (17) , 9102. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179102
  60. Huaizhen Zhu, Fan Yang, Zhiyi Bao, Xinge Nan. A study on the impact of Visible Green Index and vegetation structures on brain wave change in residential landscape. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2021, 64 , 127299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127299
  61. Sarah Hian May Chan, Lin Qiu, Gianluca Esposito, Ky Phong Mai. Vertical greenery buffers against stress: Evidence from psychophysiological responses in virtual reality. Landscape and Urban Planning 2021, 213 , 104127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2021.104127
  62. Jill McSweeney, Shannon Johnson, Simon Sherry, Jerome Singleton, Daniel Rainham. Indoor nature exposure and influence on physiological stress markers. International Journal of Environmental Health Research 2021, 31 (6) , 636-650. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2019.1679357
  63. Thomas A. Norton, Oluremi B. Ayoko, Neal M. Ashkanasy. A Socio-Technical Perspective on the Application of Green Ergonomics to Open-Plan Offices: A Review of the Literature and Recommendations for Future Research. Sustainability 2021, 13 (15) , 8236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158236
  64. Gregory N. Bratman, Hector A. Olvera‐Alvarez, James J. Gross. The affective benefits of nature exposure. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 2021, 15 (8) https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12630
  65. Jiayi Liu, Zhikai Peng, Xiaoxi Cai, You Peng, Jiang Li, Tao Feng. Students’ Intention of Visiting Urban Green Spaces after the COVID-19 Lockdown in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18 (16) , 8601. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168601
  66. Jack Pfeiffer, Joy Hart, Lindsey Wood, Aruni Bhatnagar, Rachel Keith, Ray Yeager, Ted Smith, Madeline Tomlinson, Delana Gilkey, Savanna Kerstiens, Hong Gao, Sanjay Srivastava, Kandi Walker. The importance of urban planning: Views of greenness and open space is reversely associated with self-reported views and depressive symptoms. Population Medicine 2021, 3 (July) , 1-11. https://doi.org/10.18332/popmed/139173
  67. Matthew J. Wichrowski, John R. Corcoran, Francois Haas, Greg Sweeney, Arlene Mcgee. Effects of Biophilic Nature Imagery on Indexes of Satisfaction in Medically Complex Physical Rehabilitation Patients: An Exploratory Study. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal 2021, 14 (3) , 288-304. https://doi.org/10.1177/19375867211004241
  68. Jessica Laraine Williams, Susannah Langley, Ann Borda. Virtual nature, inner forest: Prospects for immersive virtual nature art and well-being. Virtual Creativity 2021, 11 (1) , 125-146. https://doi.org/10.1386/vcr_00046_1
  69. Alan E. Kazdin, Pablo Vidal-González. Contact with Nature as Essential to the Human Experience. Nature and Culture 2021, 16 (2) , 67-85. https://doi.org/10.3167/nc.2020.160204
  70. Claudia Menzel, Gerhard Reese. Implicit Associations With Nature and Urban Environments: Effects of Lower-Level Processed Image Properties. Frontiers in Psychology 2021, 12 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.591403
  71. Lydia Krabbendam, Mark van Vugt, Philippe Conus, Ola Söderström, Lilith Abrahamyan Empson, Jim van Os, Anne-Kathrin J. Fett. Understanding urbanicity: how interdisciplinary methods help to unravel the effects of the city on mental health. Psychological Medicine 2021, 51 (7) , 1099-1110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720000355
  72. Susan Pollin, Carolin Retzlaff-Fürst. The School Garden: A Social and Emotional Place. Frontiers in Psychology 2021, 12 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.567720
  73. Emily E. Scott, Sara B. LoTemplio, Amy S. McDonnell, Glen D. McNay, Kevin Greenberg, Ty McKinney, Bert N. Uchino, David L. Strayer. The autonomic nervous system in its natural environment: Immersion in nature is associated with changes in heart rate and heart rate variability. Psychophysiology 2021, 58 (4) https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13698
  74. Angela Mazzi. Toward a Unified Language (and Application) of Salutogenic Design: An Opinion Paper. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal 2021, 14 (2) , 337-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586720967347
  75. Jolina H. Ruckert, Natalie F. Casson, Devin N. Kuh. Ecopsychology for Sustainable Relationships: A Review of Reddick's The Same River. Ecopsychology 2021, https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2020.0049
  76. Eun Ji Lee, Sung Jun Park. Toward the Biophilic Residential Regeneration for the Green New Deal. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18 (5) , 2523. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052523
  77. Angela Marie Hartsell. Savanna hypothesis in the human–urban nature relationship. Open House International 2021, 46 (1) , 18-29. https://doi.org/10.1108/OHI-05-2020-0024
  78. Nathalie Michels, Fien De Witte, Eline Di Bisceglie, Maya Seynhaeve, Tori Vandebuerie. Green nature effect on stress response and stress eating in the lab: Color versus environmental content. Environmental Research 2021, 193 , 110589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110589
  79. Varpu Wiens, Kari Soronen, Helvi Kyngäs, Tarja Pölkki. Enhancing Adolescent Girls’ Well-Being in the Arctic—Finding What Motivates Spending Time in Nature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021, 18 (4) , 2052. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042052
  80. Gerhard Reese, Elias Kohler, Claudia Menzel. Restore or Get Restored: The Effect of Control on Stress Reduction and Restoration in Virtual Nature Settings. Sustainability 2021, 13 (4) , 1995. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041995
  81. Kurt P. Eifling. Mental Health and the Field Research Team. Advances in Archaeological Practice 2021, 9 (1) , 10-22. https://doi.org/10.1017/aap.2020.51
  82. S.M. Labib, Jonny J. Huck, Sarah Lindley. Modelling and mapping eye-level greenness visibility exposure using multi-source data at high spatial resolutions. Science of The Total Environment 2021, 755 , 143050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143050
  83. Vishnunarayan Girishan Prabhu, Kevin Taaffe, Ronald Pirrallo, Dotan Shvorin. Stress and burnout among attending and resident physicians in the ED: a comparative study. IISE Transactions on Healthcare Systems Engineering 2021, 11 (1) , 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/24725579.2020.1814456
  84. Jianxun Yang, Shen Qu, Miaomiao Liu, Xingyu Liu, Qi Gao, Wei He, John S. Ji, Jun Bi. Gray cityscape caused by particulate matter pollution hampers human stress recovery. Journal of Cleaner Production 2021, 279 , 123215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123215
  85. Ljudmila Koprivec, Martina Zbašnik-Senegačnik, Živa Kristl. Analysis of Survey Responses to the Window Views. Igra ustvarjalnosti - Creativy Game 2021, 2021 (9) , 14-23. https://doi.org/10.15292/IU-CG.2021.09.014-023
  86. Christophe Gibout. Le Sahara marocain : une nouvelle frontière pour le tourisme sportif de bien-être. Téoros 2021, 40 (1) https://doi.org/10.7202/1082994ar
  87. Carolin Retzlaff-Fürst, Susan Pollin. Naturerfahrung als Quelle des Wohlbefindens – Zum Verhältnis von Naturerfahrung und Gesundheit. 2021, 79-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35334-6_5
  88. Joseph Nuamah, Carolina Rodriguez-Paras, Farzan Sasangohar. Veteran-Centered Investigation of Architectural and Space Design Considerations for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal 2021, 14 (1) , 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586720925554
  89. Behzad Abbasi, Mohammadali Pourmirzaei, Sanam Hariri, Ramin Heshmat, Mostafa Qorbani, Payam Dadvand, Roya Kelishadi, . Subjective Proximity to Green Spaces and Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents: The CASPIAN-V Study. Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2020, 2020 , 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8886241
  90. Joanna E. Bettmann, Gretchen Anstadt, Alexandra Z. Kolaski. Therapeutic Adventure for Military Veterans with Mental Illness: A Conceptual Argument. Ecopsychology 2020, 12 (4) , 277-284. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2019.0045
  91. Katharina Hüfner, Cornelia Ower, Georg Kemmler, Theresa Vill, Caroline Martini, Andrea Schmitt, Barbara Sperner-Unterweger. Viewing an alpine environment positively affects emotional analytics in patients with somatoform, depressive and anxiety disorders as well as in healthy controls. BMC Psychiatry 2020, 20 (1) https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02787-7
  92. Sara Abas, Malika Addou, Zineb Rachik. Polarity Switch within Social Networks. Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal 2020, 5 (6) , 817-820. https://doi.org/10.25046/aj050697
  93. Sara B. LoTemplio, Emily E. Scott, Amy S. McDonnell, Rachel J. Hopman, Spencer C. Castro, G. David McNay, Ty L. McKinney, Kevin Greenberg, Brennan R. Payne, David L. Strayer. Nature as a potential modulator of the error-related negativity: A registered report. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2020, 156 , 49-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.06.014
  94. Diana Scates, Joan I. Dickinson, Kathleen Sullivan, Holly Cline, Rama Balaraman. Using Nature-Inspired Virtual Reality as a Distraction to Reduce Stress and Pain Among Cancer Patients. Environment and Behavior 2020, 52 (8) , 895-918. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916520916259
  95. Eun Ji Lee, Sung Jun Park. A Framework of Smart-Home Service for Elderly’s Biophilic Experience. Sustainability 2020, 12 (20) , 8572. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208572
  96. Vishnunarayan Girishan Prabhu, Laura Stanley, Robert Morgan. A Biofeedback Enhanced Adaptive Virtual Reality Environment for Managing Surgical Pain and Anxiety. International Journal of Semantic Computing 2020, 14 (03) , 375-393. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1793351X20400152
  97. Shu-Lin Shi. Important Elements and Features of Neighborhood Landscape for Aging in Place: A Study in Hong Kong. Frontiers in Public Health 2020, 8 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00316
  98. Golnaz Tabibnia. An affective neuroscience model of boosting resilience in adults. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2020, 115 , 321-350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.05.005
  99. Elizabeth E. Perry, Jennifer M. Thomsen, Ashley L. D’Antonio, Wayde C. Morse, Nathan P. Reigner, Yu-Fai Leung, Jeremy Wimpey, B. Derrick Taff. Toward an Integrated Model of Topical, Spatial, and Temporal Scales of Research Inquiry in Park Visitor Use Management. Sustainability 2020, 12 (15) , 6183. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12156183
  100. Faouzi Kamoun, May El Barachi, Russell Hamilton, Ahmed Ben Hadj Khelifa. The IASO Self-Reporting System. International Journal of Applied Research on Public Health Management 2020, 5 (2) , 40-62. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJARPHM.2020070104
Load all citations

  • Abstract

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Examples of images used in the slideshows to depict scenes of nature environments (A and B) and scenes of built environments (C and D). Copyright Jules Pretty (Photographs A and C).

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

    Figure 2

    Figure 2. Mean (±SD) heart rate and heart rate variability recovery from stress compared to baseline: ∗, main effect for time (p < 0.05); †, interaction effect (p < 0.05); ∗∗, main effect for view (p < 0.05).

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Heart rate and heart rate variability means ± SD as change from baseline for the first 5 min and last 5 min of viewing: ∗, significant difference between conditions.

    High Resolution Image
    Download MS PowerPoint Slide

  • References

    ARTICLE SECTIONS
    Jump To

    This article references 47 other publications.

    1. 1
      Li, Q. Forest Medicine; Nova Science Publishers: New York, NY, 2012.
      Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    2. 2
      Wilson, E. O. Biophilia: The Human bond with other species; Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Masschusetts, 1984.
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    3. 3
      Herzog, T. R.; Maguire, P.; Nebel, M. B. Assessing the restorative components of environments J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23 (2) 159– 170
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    4. 4
      Kaplan, R.; Kaplan, S. The experience of nature: A psychological perspective; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1989.
      Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    5. 5
      Maas, J.; Verheij, R. A.; Groenewegen, P. P.; de Vries, S.; Spreeuwenberg, P. Green space, urbanity, and health: How strong is the relation? J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2006, 60 (7) 587– 592
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      5
      Green space, urbanity, and health: how strong is the relation?
      Maas Jolanda; Verheij Robert A; Groenewegen Peter P; de Vries Sjerp; Spreeuwenberg Peter
      Journal of epidemiology and community health (2006), 60 (7), 587-92 ISSN:0143-005X.
      STUDY OBJECTIVES: To investigate the strength of the relation between the amount of green space in people's living environment and their perceived general health. This relation is analysed for different age and socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it is analysed separately for urban and more rural areas, because the strength of the relation was expected to vary with urbanity. DESIGN: The study includes 250 782 people registered with 104 general practices who filled in a self administered form on sociodemographic background and perceived general health. The percentage of green space (urban green space, agricultural space, natural green space) within a one kilometre and three kilometre radius around the postal code coordinates was calculated for each household. METHODS: Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed at three levels-that is, individual level, family level, and practice level-controlled for sociodemographic characteristics. MAIN RESULTS: The percentage of green space inside a one kilometre and a three kilometre radius had a significant relation to perceived general health. The relation was generally present at all degrees of urbanity. The overall relation is somewhat stronger for lower socioeconomic groups. Elderly, youth, and secondary educated people in large cities seem to benefit more from presence of green areas in their living environment than other groups in large cities. CONCLUSIONS: This research shows that the percentage of green space in people's living environment has a positive association with the perceived general health of residents. Green space seems to be more than just a luxury and consequently the development of green space should be allocated a more central position in spatial planning policy.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD28znsFarsg%253D%253D&md5=27f62b37cc779247bd55386f3065ea33
    6. 6
      Maas, J.; Verheij, R. A.; de Vries, S.; Spreeuwenberg, P.; Schellevis, F. G.; Groenewegen, P. P. Morbidity is related to a green living environment J. Epidemiol. Community Health 2009, 63, 967– 973
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      6
      Morbidity is related to a green living environment
      Maas J; Verheij R A; de Vries S; Spreeuwenberg P; Schellevis F G; Groenewegen P P
      Journal of epidemiology and community health (2009), 63 (12), 967-73 ISSN:.
      BACKGROUND: As a result of increasing urbanisation, people face the prospect of living in environments with few green spaces. There is increasing evidence for a positive relation between green space in people's living environment and self-reported indicators of physical and mental health. This study investigates whether physician-assessed morbidity is also related to green space in people's living environment. METHODS: Morbidity data were derived from electronic medical records of 195 general practitioners in 96 Dutch practices, serving a population of 345,143 people. Morbidity was classified by the general practitioners according to the International Classification of Primary Care. The percentage of green space within a 1 km and 3 km radius around the postal code coordinates was derived from an existing database and was calculated for each household. Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed, controlling for demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. RESULTS: The annual prevalence rate of 15 of the 24 disease clusters was lower in living environments with more green space in a 1 km radius. The relation was strongest for anxiety disorder and depression. The relation was stronger for children and people with a lower socioeconomic status. Furthermore, the relation was strongest in slightly urban areas and not apparent in very strongly urban areas. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that the previously established relation between green space and a number of self-reported general indicators of physical and mental health can also be found for clusters of specific physician-assessed morbidity. The study stresses the importance of green space close to home for children and lower socioeconomic groups.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1Mjms1Kisw%253D%253D&md5=1718197768a9603a60b8d62de4075976
    7. 7
      Thompson Coon, J.; Boddy, K.; Stein, K.; Whear, R.; Barton, J.; Depledge, M. H. Does participating in physical activity in outdoor natural environments have a greater effect on physical and mental wellbeing than physical activity indoors? A systematic review Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45 (5) 1761– 1772
      [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    8. 8
      Bowler, D. E.; Buyung-Ali, L. M.; Knight, T. M.; Pullin, A. S. A systematic review of evidence for the added benefits to health of exposure to natural environments BMC Public Health 2010, 10, 456
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    9. 9
      Barton, J.; Hine, R. E.; Pretty, J. The health benefits of walking in greenspaces of high natural and heritage value J. Integr. Environ. Sci. 2009, 6 (4) 261– 278
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    10. 10
      Barton, J.; Griffin, M.; Pretty, J. Exercise, nature and socially interactive based initiatives improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population Perspect. Public Health 2012, 132 (2) 89– 96
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      10
      Exercise-, nature- and socially interactive-based initiatives improve mood and self-esteem in the clinical population
      Barton Jo; Griffin Murray; Pretty Jules
      Perspectives in public health (2012), 132 (2), 89-96 ISSN:1757-9139.
      AIMS: This study evaluated two existing group-based health promotion initiatives (a social club and a swimming group) and compared these to a new green exercise programme (weekly countryside and urban park walks). METHODS: Participants represented a clinical population (N = 53) and were all experiencing a range of mental health problems. They only attended one of the three programmes and sessions were held once a week for six weeks in all initiatives. Composite questionnaires incorporating two standardized measures to analyse changes in self-esteem and mood were completed before and after all sessions. RESULTS: A significant main effect for self-esteem and mood pre and post activity (p < 0.001) was reported after participating in a single session. The change in self-esteem was significantly greater in the green exercise group compared with the social activities club (p < 0.001). Dose responses showed that both self-esteem and mood levels improved over the six-week period and improvements were related to attendance in the green exercise group. CONCLUSIONS: Green exercise as a health-promoting initiative for people experiencing mental ill health is equally as effective as existing programmes. Combining exercise, nature and social components in future initiatives may play a key role in managing and supporting recovery from mental ill health, suggesting a potential 'green' approach to mental healthcare and promotion.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC38nlt1Giug%253D%253D&md5=568e3d70b66d336a6a50d4567844c420
    11. 11
      Van den Berg, A.; Custers, M. Gardening promotes neuroendocrine and affective restoration from stress J. Health Psychol. 2011, 16, 3– 11
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      11
      Gardening promotes neuroendocrine and affective restoration from stress
      Van Den Berg Agnes E; Custers Mariette H G
      Journal of health psychology (2011), 16 (1), 3-11 ISSN:.
      Stress-relieving effects of gardening were hypothesized and tested in a field experiment. Thirty allotment gardeners performed a stressful Stroop task and were then randomly assigned to 30 minutes of outdoor gardening or indoor reading on their own allotment plot. Salivary cortisol levels and self-reported mood were repeatedly measured. Gardening and reading each led to decreases in cortisol during the recovery period, but decreases were significantly stronger in the gardening group. Positive mood was fully restored after gardening, but further deteriorated during reading. These findings provide the first experimental evidence that gardening can promote relief from acute stress.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3M%252Foslyhtw%253D%253D&md5=5c6296a5c1f27c86f673de359b8edd4d
    12. 12
      Pretty, J.; Peacock, J.; Hine, R.; Sellens, M.; South, N.; Griffin, M. Green exercise in the UK countryside: Effects on health and psychological well-being J. Environ. Plann. Manage. 2007, 50 (2) 211– 231
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    13. 13
      Mackay, G.; Neill, J. The effect of “green exercise” on state anxiety and the role of exercise duration, intensity, and greenness: A quasi-experimental study Psychol. Sport Exercise 2010, 11 (3) 238– 245
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    14. 14
      Park, B.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Morikawa, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological effects of forest recreation in a young conifer forest in Hinokage Town, Japan Silva Fenn 2009, 43 (2) 291– 301
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    15. 15
      Pretty, J.; Peacock, J.; Sellens, M.; Griffin, M. The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 2005, 15 (5) 319– 337
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      15
      The mental and physical health outcomes of green exercise
      Pretty Jules; Peacock Jo; Sellens Martin; Griffin Murray
      International journal of environmental health research (2005), 15 (5), 319-37 ISSN:0960-3123.
      Both physical activity and exposure to nature are known separately to have positive effects on physical and mental health. We have investigated whether there is a synergistic benefit in adopting physical activities whilst being directly exposed to nature ('green exercise'). Five groups of 20 subjects were exposed to a sequence of 30 scenes projected on a wall whilst exercising on a treadmill. Four categories of scenes were tested: rural pleasant, rural unpleasant, urban pleasant and urban unpleasant. The control was running without exposure to images. Blood pressure and two psychological measures (self-esteem and mood) were measured before and after the intervention. There was a clear effect of both exercise and different scenes on blood pressure, self-esteem and mood. Exercise alone significantly reduced blood pressure, increased self-esteem, and had a positive significant effect on 4 of 6 mood measures. Both rural and urban pleasant scenes produced a significantly greater positive effect on self-esteem than the exercise-only control. This shows the synergistic effect of green exercise in both rural and urban environments. By contrast, both rural and urban unpleasant scenes reduced the positive effects of exercise on self-esteem. The rural unpleasant scenes had the most dramatic effect, depressing the beneficial effects of exercise on three different measures of mood. It appears that threats to the countryside depicted in rural unpleasant scenes have a greater negative effect on mood than already urban unpleasant scenes. We conclude that green exercise has important public and environmental health consequences.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD28%252FivFGjtA%253D%253D&md5=fb076bfa2272a9e13d8797c9de8676fb
    16. 16
      Gladwell, V. F.; Brown, D. K.; Barton, J. L.; Tarvainen, M. P.; Kuoppa, P.; Pretty, J.; Suddaby, J. M.; Sandercock, G. R. H. The effects of views of nature on autonomic control Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2012, 1– 8
      Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    17. 17
      Park, B.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): Evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2010, 15 (1) 18– 26
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    18. 18
      Li, Q.; Otsuka, T.; Kobayashi, M.; Wakayama, Y.; Inagaki, H.; Katsumata, M.; Hirata, Y.; Li, Y.; Hirata, K.; Shimizu, T.; Suzuki, H.; Kawada, T.; Kagawa, T. Acute effects of walking in forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2011, 111 (11) 2845– 2853
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      18
      Acute effects of walking in forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters
      Li, Qing; Otsuka, Toshiaki; Kobayashi, Maiko; Wakayama, Yoko; Inagaki, Hirofumi; Katsumata, Masao; Hirata, Yukiyo; Li, YingJi; Hirata, Kimiko; Shimizu, Takako; Suzuki, Hiroko; Kawada, Tomoyuki; Kagawa, Takahide
      European Journal of Applied Physiology (2011), 111 (11), 2845-2853CODEN: EJAPFN; ISSN:1439-6319. (Springer)
      We previously found that forest environments reduced stress hormones such as adrenaline and noradrenaline and showed the relaxing effect both in male and female subjects. In the present study, we investigated the effects of walking under forest environments on cardiovascular and metabolic parameters. Sixteen healthy male subjects (mean age 57.4 ± 11.6 years) were selected after obtaining informed consent. The subjects took day trips to a forest park in the suburbs of Tokyo and to an urban area of Tokyo as a control in Sept. 2010. On both trips, they walked for 2 h in the morning and afternoon on a Sunday. Blood and urine were sampled on the morning before each trip and after each trip. Blood pressure was measured on the morning (0800) before each trip, at noon (1300), in the afternoon (1600) during each trip, and on the morning (0800) after each trip. The day trip to the forest park significantly reduced blood pressure and urinary noradrenaline and dopamine levels and significantly increased serum adiponectin and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) levels. Walking exercise also reduced the levels of serum N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) and urinary dopamine. Taken together, habitual walking in forest environments may lower blood pressure by reducing sympathetic nerve activity and have beneficial effects on blood adiponectin and DHEA-S levels, and habitual walking exercise may have beneficial effects on blood NT-proBNP levels.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC3MXhtlShur7P&md5=38d4e125d432858f0ae85b21fac78e13
    19. 19
      Ulrich, R. S. Natural versus urban scenes some psychophysiological effects Environ. Behav. 1981, 13 (5) 523– 556
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    20. 20
      Laumann, K.; Garling, T.; Stormark, K. Selective attention and heart rate responses to natural and urban environments J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23, 125– 134
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    21. 21
      Park, B.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Hirano, H.; Kagawa, T.; Sato, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)—Using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2007, 26 (2) 123– 128
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      21
      Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest)--using salivary cortisol and cerebral activity as indicators
      Park Bum-Jin; Tsunetsugu Yuko; Kasetani Tamami; Hirano Hideki; Kagawa Takahide; Sato Masahiko; Miyazaki Yoshifumi
      Journal of physiological anthropology (2007), 26 (2), 123-8 ISSN:1880-6791.
      The purpose of this study is to examine the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest). The subjects were 12 male students (22.8+/-1.4 yr). On the first day of the experiments, one group of 6 subjects was sent to a forest area, and the other group of 6 subjects was sent to a city area. On the second day, each group was sent to the opposite area for a cross check. In the forenoon, the subjects were asked to walk around their given area for 20 minutes. In the afternoon, they were asked to sit on chairs and watch the landscapes of their given area for 20 minutes. Cerebral activity in the prefrontal area and salivary cortisol were measured as physiological indices in the morning at the place of accommodation, before and after walking in the forest or city areas during the forenoon, and before and after watching the landscapes in the afternoon in the forest and city areas, and in the evening at the place of accommodation. The results indicated that cerebral activity in the prefrontal area of the forest area group was significantly lower than that of the group in the city area after walking; the concentration of salivary cortisol in the forest area group was significantly lower than that of the group in the city area before and after watching each landscape. The results of the physiological measurements show that Shinrin-yoku can effectively relax both people's body and spirit.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2s3is1Wrug%253D%253D&md5=6bf54b7b8bc36388046c45a3adec6869
    22. 22
      TaskForce Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use Eur. Heart J. 1996, 17, 354– 381
      [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    23. 23
      Tsuji, H.; Larson, M. G.; Venditti, F. J., Jr.; Manders, E. S.; Evans, J. C.; Feldman, C. L.; Levy, D. Impact of reduced heart rate variability on risk for cardiac events. The Framingham Heart Study Circulation 1996, 94 (11) 2850– 2855
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    24. 24
      Ulrich-Lai, Y. M.; Herman, J. P. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009, 10 (6) 397– 409
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      24
      Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses
      Ulrich-Lai, Yvonne M.; Herman, James P.
      Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2009), 10 (6), 397-409CODEN: NRNAAN; ISSN:1471-003X. (Nature Publishing Group)
      A review. The survival and well-being of all species requires appropriate physiol. responses to environmental and homeostatic challenges. The re-establishment and maintenance of homeostasis entails the coordinated activation and control of neuroendocrine and autonomic stress systems. These collective stress responses are mediated by largely overlapping circuits in the limbic forebrain, the hypothalamus and the brainstem, so that the resp. contributions of the neuroendocrine and autonomic systems are tuned in accordance with stressor modality and intensity. Limbic regions that are responsible for regulating stress responses intersect with circuits that are responsible for memory and reward, providing a means to tailor the stress response with respect to prior experience and anticipated outcomes.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BD1MXlslGnsLc%253D&md5=a02d62e0628d0870edaff07e884cd633
    25. 25
      Lane, R. D.; McRae, K.; Reiman, E. M.; Chen, K.; Ahern, G. L.; Thayer, J. F. Neural correlates of heart rate variability during emotion Neuroimage 2009, 44 (1) 213– 222
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    26. 26
      Brunoni, A. R.; Vanderhasselt, M.-A.; Boggio, P. S.; Fregni, F.; Dantas, E. M.; Mill, J. G.; Lotufo, P. A.; Benseñor, I. M. Polarity- and valence-dependent effects of prefrontal transcranial direct current stimulation on heart rate variability and salivary cortisol Psychoneuroendocrino 2013, 38 (1) 58– 66
      [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    27. 27
      Chandola, T.; Britton, A.; Brunner, E.; Hemingway, H.; Malik, M.; Kumari, M.; Badrick, E.; Kivimaki, M.; Marmot, M. Work stress and coronary heart disease: What are the mechanisms? Eur. Heart J. 2008, 29, 640– 648
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      27
      Work stress and coronary heart disease: what are the mechanisms?
      Chandola Tarani; Britton Annie; Brunner Eric; Hemingway Harry; Malik Marek; Kumari Meena; Badrick Ellena; Kivimaki Mika; Marmot Michael
      European heart journal (2008), 29 (5), 640-8 ISSN:0195-668X.
      AIMS: To determine the biological and behavioural factors linking work stress with coronary heart disease (CHD). METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 10 308 London-based male and female civil servants aged 35-55 at phase 1 (1985-88) of the Whitehall II study were studied. Exposures included work stress (assessed at phases 1 and 2), and outcomes included behavioural risk factors (phase 3), the metabolic syndrome (phase 3), heart rate variability, morning rise in cortisol (phase 7), and incident CHD (phases 2-7) on the basis of CHD death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, or definite angina. Chronic work stress was associated with CHD and this association was stronger among participants aged under 50 (RR 1.68, 95% CI 1.17-2.42). There were similar associations between work stress and low physical activity, poor diet, the metabolic syndrome, its components, and lower heart rate variability. Cross-sectionally, work stress was associated with a higher morning rise in cortisol. Around 32% of the effect of work stress on CHD was attributable to its effect on health behaviours and the metabolic syndrome. CONCLUSION: Work stress may be an important determinant of CHD among working-age populations, which is mediated through indirect effects on health behaviours and direct effects on neuroendocrine stress pathways.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1c7lt1Sgsg%253D%253D&md5=e2a60d71d4ca4e8e8026b8aa2a82010f
    28. 28
      Parsons, R.; Tassinary, L. G.; Ulrich, R. S.; Hebl, M. R.; Grossman-Alexander, M. The view from the road: Implications for stress recovery and immunisation J. Environ. Psychol. 1998, 18, 113– 139
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    29. 29
      Kahn, P. H., Jr.; Friedman, B.; Gill, B.; Hagman, J.; Severson, R. L.; Freier, N. G.; Feldman, E. N.; Carrère, S.; Stolyar, A. A plasma display window?--The shifting baseline problem in a technologically mediated natural world J. Environ. Psychol. 2008, 28 (2) 192– 199
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    30. 30
      Ulrich, R. S.; Simons, R. F.; Fiorito, E.; Miles, M. A.; Zelson, M. Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments J. Environ. Psychol. 1991, 11, 201– 230
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    31. 31
      Barton, J.; Pretty, J. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44 (10) 3947– 3955
      [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    32. 32
      Berman, M. G.; Jonides, J.; Kaplan, S. The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature Psychol. Sci. 2008, 19 (12) 1207– 1212
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      32
      The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature
      Berman Marc G; Jonides John; Kaplan Stephen
      Psychological science (2008), 19 (12), 1207-12 ISSN:.
      We compare the restorative effects on cognitive functioning of interactions with natural versus urban environments. Attention restoration theory (ART) provides an analysis of the kinds of environments that lead to improvements in directed-attention abilities. Nature, which is filled with intriguing stimuli, modestly grabs attention in a bottom-up fashion, allowing top-down directed-attention abilities a chance to replenish. Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car), making them less restorative. We present two experiments that show that walking in nature or viewing pictures of nature can improve directed-attention abilities as measured with a backwards digit-span task and the Attention Network Task, thus validating attention restoration theory.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD1M%252FltV2rtQ%253D%253D&md5=bff2b5419a3b4248423daaf7df0ff708
    33. 33
      Dickerson, S.; Kemeny, M. Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research Psychol. Bull. 2004, 130 (3) 355– 391
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      33
      Acute stressors and cortisol responses: a theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research
      Dickerson Sally S; Kemeny Margaret E
      Psychological bulletin (2004), 130 (3), 355-91 ISSN:0033-2909.
      This meta-analysis reviews 208 laboratory studies of acute psychological stressors and tests a theoretical model delineating conditions capable of eliciting cortisol responses. Psychological stressors increased cortisol levels; however, effects varied widely across tasks. Consistent with the theoretical model, motivated performance tasks elicited cortisol responses if they were uncontrollable or characterized by social-evaluative threat (task performance could be negatively judged by others), when methodological factors and other stressor characteristics were controlled for. Tasks containing both uncontrollable and social-evaluative elements were associated with the largest cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone changes and the longest times to recovery. These findings are consistent with the animal literature on the physiological effects of uncontrollable social threat and contradict the belief that cortisol is responsive to all types of stressors.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2c3isFekug%253D%253D&md5=8b9b4f0d18e1bc01e56fc325b141bfd0
    34. 34
      Condren, R. M.; O’Neill, A.; Ryan, M. C. M.; Barrett, P.; Thakore, J. H. HPA axis response to a psychological stressor in generalised social phobia Psychoneuroendocrino 2002, 27 (6) 693– 703
      [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    35. 35
      Langewouters, G. J.; Settels, J. J.; Roelandt, R.; Wesseling, K. H. Why use Finapres or Portapres rather than intra-arterial or intermittent non-invasive techniques of blood pressure measurement? J. Med. Eng. Technol. 1998, 22 (1) 37– 43
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      35
      Why use Finapres or Portapres rather than intra-arterial or intermittent non-invasive techniques of blood pressure measurement?
      Langewouters G J; Settels J J; Roelandt R; Wesseling K H
      Journal of medical engineering & technology (1998), 22 (1), 37-43 ISSN:0309-1902.
      In the clinic, blood pressure is measured almost exclusively using non-invasive intermittent techniques, of which the auscultatory (Riva-Rocci/Korotkoff, RRK) and the computerized oscillometric method are most often used. However, both methods only provide a momentary value. In addition, the accuracy is hampered by phenomena such as cuff response and white coat hypertension, thus providing artefactually increased values. The vascular unloading technique of Penaz together with the Physiocal criteria of Wesseling provide reliable, non-invasive and continuous estimates of blood pressure. This technique is thus an alternative to the invasive intra-arterial measurements in many cases, without the risks and ethical questions inherent to invasive measurements. Since the pressure waveform is available continuously, computations such as pulse contour and Modelflow cardiac output, spectral analysis and baroreflex sensitivity provide further information on the dynamics of the cardiovascular system on a beat-to-beat basis, similar to intra-arterial measurements.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaK1c7lt1SmtQ%253D%253D&md5=76e246dac95beb7f108cbf003680d1c3
    36. 36
      Niskanen, J. P.; Tarvainen, M. P.; Ranta-Aho, P. O.; Karjalainen, P. A. Software for advanced HRV analysis Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 2004, 76 (1) 73– 81
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      36
      Software for advanced HRV analysis
      Niskanen Juha-Pekka; Tarvainen Mika P; Ranta-Aho Perttu O; Karjalainen Pasi A
      Computer methods and programs in biomedicine (2004), 76 (1), 73-81 ISSN:0169-2607.
      A computer program for advanced heart rate variability (HRV) analysis is presented. The program calculates all the commonly used time- and frequency-domain measures of HRV as well as the nonlinear Poincare plot. In frequency-domain analysis parametric and nonparametric spectrum estimates are calculated. The program generates an informative printable report sheet which can be exported to various file formats including the portable document format (PDF). Results can also be saved as an ASCII file from which they can be imported to a spreadsheet program such as the Microsoft Excel. Together with a modern heart rate monitor capable of recording RR intervals this freely distributed program forms a complete low-cost HRV measuring and analysis system.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BD2cvgvVaksA%253D%253D&md5=39e0aa5fd99cc111148fa10ed98e9f57
    37. 37
      Rosenberg, M. Society and the adolescent self-image; Wesleyan University Press: Middletown, CT, 1965.
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    38. 38
      Watson, D.; Clark, L.; Tellegen, A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1988, 54 (6) 1063– 1070
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      38
      Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales
      Watson D; Clark L A; Tellegen A
      Journal of personality and social psychology (1988), 54 (6), 1063-70 ISSN:0022-3514.
      In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADyaL1c3os1ersA%253D%253D&md5=9e1fd741993ec44ea6d0242408020fd7
    39. 39
      Akers, A.; Barton, J.; Cossey, R.; Gainsford, P.; Griffin, M.; Micklewright, D. Visual color perception in green exercise: Positive effects on mood and perceived exertion Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (16) 8661– 8666
      [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    40. 40
      Kim, G. W.; Jeong, G. W.; Kim, T. H.; Baek, H. S.; Oh, S. K.; Kang, H. K.; Lee, S. G.; Kim, Y. S.; Song, J. K. Functional neuroanatomy associated with natural and urban scenic views in the human brain: 3.0T functional MR imaging Korean J. Radiol. 2010, 11 (5) 507– 513
      [Crossref], [PubMed], [CAS], Google Scholar
      40
      Functional neuroanatomy associated with natural and urban scenic views in the human brain: 3.0T functional MR imaging
      Kim Gwang-Won; Jeong Gwang-Woo; Kim Tae-Hoon; Baek Han-Su; Oh Seok-Kyun; Kang Heoung-Keun; Lee Sam-Gyu; Kim Yoon Soo; Song Jin-Kyu
      Korean journal of radiology : official journal of the Korean Radiological Society (2010), 11 (5), 507-13 ISSN:.
      OBJECTIVE: By using a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique we assessed brain activation patterns while subjects were viewing the living environments representing natural and urban scenery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 28 healthy right-handed subjects underwent an fMRI on a 3.0 Tesla MRI scanner. The stimulation paradigm consisted of three times the rest condition and two times the activation condition, each of which lasted for 30 and 120 seconds, respectively. During the activation period, each subject viewed natural and urban scenery, respectively. RESULTS: The predominant brain activation areas observed following exposure to natural scenic views in contrast with urban views included the superior and middle frontal gyri, superior parietal gyrus, precuneus, basal ganglia, superior occipital gyrus, anterior cingulate gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, and insula. On the other hand, the predominant brain activation areas following exposure to urban scenic views in contrast with natural scenes included the middle and inferior occipital gyri, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, anterior temporal pole, and inferior frontal gyrus. CONCLUSION: Our findings support the idea that the differential functional neuroanatomies for each scenic view are presumably related with subjects' emotional responses to the natural and urban environment, and thus the differential functional neuroanatomy can be utilized as a neural index for the evaluation of friendliness in ecological housing.
      >> More from SciFinder ®
      https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A280%3ADC%252BC3cjptVOntA%253D%253D&md5=421b0c5779ae776d344754ab2f09b48a
    41. 41
      Thayer, J. F.; Lane, R. D. Claude Bernard and the heart-brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2009, 33 (2) 81– 88
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    42. 42
      Thayer, J. F.; Brosschot, J. F. Psychosomatics and psychopathology: Looking up and down from the brain Psychoneuroendocrino 2005, 30 (10) 1050– 1058
      [Crossref], [PubMed], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    43. 43
      Fernandez, D.; Wilkins, A. J. Uncomfortable images in art and nature Perception 2008, 37 (7) 1098– 1113
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    44. 44
      Li, Q. Effect of forest bathing trips on human immune function Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2010, 15, 9– 17
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    45. 45
      Juster, R.; McEwen, B.; Lupien, S. Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2010, 35, 2– 16
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    46. 46
      Nisbert, E. K.; Zelenski, J. M.; Murphy, S. A. The Nature Relatedness Scale: Linking individuals’ connection with nature to environmental concern and behavior Environ. Behav. 2009, 41 (5) 715– 740
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    47. 47
      Hartig, T.; Mang, M.; Evans, G. W. Restorative effects of natural environment experiences Environ. Behav. 1991, 23, 3– 26
      [Crossref], Google Scholar
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
PDF [ 3MB]

Pair your accounts.

Export articles to Mendeley

Get article recommendations from ACS based on references in your Mendeley library.

Pair your accounts.

Export articles to Mendeley

Get article recommendations from ACS based on references in your Mendeley library.

You’ve supercharged your research process with ACS and Mendeley!

STEP 1:
Click to create an ACS ID

Please note: If you switch to a different device, you may be asked to login again with only your ACS ID.

Please note: If you switch to a different device, you may be asked to login again with only your ACS ID.

Please note: If you switch to a different device, you may be asked to login again with only your ACS ID.

MENDELEY PAIRING EXPIRED
Your Mendeley pairing has expired. Please reconnect

This website uses cookies to improve your user experience. By continuing to use the site, you are accepting our use of cookies. Read the ACS privacy policy.

CONTINUE