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Cold Region Bioremediation of Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soils: Do We Know Enough?
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Cold Region Bioremediation of Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soils: Do We Know Enough?
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School of Geosciences, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, United Kingdom
School of Environmental and Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia 2351
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 17, 9980–9981
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https://doi.org/10.1021/es5036738
Published August 13, 2014

Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society. This publication is available under these Terms of Use.

This publication is licensed for personal use by The American Chemical Society.

Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society

Humankind is currently reliant on oil and fossil fuels for the majority of its energy requirements. Currently, crude oil extraction from the Polar Regions of the globe is in decline, as the required technology and the associated costs make the economics unfavorable. However, political instability and security issues, associated with some of the current major oil and gas production areas, as well as technological improvements may make oil extraction from the Polar Regions favorable. Against this background there is the constant threat that wherever there is oil extraction there is associated contamination and at present humankind’s ability to deal with oil contamination in cold environments is restricted. In order to preserve what remains of these environments we therefore need to reconsider, adapt and improve our approaches to remediation in these cold environments.

The need for remediation preparedness comes from the fact that globally extraction of oil has resulted in the environment being exposed to approximately 25 000 tonnes of crude oil every year as a result of damaged crude oil pipelines and vessel spills. This figure does not include the 2010 Deepwater incident, which exposed the environment to over half a million tonnes of crude oil in a single event. Most of these spills and pollution events have occurred in temperate environments where remediation technology can be effectively applied, but cold regions pose unique challenges. In Arctic and Antarctic environments, contaminants typically become mobile over only a couple of summer months, dispersing from their immediate sources and causing environmental impacts. Hydrocarbon contamination in these ecosystems is perceived as damaging as they are more sensitive, being profoundly adapted to extreme conditions. (1) Ecosystem recovery is slower than in temperate climates and hydrocarbon concentrations can persist for years as natural attenuation rates are slow. (2) Increasing this rate of attenuation therefore becomes a serious consideration, but strategies developed for temperate climates are often unsuitable for remote Polar regions as they frequently require equipment and materials that are limited or prohibited. (1, 3)

In the Arctic, remediation is therefore driven by cost and time limitations, regulated through domestic legislation and guidelines, while in Antarctica drivers are cost, environmental policy, and remediation constraints. (4) Natural attenuation is not always suitable due to slow rates, (1, 2) while thermal incineration, common in temperate remediation, is banned from Antarctica and unfavorable in the Arctic due to risk of heat degradation of permafrost and downward contaminant migration. (2, 4) Excavation and removal of contaminated soils is often impractical, due to costs and risks of further damage from excavation, but might be considered with bioremediation when cost and time are balanced with risk and regulatory pressures. (2)

Bioremediation facilitates remediation activities being undertaken either near or on site, which can be appealing in a remote location, but effectiveness depends on overcoming limitations in temperature, bioavailability, oxygen, electron acceptors, toxicity, and freeze–thaw processes. (1, 3) Temperature is the significant limiting factor, playing a major role in rate and degree of microbial hydrocarbon biodegradation and affecting the volatilisation and viscosity of hydrocarbons. (3) Strategies to increase temperatures are therefore clearly advantageous for soil bioremediation in polar sites. This can be achieved by landfarming, which also offers control of water, nutrients, soil–microbe contact, and aeration with minimal equipment requirement. (4) However, landfarming is often ineffective at remediating crude oil and moisture management can remain a challenge in areas of either high precipitation or Polar desert. Biopile systems can also increase temperature, use less area than landfarming and are becoming increasingly implemented in the Arctic, but additional engineering adds to build and operation costs. Additional or alternative considerations might include bioaugmentation or phytoremediation. Bioaugmentation is uncommon in the Arctic due to a lack of adaptation of the introduced organisms and not permitted in the Antarctic with nonindigenous species. Phytoremediation offers potentially inexpensive remediation for cold sites, but finding plant species that accomplish sufficient soil decontamination in cold environments with little management poses a challenge. Native species are expected to be more reliable, but success is dependent on soil temperature, root exploration, water, nutrients, growing season, and soil chemistry. Despite recent growth in bioremediation application in cold regions, agreement is still limited as to which strategy is most effective under Polar conditions. Although ex-situ bioremediation has limitations, it is often the strategy of choice for remediation in cold regions, offering some control over the limiting environmental conditions on microbial activity.

Increased human presence, associated with military activities, shipping, “last chance” tourism, scientific research and natural resource exploration has already led to contamination of the Arctic and Antarctic landscapes. (2-4) Alaska, Canada, and Russia have all seen an increase in hydrocarbon pollution since the turn of the century. (1, 3) At present OPEC does not envisage a significant contribution from Artic oil over the next 20 years, but exploration of the regions is growing. In 2008, the U.S. acquired $2.7 billion in bids for the Chukchi offshore lease, while in April of 2014 Russia shipped 70 000 tonnes from the Prirazlomnoye platform. The exploration and exploitation of the Polar Regions as a source of crude oil and gas thus seems likely despite the associated environmental controversy that it presents. Greenpeace recently launched a petition to break the relationship between Shell and toy manufacturer Lego over Shell’s exploration of the Arctic, suggesting the motivation should be to ‘protect this magical place for future generations’. Throughout humankind’s relationship with oil there is an association between extraction and contamination, so if protection of what remains of these cold fragile ecosystems is to be achievable then the quest for more appropriate and applicable remediation technologies is needed now more than ever.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Author
    • Oliver G. G. Knox - School of Environmental and Rural Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia 2351 Email: [email protected]
  • Author
    • Roseanne McDonald - School of Geosciences, Edinburgh University, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, United Kingdom
  • Author Contributions

    The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. Both authors contributed equally.

  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

References

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This article references 4 other publications.

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    Yang, S.-Z.; Jin, H.-J.; Wei, Z.; He, R.-X.; Ji, Y.-J.; Li, X.-M.; Yu, S.-P. Bioremediation of oil spills in cold environments: A review Pedosphere 2009, 19 (3) 371 381
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    Snape, I.; Acomb, L.; Barnes, D. L.; Bainbridge, S.; Eno, R.; Filler, D. L.; Plato, N.; Poland, J. S.; Raymond, T. C.; Rayner, J. L.; Riddle, M. J.; Rike, A. G.; Rutter, A.; Schafer, A. N.; Siciliano, S. D.; Walworth, J. L.,, Contamination, regulation and remediation: An introduction to bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons in cold region. In Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Cold Regions, Filler, D. M.; Snape, I.; Barnes, D. L., Ed.; Cambridge University Press: New York, 2008; pp 1 37.
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 17, 9980–9981
Click to copy citationCitation copied!
https://doi.org/10.1021/es5036738
Published August 13, 2014

Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society. This publication is available under these Terms of Use.

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  • Abstract

  • References


    This article references 4 other publications.

    1. 1
      Yang, S.-Z.; Jin, H.-J.; Wei, Z.; He, R.-X.; Ji, Y.-J.; Li, X.-M.; Yu, S.-P. Bioremediation of oil spills in cold environments: A review Pedosphere 2009, 19 (3) 371 381
    2. 2
      Snape, I.; Acomb, L.; Barnes, D. L.; Bainbridge, S.; Eno, R.; Filler, D. L.; Plato, N.; Poland, J. S.; Raymond, T. C.; Rayner, J. L.; Riddle, M. J.; Rike, A. G.; Rutter, A.; Schafer, A. N.; Siciliano, S. D.; Walworth, J. L.,, Contamination, regulation and remediation: An introduction to bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons in cold region. In Bioremediation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Cold Regions, Filler, D. M.; Snape, I.; Barnes, D. L., Ed.; Cambridge University Press: New York, 2008; pp 1 37.
    3. 3
      Delille, D.; Coulon, F. Comparative mesocosm study of biostimulation efficiency in two different oil-amended sub-antarctic soils Microb. Ecol. 2008, 56 (2) 243 52
    4. 4
      Filler, D. M.; Reynolds, C. M.; Snape, I.; Daugulis, A. J.; Barnes, D. L.; Williams, P. J. Advances in engineered remediation for use in the Arctic and Antarctica Polar Rec. 2006, 42 (02) 111 120