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Biotin[6]uril Esters: Chloride-Selective Transmembrane Anion Carriers Employing C—H···Anion Interactions
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† Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
‡ School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
*[email protected]
*[email protected]
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Journal of the American Chemical Society

Cite this: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137, 15, 4948–4951
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https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b02306
Published April 8, 2015

Copyright © 2015 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under CC-BY.

Abstract

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Biotin[6]uril hexaesters represent a new class of anionophores which operate solely through C—H···anion interactions. The use of soft H-bond donors favors the transport of less hydrophilic anions (e.g., Cl–, NO3–) over hard, stongly hydrated anions (e.g., HCO3– and SO42–). Especially relevant is the selectivity between chloride and bicarbonate, the major inorganic anions in biological systems.

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Transmembrane anion transport by synthetic agents presents new opportunities for biology and medicine. (1) By analogy with cation transporters (cationophores), (2) anionophores could be valuable as research tools and might find therapeutic applications. For example, there is evidence that some anionophores possess anti-cancer activity. (1d, 3) In addition there is hope that synthetic transporters might be used to replace the activity of endogenous anion channels which are missing or defective. (4, 1b) Such deficiencies underlie a number of conditions including the widespread genetic disease cystic fibrosis.

Recent research has yielded various structures which can transport anions through channel, (5) relay, (6) or mobile carrier mechanisms. (3, 7) High activities have been achieved in some cases, (7e, 7f) but the control of anion selectivity is still under-explored. (8) From a biological perspective the most relevant issue is the distinction between chloride and bicarbonate, the dominant inorganic anions in living systems. (9) Chloride/bicarbonate selectivity may not be required for all applications, (10) but for others it may be critical. Selective anionophores would be valuable as research tools, with potential to elicit new and specific biological effects.

Whatever their mechanism of action, anionophores must recognize their substrates through non-covalent interactions. The interaction most commonly applied is hydrogen bonding between anions and conventional donors (OH, NH). However, this may not be ideal for achieving Cl–/HCO3– selectivity. Although bicarbonate is more strongly hydrated, it also binds well to O/NH in receptors. Thus, in studies of anion carriers employing NH···anion H-bonding, we and others have commonly observed transport of both substrates. (7b, 7c, 7f, 11) A promising alternative is the CH···anion hydrogen bond. (12) In contrast to OH and NH, CH is recognized as a soft H-bond donor. (13) It might therefore favor binding to softer, more polarizable anions (e.g., Cl–) over hard anions such as HCO3–. We now report the first anionophores which rely exclusively on CH···X– interactions, without any contribution from conventional H-bonds or electrostatic interactions. (14) As predicted, we find that this system is effective for chloride transport but shows minimal activity for bicarbonate, demonstrating the potential of CH···anion interactions for moderating anionophore selectivity.

Scheme 1

Scheme 1. Synthetic Pathway to Biotin[6]Uril Hexaesters 2–4a
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Scheme aEsterification of biotin[6]uril 1 to biotin[6]uril hexamethyl ester 2, hexaethyl ester 3, and hexabutyl ester 4 is catalyzed by HCl.

The design of the new anionophores is based on biotin[6]uril 1 (Scheme 1), a receptor for halide anions in water recently described by the Copenhagen group. (15) Macrocycle 1 is prepared in a single step from biotin and formaldehyde in aqueous hydrochloric acid. The hexameric product consists of six biotin monomers in alternating orientation, connected through methylene bridges. Each biotin unit has two hydrogens on the convex face, pointing toward the center of the macrocycle. This creates a cavity bounded by 12 CH groups, positioned to bind spherical anions by CH···X– interactions (Figure 1). In aqueous solution 1 binds halides with affinities (Ka) ranging from ∼2000 M–1 for I– to ∼60 M–1 for Cl–. The mode of binding has been confirmed by an X-ray crystal structure of the 1·iodide complex. (15a)

Figure 1

Figure 1. Macrocyclic core of biotin[6]urils 1–4, with side chains replaced by Me groups, modeled binding Cl–. CH···Cl– distances range from 2.9 to 3.2 Å. For details of the calculation, see SI.

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To create hydrophobic analogues for transport studies, receptor 1 was treated with methanol, ethanol or butanol, with catalytic HCl, to yield hexaesters 2–4. The binding of the hexaesters to Cl–, NO3–, HCO3–, and SO42– in an organic medium (CD3CN) was first studied using 1H NMR spectroscopy. As shown in Table 1, the affinities for chloride were higher than those for nitrate and bicarbonate by roughly 2 orders of magnitude. No interaction with SO42– could be detected. The selectivity for chloride vs nitrate contrasts with the results for 1 in water, where the two anions were bound with similar Ka. (15) This solvent effect is not too surprising, as chloride is more hydrophilic than nitrate. (16) More notable, however, are the almost identical Ka values for NO3– and HCO3–. The latter is by far the more basic, and therefore the better acceptor for conventional H-bonds. The similar affinities observed here, for similarly shaped anions, confirms the difference between conventional H-bonds and CH···anion binding. (13) The result supported our expectation that 2–4 would not transport bicarbonate. If affinities were low in a non-competitive medium, the prospects for extracting hydrophilic HCO3– from water seemed very poor indeed.

Affinities for chloride were also measured by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) (Table 1). The binding interactions were all shown to be enthalpically and entropically favorable. This is different from the trend observed for the biotin[6]uril hexaacid (1) in water where the entropy change is unfavorable. (15)

Table 1. Cl–, NO3–, and HCO3– Binding Affinities (1H NMR and ITC) in Acetonitrile
 log(Ka)
biotin[6]uril esterCl–NO3–HCO3–
methyl estera (2)4.3b, 4.5c2.3c2.1c
ethyl estera (3)4.6b2.4c–d
butyl estera(4)4.5b–d–d
a

Job’s method and ITC indicated 1:1 binding stoichiometries for both Et4N+Cl– and Bu4N+NO3–. All data obtained had less than 11% error.

b

Ka obtained from ITC in CH3CN at 25 °C.

c

Ka obtained by 1H NMR titration in CD3CN at 25 °C.

d

Not measured.

Anion transport by esters 2–4 was studied in large unilamellar vesicles with a mean diameter of 200 nm, employing the previously reported “lucigenin assay” (Figure 2). (17) The vesicles were prepared from 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-phosphocholine (POPC) and cholesterol in a 7:3 ratio, with the biotin[6]uril hexaesters pre-incorporated at receptor:lipid ratios from 1:250 to 1:25 000. The vesicles enclosed NaNO3 (225 mM) with the halide-sensitive dye lucigenin (0.8 mM), and were suspended in NaNO3 (225 mM). After addition of sodium chloride (24 mM), the decay in lucigenin fluorescence caused by chloride influx was monitored. Traces from experiments at receptor:lipid = 1:1000 are shown in Figure 2c. All three hexaesters showed activity, but with substantial differences depending on the length of side chain (4 ≫ 3 > 2). As with some other systems, (18) it seems that lipophilicity promotes anionophore effectiveness. This result might simply reflect different distributions between membrane and aqueous phases. However, leaching tests (19) confirmed that all carriers were exclusively located in the membrane (see Supporting Information (SI)). It thus seems that increased lipophilicity enhances the intrinsic rate of anion transport. (20) The most active transporter 4 promotes chloride influx with t1/2 = 180 s at transporter:lipid = 1:2500 (see SI). This rate is ∼100 times lower than the highest reported, (7e) but compares well with many published systems and is remarkable for a transporter which relies solely on CH···anion interactions.

Figure 2

Figure 2. (a) Schematic representation of the vesicles used in this study. The transport activity is monitored using the lucigenin assay. Biotin[6]uril hexaesters promote transport of Cl– into the vesicles and NO3– out of the vesicle. This process is observed as the quenching of lucigenin fluorescence caused by the increasing amount of chloride inside the vesicle. (b) Part of the vesicle membrane illustrating the carrier mechanism employed by the biotin[6]uril hexaesters. (c) Chloride/nitrate exchange by 2, 3, and 4 at a transporter-to-lipid ratio of 1:1000.

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Ion transport in vesicles can only take place if electroneutrality is maintained, either by counter-transport of an ion of similar charge (antiport) or co-transport of a counterion (symport). As implied by Figure 2a, the esters 2–4 were expected to act as antiporters, exchanging chloride for intravesicular nitrate. To confirm this hypothesis, the lucignenin assay on 4 was performed with nitrate replaced by hydrophilic sulfate. As shown in Figure 3, the rate of fluorescence decay was negligible after an initial small drop. The result implies that the inward flow of charge cannot be balanced under these conditions, and quickly stops due to the developing electrical potential. In common with many other anion carriers, it thus seems that 4 transports both chloride and nitrate, but neither sulfate nor Na+.

We next tested for bicarbonate transport by repeating the lucigenin assay with HCO3– as the background anion, available for counter-transport. In similar experiments with anionophores employing conventional H-bonds, we have previously observed two types of result. In some cases fluorescence decay profiles are similar to those for Cl–/NO3– exchange, implying that HCO3– is freely transported. One such example is the bis-urea 5 (see Figure 3). (7c) In other cases, results for bicarbonate antiport have been intermediate between those for nitrate and sulfate, suggesting that bicarbonate is transported but only slowly. (7b, 7d) The result for biotin[6]uril 4 is shown in Figure 3 (blue solid line). The trace is almost indistiguishable from that for sulfate counter-transport (green solid line), implying that the membrane is impermeable to HCO3–. As expected, it thus seems that 4 shows very high selectivity for chloride vs bicarbonate.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Exchange of chloride for different anions by biotin[6]uril ester (4, solid lines) and bis-urea 5 (dashed lines). Red = NO3–; green = SO42–; blue = HCO3– (Na+ salts, 225 mM). Transporter-to-lipid ratios were 1:1000 for 4 and 1:25 000 for 5. Transport by compound 5 was assessed at a lower loading because it is ∼25 times more active than 4. At equilibrium (24 mM chloride both inside and outside of the vesicle), F/F0 ≈ 0.5 in NaNO3 and Na2SO4, but ≈ 0.7 in NaHCO3, due to the partial quenching of lucigenin by HCO3–.

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Finally, we performed experiments to confirm that transport was occurring via the “mobile carrier” mechanism (Figure 2b), and not by self-assembly into channels. (21) The lucigenin assay (Cl–/NO3– exchange) was applied to 4 using vesicles prepared with different levels of cholesterol. The increase of cholesterol in a membrane decreases the fluidity, and thereby hampers the movement of carriers. In contrast, channels should be unaffected. (22) As expected, the transport rate fell dramatically when the proportion of cholesterol was raised to 40% (see SI). Assays were also conducted in vesicles composed of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), which exists as a gel phase at room temperature and a liquid crystalline (fluid) phase above 41 °C. (23) Transport was only observed at 45 °C and not at 25 °C, supporting the carrier mechanism. Further support was obtained from the dependence of transport rates on anionophore loading. The data suggested that aggregation was counter-productive, the opposite of that expected for self-assembling channels.

In conclusion, we have shown that receptors 2–4, employing only CH···X– interactions, can serve as transmembrane anion carriers with remarkable Cl–/HCO3– selectivity. We propose that this selectivity results from the “soft” nature of CH as a hydrogen bond donor, which should favor the polarizable, more hydrophobic anions (e.g., Cl–, NO3–) over harder, more basic anions (e.g., HCO3–). (13) The exploitation of CH···anion interactions in anionophores has further advantages: donor CH groups are not hydrophilic, nor inclined to provoke aggregation. Thus, we believe this motif can make useful contributions to anionophore design, especially where chloride selectivity is a priority.

Supporting Information

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Binding studies, Job plots, and experimental details for the measurement of the chloride transport assays. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

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Author Information

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  • Corresponding Authors
    • Anthony P. Davis - School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom;  Email: [email protected]
    • Michael Pittelkow - Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Micke Lisbjerg - Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark;  School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
    • Hennie Valkenier - School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
    • Bo M. Jessen - Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
    • Hana Al-Kerdi - Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgment

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We acknowledge financial support from the Lundbeck Foundation for a Young Group Leader Fellowship (M.P.) and from the EPSRC (grant no. EP/F03623X/1). The support and sponsorship provided by COST Action CM1005, Augustinus Fonden and Oticon Fonden, is acknowledged. We thank Birgitte O. Milhøj for insightful discussions.

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    It is fairly common for CH···anion bonding to supplement stronger interactions in anionophores. For examples, see ref 12 and the following:

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    The discovery of receptors using templated synthesis enables the selection of strong receptors from complex mixts. In this contribution we describe a study of the condensation of D-biotin and formaldehyde in acidic water. We have discovered that halide anions template the formation of a single isomer of a 6 + 6 macrocycle. The macrocycle (biotin[6]uril) is water-sol., chiral and binds halide anions (iodide, bromide and chloride) with selectivity for iodide in water and it can be isolated on a gram scale in a one-pot reaction in 63% yield.
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    Despite extensive interest in transmembrane anion carriers (anionophores), the factors that govern activity are still only partly understood. Herein we report a study which identifies a new principle for anionophore design, that of "lipophilic balance". A series of simple thioureas with identical mol. formulas has been prepd. and assayed for chloride/nitrate transport activity in synthetic vesicles. The mols. differ only in the positioning of the phenylthiourea binding unit within an 11-carbon linear chain. They are shown to possess very similar lipophilicities and anion affinities, while a test for leaching establishes that they locate almost exclusively in the vesicle membranes. Notwithstanding their close similarities, activities across the series show >5-fold variation, peaking when the phenylthiourea group is centrally located. The results suggest that transport is favored by a balanced array of lipophilic substituents, possibly because this arrangement facilitates transfer of the complexed anion into the apolar membrane interior.
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    The biotin[6]uril hexaesters are not large enough to form unimolecular channels. The height of the biotin[6]uril hexaacid measured from the crystal structures is 16.5–17.2 Å, (15a) while the vesicle membrane thickness is ∼3.4–4.0 nm. (24)

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    Chemical Science (2013), 4 (1), 103-117CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
    Highly potent but structurally simple transmembrane anion transporters are reported that function at receptor to lipid ratios as low as 1 : 1 000 000. The compds., based on the simple ortho-phenylenediamine-based bisurea scaffold, have been studied for their ability to facilitate chloride/nitrate and chloride/bicarbonate antiport, and HCl symport processes using a combination of ion selective electrode and fluorescence techniques. In addn., the transmembrane transport of dicarboxylate anions (maleate and fumarate) by the compds. was examd. Mol. dynamics simulations showed that these compds. permeate the membrane more easily than other promising receptors corroborating the exptl. efflux data. Moreover, cell based assays revealed that the majority of the compds. showed cytotoxicity in cancer cells, which may be linked to their ability to function as ion transporters.
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    The transmembrane transport of anions by small synthetic mols. is a growing field in supramol. chem. and has focussed mainly on the transmembrane transport of chloride. On the other hand, the transport of the highly hydrophilic sulfate anion across lipid bilayers is much less developed, even though the inability to transport sulfate across cellular membranes has been linked to a variety of genetic diseases. Tris-thioureas possess high sulfate affinities and have been shown to be excellent chloride and bicarbonate transporters. Herein we report the sulfate transport abilities of a series of tris-ureas and tris-thioureas based on a tris(2-aminoethyl)amine or cyclopeptide scaffold. We have developed a new technique based on 33S NMR that can be used to monitor sulfate transport, using 33S-labeled sulfate and paramagnetic agents such as Mn2+ and Fe3+ to discriminate between intra- and extravesicular sulfate. Reasonable sulfate transport abilities were found for the reported tris-ureas and tris-thioureas, providing a starting point for the development of more powerful synthetic sulfate transporters that can be used in the treatment of certain channelopathies or as a model for biol. sulfate transporters.
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Cite this: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 137, 15, 4948–4951
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https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.5b02306
Published April 8, 2015

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  • Abstract

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    Scheme 1

    Scheme 1. Synthetic Pathway to Biotin[6]Uril Hexaesters 2–4a
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    Scheme aEsterification of biotin[6]uril 1 to biotin[6]uril hexamethyl ester 2, hexaethyl ester 3, and hexabutyl ester 4 is catalyzed by HCl.

    Figure 1

    Figure 1. Macrocyclic core of biotin[6]urils 1–4, with side chains replaced by Me groups, modeled binding Cl–. CH···Cl– distances range from 2.9 to 3.2 Å. For details of the calculation, see SI.

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. (a) Schematic representation of the vesicles used in this study. The transport activity is monitored using the lucigenin assay. Biotin[6]uril hexaesters promote transport of Cl– into the vesicles and NO3– out of the vesicle. This process is observed as the quenching of lucigenin fluorescence caused by the increasing amount of chloride inside the vesicle. (b) Part of the vesicle membrane illustrating the carrier mechanism employed by the biotin[6]uril hexaesters. (c) Chloride/nitrate exchange by 2, 3, and 4 at a transporter-to-lipid ratio of 1:1000.

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. Exchange of chloride for different anions by biotin[6]uril ester (4, solid lines) and bis-urea 5 (dashed lines). Red = NO3–; green = SO42–; blue = HCO3– (Na+ salts, 225 mM). Transporter-to-lipid ratios were 1:1000 for 4 and 1:25 000 for 5. Transport by compound 5 was assessed at a lower loading because it is ∼25 times more active than 4. At equilibrium (24 mM chloride both inside and outside of the vesicle), F/F0 ≈ 0.5 in NaNO3 and Na2SO4, but ≈ 0.7 in NaHCO3, due to the partial quenching of lucigenin by HCO3–.

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      Bicarbonate is involved in a wide range of biol. processes, which include respiration, regulation of intracellular pH and fertilization. In this study we use a combination of NMR spectroscopy and ion-selective electrode techniques to show that the natural product prodigiosin, a tripyrrolic mol. produced by microorganisms such as Streptomyces and Serratia, facilitates chloride/bicarbonate exchange (antiport) across liposomal membranes. Higher concns. of simple synthetic mols. based on a 4,6-dihydroxyisophthalamide core are also shown to facilitate this antiport process. Although it is well known that proteins regulate Cl-/HCO3- exchange in cells, these results suggest that small mols. may also be able to regulate the concn. of these anions in biol. systems.
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      A review. The CH/π hydrogen bond is an attractive mol. force occurring between a soft acid and a soft base. Contribution from the dispersion energy is important in typical cases where aliph. or arom. CH groups are involved. Coulombic energy is of minor importance as compared to the other weak hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bond nature of this force, however, has been confirmed by AIM analyses. The dual characteristic of the CH/π hydrogen bond is the basis for ubiquitous existence of this force in various fields of chem. A salient feature is that the CH/π hydrogen bond works cooperatively. Another significant point is that it works in nonpolar as well as polar, protic solvents such as water. The interaction energy depends on the nature of the mol. fragments, CH as well as π-groups: the stronger the proton donating ability of the CH group, the larger the stabilizing effect. This Perspective focuses on the consequence of this mol. force in the conformation of org. compds. and supramol. chem. Implication of the CH/π hydrogen bond extends to the specificity of mol. recognition or selectivity in org. reactions, polymer science, surface phenomena and interactions involving proteins. Many problems, unsettled to date, will become clearer in the light of the CH/π paradigm.
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      It is fairly common for CH···anion bonding to supplement stronger interactions in anionophores. For examples, see ref 12 and the following:

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      Discovery of a cyclic 6 + 6 hexamer of D-biotin and formaldehyde
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      Chemical Science (2014), 5 (7), 2647-2650CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      The discovery of receptors using templated synthesis enables the selection of strong receptors from complex mixts. In this contribution we describe a study of the condensation of D-biotin and formaldehyde in acidic water. We have discovered that halide anions template the formation of a single isomer of a 6 + 6 macrocycle. The macrocycle (biotin[6]uril) is water-sol., chiral and binds halide anions (iodide, bromide and chloride) with selectivity for iodide in water and it can be isolated on a gram scale in a one-pot reaction in 63% yield.
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      Towards predictable transmembrane transport: QSAR analysis of anion binding and transport
      Busschaert, Nathalie; Bradberry, Samuel J.; Wenzel, Marco; Haynes, Cally J. E.; Hiscock, Jennifer R.; Kirby, Isabelle L.; Karagiannidis, Louise E.; Moore, Stephen J.; Wells, Neil J.; Herniman, Julie; Langley, G. John; Horton, Peter N.; Light, Mark E.; Marques, Igor; Costa, Paulo J.; Felix, Vitor; Frey, Jeremy G.; Gale, Philip A.
      Chemical Science (2013), 4 (8), 3036-3045CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      The transport of anions across biol. membranes by small mols. is a growing research field due to the potential therapeutic benefits of these compds. However, little is known about the exact mechanism by which these drug-like mols. work and which mol. features make a good transporter. An extended series of 1-hexyl-3-phenylthioureas were synthesized, fully characterized (NMR, mass spectrometry, IR and single crystal diffraction) and their anion binding and anion transport properties were assessed using 1H NMR titrn. techniques and a variety of vesicle-based expts. Quant. structure-activity relationship (QSAR) anal. revealed that the anion binding abilities of the mono-thioureas are dominated by the (hydrogen bond) acidity of the thiourea NH function. Furthermore, math. models show that the exptl. transmembrane anion transport ability is mainly dependent on the lipophilicity of the transporter (partitioning into the membrane), but smaller contributions of mol. size (diffusion) and hydrogen bond acidity (anion binding) were also present. Finally, we provide the first step towards predictable anion transport by employing the QSAR equations to est. the transmembrane transport ability of four new compds.
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    19. 19
      Valkenier, H.; Haynes, C. J. E.; Herniman, J.; Gale, P. A.; Davis, A. P. Chem. Sci. 2014, 5, 1128– 1134
      19
      Lipophilic balance - a new design principle for transmembrane anion carriers
      Valkenier, Hennie; Haynes, Cally J. E.; Herniman, Julie; Gale, Philip A.; Davis, Anthony P.
      Chemical Science (2014), 5 (3), 1128-1134CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Despite extensive interest in transmembrane anion carriers (anionophores), the factors that govern activity are still only partly understood. Herein we report a study which identifies a new principle for anionophore design, that of "lipophilic balance". A series of simple thioureas with identical mol. formulas has been prepd. and assayed for chloride/nitrate transport activity in synthetic vesicles. The mols. differ only in the positioning of the phenylthiourea binding unit within an 11-carbon linear chain. They are shown to possess very similar lipophilicities and anion affinities, while a test for leaching establishes that they locate almost exclusively in the vesicle membranes. Notwithstanding their close similarities, activities across the series show >5-fold variation, peaking when the phenylthiourea group is centrally located. The results suggest that transport is favored by a balanced array of lipophilic substituents, possibly because this arrangement facilitates transfer of the complexed anion into the apolar membrane interior.
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    20. 20

      For another example of this phenomenon, see ref 7c.

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    21. 21

      The biotin[6]uril hexaesters are not large enough to form unimolecular channels. The height of the biotin[6]uril hexaacid measured from the crystal structures is 16.5–17.2 Å, (15a) while the vesicle membrane thickness is ∼3.4–4.0 nm. (24)

      There is no corresponding record for this reference.
    22. 22
      (a) Moore, S. J.; Haynes, C. J. E.; González, J.; Sutton, J. L.; Brooks, S. J.; Light, M. E.; Herniman, J.; Langley, G. J.; Soto-Cerrato, V.; Pérez-Tomás, R.; Marques, I.; Costa, P. J.; Félix, V.; Gale, P. A. Chem. Sci. 2013, 4, 103
      22a
      Chloride, carboxylate and carbonate transport by ortho-phenylenediamine-based bisureas
      Moore, Stephen J.; Haynes, Cally J. E.; Gonzalez, Jorge; Sutton, Jennifer L.; Brooks, Simon J.; Light, Mark E.; Herniman, Julie; Langley, G. John; Soto-Cerrato, Vanessa; Perez-Tomas, Ricardo; Marques, Igor; Costa, Paulo J.; Felix, Vitor; Gale, Philip A.
      Chemical Science (2013), 4 (1), 103-117CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      Highly potent but structurally simple transmembrane anion transporters are reported that function at receptor to lipid ratios as low as 1 : 1 000 000. The compds., based on the simple ortho-phenylenediamine-based bisurea scaffold, have been studied for their ability to facilitate chloride/nitrate and chloride/bicarbonate antiport, and HCl symport processes using a combination of ion selective electrode and fluorescence techniques. In addn., the transmembrane transport of dicarboxylate anions (maleate and fumarate) by the compds. was examd. Mol. dynamics simulations showed that these compds. permeate the membrane more easily than other promising receptors corroborating the exptl. efflux data. Moreover, cell based assays revealed that the majority of the compds. showed cytotoxicity in cancer cells, which may be linked to their ability to function as ion transporters.
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      (b) Busschaert, N.; Karagiannidis, L. E.; Wenzel, M.; Haynes, C. J. E.; Wells, N. J.; Young, P. G.; Makuc, D.; Plavec, J.; Jolliffe, K. A.; Gale, P. A. Chem. Sci. 2014, 5, 1118
      22b
      Synthetic transporters for sulfate: a new method for the direct detection of lipid bilayer sulfate transport
      Busschaert, Nathalie; Karagiannidis, Louise E.; Wenzel, Marco; Haynes, Cally J. E.; Wells, Neil J.; Young, Philip G.; Makuc, Damjan; Plavec, Janez; Jolliffe, Katrina A.; Gale, Philip A.
      Chemical Science (2014), 5 (3), 1118-1127CODEN: CSHCCN; ISSN:2041-6520. (Royal Society of Chemistry)
      The transmembrane transport of anions by small synthetic mols. is a growing field in supramol. chem. and has focussed mainly on the transmembrane transport of chloride. On the other hand, the transport of the highly hydrophilic sulfate anion across lipid bilayers is much less developed, even though the inability to transport sulfate across cellular membranes has been linked to a variety of genetic diseases. Tris-thioureas possess high sulfate affinities and have been shown to be excellent chloride and bicarbonate transporters. Herein we report the sulfate transport abilities of a series of tris-ureas and tris-thioureas based on a tris(2-aminoethyl)amine or cyclopeptide scaffold. We have developed a new technique based on 33S NMR that can be used to monitor sulfate transport, using 33S-labeled sulfate and paramagnetic agents such as Mn2+ and Fe3+ to discriminate between intra- and extravesicular sulfate. Reasonable sulfate transport abilities were found for the reported tris-ureas and tris-thioureas, providing a starting point for the development of more powerful synthetic sulfate transporters that can be used in the treatment of certain channelopathies or as a model for biol. sulfate transporters.
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    23. 23
      Deng, G.; Dewa, T.; Regen, S. L. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1996, 118, 8975
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      (a) Gullingsrud, J.; Schulten, K. Biophys. J. 2004, 86, 3496
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      (b) Leekumjorn, S.; Sum, A. K. J. Phys. Chem. B 2007, 111, 6026
      There is no corresponding record for this reference.

  • Supporting Information

    Supporting Information

    Binding studies, Job plots, and experimental details for the measurement of the chloride transport assays. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.


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