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Generation of Triplet Excited States via Photoinduced Electron Transfer in meso-anthra-BODIPY: Fluorogenic Response toward Singlet Oxygen in Solution and in Vitro

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† School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland
‡ King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), Material Science and Engineering Program (MSE), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
§ Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 1/3 Moscow 119991, Russia
∥ Department of Chemistry, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Kingston-upon-Hull HU6 7RX, United Kingdom
*[email protected]
*[email protected]
*[email protected]
Cite this: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2017, 139, 18, 6282–6285
Publication Date (Web):April 13, 2017
https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.7b00551

Copyright © 2017 American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under CC-BY.

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Abstract

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Heavy atom-free BODIPY-anthracene dyads (BADs) generate locally excited triplet states by way of photoinduced electron transfer (PeT), followed by recombination of the resulting charge-separated states (CSS). Subsequent quenching of the triplet states by molecular oxygen produces singlet oxygen (1O2), which reacts with the anthracene moiety yielding highly fluorescent species. The steric demand of the alkyl substituents in the BODIPY subunit defines the site of 1O2 addition. Novel bis- and tetraepoxides and bicyclic acetal products, arising from rearrangements of anthracene endoperoxides were isolated and characterized. 1O2 generation by BADs in living cells enables visualization of the dyads distribution, promising new imaging applications.

Optical probes based on photoinduced electron transfer (PeT) in donor–acceptor dyads have broad use in diagnostics, particularly for detection of biomolecules, metal ions, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and measurement of intracellular pH. (1) The PeT process leads to formation of non-emissive charge-separated states (CSS) that decay back to the ground state via different pathways. Among those is recombination of CSS, which may lead to locally excited triplet states of the molecule. (2) Recently this process has attracted attention as a method to increase intersystem crossing without relying on the heavy atom effect. (3)

The possibility of singlet oxygen (1O2) generation by donor–acceptor dyads has not been realized so far in a practical sense. It could be expected that 1O2 generation by PeT-based optical probes in biological environments would affect their optical response and simultaneously induce cytotoxicity. This is of concern especially in the case of ROS detection, where sensitization of 1O2 by the probe itself may lead to false positives and incorrect interpretations. (4) On the other hand, PeT-mediated 1O2 generation could provide a new tool for theranostic applications, because the process of charge separation can be turned on/off by various stimuli. Herein we report readily accessible heavy atom-free BODIPY-anthracene dyads (BADs) that can act as efficient triplet sensitizers, and become fluorescent in response to the generated 1O2.

Although a number of triplet sensitizers based on halogenated BODIPYs have been reported in the past decade, (5) observations of triplet excited states formation in heavy atom-free BODIPYs are rare. (6) In our search for efficient donor–acceptor photosensitizers, we focused on BADs 1 and 2 (Scheme 1). BODIPYs are known to be efficient energy and electron acceptors when combined with anthracene. (7) Although compound BAD1 has been reported to exhibit PeT, no triplet excited states formation has been noted. (8)

Scheme 1

Scheme 1. Photoinduced Transformations of BADs
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Upon broad-band visible light irradiation of air-saturated solutions of BAD1 in a range of polar solvents we observed, to our surprise, completely selective formation of BAD1-BE, which could be isolated in 5% yield along with recovered unreacted starting material (Scheme 1). In contrast, irradiation of BAD2 under the same conditions resulted in complete conversion of the substrate and formation of two products, bicyclic acetal derivative (BAD2-BA) and tetraepoxide (BAD2-TE), which were isolated in 80% and 10% yields, respectively. The structures of the products were confirmed by NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography (for details, see Supporting Information (SI)). Unlike BADs 1 and 2, isolated compounds exhibit bright fluorescence independent of the solvent polarity. For instance, the emission quantum yields of BAD1-BE in CH2Cl2 and hexane were determined to be 0.91 and 0.89, respectively.

The formation of these products appears to be due to the sensitization of oxygen and subsequent [4+2] cycloaddition of the resulting 1O2, which is typical for anthracene derivatives. (9) Singlet oxygen quantum yields were measured using 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran as 1O2 trap, giving values of 0.67 and 0.38 in ethanol, for BAD1 and BAD2, respectively. To understand the mechanism of 1O2 formation, we studied the excited state dynamics of the dyad BAD1 by broad-band vis-NIR subpico- to microsecond transient absorption (TA) pump–probe spectroscopy.

Immediately after photoexcitation with fs pulses at 355 nm, a broad band around 360 nm due to the anthracene’s singlet excited state (S1) absorption, which partially overlaps with the ground state photo bleach (PB), was observed (Figure 1a). The concomitant decay of this band and simultaneous rise of the bleach at 505 nm indicate ultrafast energy transfer (EnT) from anthracene to BODIPY subunit, populating the singlet state of the latter, SBDP. Furthermore, another absorption band grows at 580 nm, and it was assigned to the BODIPY radical-anion (BDP–•), (10) forming due to the PeT process. This band rises during the first 100 ps, simultaneously shifting to 570 nm, indicating a transition of the radical-anion to another excited state (see inset of Figure 1a). Synchronously with the rise of the BDP–• absorption (580 nm), yet another absorption band, centered at 680 nm rises, presumably due to the anthracene radical-cation (Ant+•), in line with previous reports. (11) Fitting of the PB decays at 380 and 400 nm and the rise of BDP–• and Ant+• bands (Figure 1b) yields time constants of 1.15 and 0.54 ps for the EnT and PeT processes, respectively.

Figure 1

Figure 1. (a) ps–ns Transient absorption spectra of BAD1 in dimethylformamide upon excitation at 355 nm with 35 fs pulses at delay times of 600 fs (black line), 1 ps (red line), 100 ps (green line), and 5 ns (blue line). The inset shows the blue shift of the TA spectra to 570 nm. (b) Kinetics monitored at 380 nm (black line), 400 nm (red line), 425 nm (green line), 505 nm (violet line), 570 nm (cyan line), and 680 nm (magenta line) as indicated by vertical colored bars. (c) ns−μs Transient absorption spectra of degassed BAD1 solutions following excitation at 355 nm by 700 ps laser pulses. The spectra were integrated from 3 to 5 ns (black line), 10–100 ns (red line), 0.1–1 μs (green line), 1–5 μs (blue line), and 10–100 μs (cyan line). (d) Kinetics observed for the bands at 570 and 680 nm, assigned to the BODIPY triplet state and anthracene radical-cation, respectively, in the absence and presence of oxygen (solid and dotted lines, respectively).

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In the ns−μs TA experiments, a rise of an absorption band at 570 nm over 1 μs was observed, indicating formation of long-lived states (Figure 1c). Previous reports on the TA spectra of BODIPY support the assignment of this band to the BODIPY triplet state (TBDP) absorption. (10b) The band at 570 nm was quenched and decayed faster in the presence of oxygen (Figure 1d). In contrast, the anthracene radical cation-absorption band at 680 nm was impacted by oxygen significantly less. The TBDP lifetime in the absence of O2 was determined to be 41 μs. The observed transition from the bands originating in CSS to the absorption by the triplet suggests that the formation of CSS is a prerequisite for populating of TBDP.

The frontier molecular orbitals diagram (Figure 2a) shows that the two highest occupied orbitals πant and πBDP located on the anthracene and BODIPY subunit, respectively, are nearly degenerate. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations (see SI for computational details) confirm that in BAD1 PeT could take place from πant to singly occupied πBDP, leading to singlet charge transfer state SCSS that is 0.4 eV more stable than the SBDP excited state. Unlike the valence excited states, CSS has very low ferromagnetic exchange coupling integral due to negligible overlap of singly occupied orbitals πant and π*BDP located in mutually orthogonal molecular moieties, thus leading to a very small singlet–triplet energy gap (S-T gap). Two pathways for triplet state generation from CSS may yield the lowest local TBDP state (Figure 2b): spin–orbit charge transfer intersystem crossing (SOCT-ISC) and radical pair intersystem crossing (RP-ISC)), followed by triplet charge recombination. (12) As shown in extensive works of Wasielewski and co-workers, (13) SOCT-ISC prevails for systems with strong electronic couplings, requiring short distances between the subunits (4.3 Å in BAD1). On the other hand, due to the small S-T gap in the RP state, mixing of SCSS and TCSS states is possible due to, e.g., electron–nuclear hyperfine coupling. More detailed studies are necessary to distinguish between mechanisms governing spin interconversion in BADs.

Figure 2

Figure 2. (a) Frontier molecular orbitals and their energies (in a.u.) for BADs 1 and 2. (b) Diagram demonstrating transitions between excited states in BAD1.

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The observed PeT process is clearly manifested in the spectroscopic properties of BADs. The fluorescence of the BODIPY is quenched in polar solvents as evidenced by the negligible values of Φf, compared to the strong emission in nonpolar solvents (Table S3). A broad emission band at 610 nm was observed in polar solvents. Such red-shifted broad emission bands arising from charge transfer excited states were reported for various donor–acceptor systems. (14) DFT calculations in vacuo show that SCSS state is approximately 0.2 eV higher in energy than the valence SBDP state. The dipole moment for the SCSS state was computed to be μ = 19 D in vacuo, much higher than that for the valence SBDP state (5 D). Interactions of CSS with polar solvent result in a decrease of the SCSS state dipole moment to 1.1 D and change the relative energy ordering of the SBDP and SCSS states, making PeT process favorable.

When irradiated with monochromatic or broad-band visible light, air-saturated solutions of BADs in polar solvents showed a gradual increase in fluorescence (Figure 3b). For instance, irradiation of BAD2 solution results in up to 100-fold increase of fluorescence intensity due to formation of compounds BAD2-BA and BAD2-TE. No change in the emission was observed upon irradiation of the solutions in hexane even for longer periods of time (Figure S6), confirming that the dyads do not generate 1O2 in the absence of the PeT process.

Figure 3

Figure 3. (a) Absorption and emission spectra of BAD1. (b) Changes of the emission intensity upon irradiation of BADs and reference compound solutions in CH2Cl2 (5 × 10–5 M) with broad-band visible light. (c) Change of BAD2 emission upon irradiation with 532 nm laser (10 mW cm–2). (d) Photo of BAD2 solution before and after 5 min of irradiation, taken under excitation with 365 nm light.

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The formation of bicyclic acetal and tetraepoxide products from BAD2 is likely to take place via a 9,10-endoperoxide intermediate (Scheme 2). The rearrangement of endoperoxides into bisepoxides can be induced either thermally or photochemically. (9) The process is caused by homolytic cleavage of the peroxide O–O bond, followed by rearrangement to more stable bisepoxides. Commonly, such bisepoxides containing a cyclohexadiene ring could not be isolated but only trapped with dienophiles. (15) Indeed, we found no traces of this intermediate in the reaction mixture. According to previous reports, the formation of a bicyclic acetal from bisepoxide may take place via heterolytic cleavage of the epoxide C–C bond, leading to an ylide-type bipolar intermediate. (15b) This is followed by C–O bond rupture of a second epoxide fragment, leading to rearomatization of the lateral ring and formation of the acetal bridge. The rearrangement competes with addition of 1O2 molecule to the diene moiety leading to BAD2-TE.

Scheme 2

Scheme 2. Tentative Mechanism of the Formation of Fluorescent Products
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In contrast, bisepoxide BAD1-BE is stable and showed no formation of the rearrangement products. Its formation likely proceeds via the mechanism discussed above, involving O–O homolytic cleavage and subsequent isomerization. The addition of 1O2 to the outer ring in this case is surprising, as the central 9,10-site is the most reactive, based on frontier molecular orbital analysis. The influence of steric factors on the regioselectivity of endoperoxide formation has been reported for acenes with bulky substituents at the ortho positions of the aryl groups. (16) Comparison with BAD2 shows that the unusual reactivity of BAD1 can be attributed to the effect of methyl substituents in position 4 of the BODIPY core. This can be seen in the XRD data, where C-4 methyl substituents in BAD1 are forming a steric-like shield of the C-9 position of the anthracene unit. Introduction of methyl groups into the BODIPY pyrrole rings shields the inner ring of the orthogonal anthracene residue, making the approach of 1O2 molecule difficult. Different reactivity of BADs toward 1O2 accounts for the variations in their fluorescence response (Figure 3b) due to the cycloaddition to the anthracene moiety, which takes place considerably faster for BAD2.

The rise of BAD2 fluorescence due to cycloaddition reaction is manifested even at 1 μM concentration, and it reaches intensities comparable to those of emission of a strongly fluorescent reference BODIPY compound (Figure S7). It was of special interest to investigate whether the sensitization process can be reproduced in live cells. For this purpose, we generated appropriate water-soluble derivatives (Scheme 3). Substitution of fluorine atoms with N,N-dimethylaminopropyne-1 residues gave corresponding BADs 3 and 4. Quaternization of the dimethylamino group with 1,3-propane sultone then gave BADs 5 and 6, bearing zwitterionic fragments (betaine) that imparted the desired aqueous solubility.

Scheme 3

Scheme 3. Synthesis of Water-Soluble BADs Derivatives
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To examine the fluorescence response of BADs 5 and 6 toward self-sensitized 1O2 in cells, human breast cancer (MDA-MB-468) cells were incubated with BADs 5 and 6 (1 μM) followed by irradiation with broad-band visible light (400–700 nm, 23.8 mW cm–2). Cells were irradiated for 0, 2.5, and 5 min and visualized by confocal fluorescence microscopy. Over the time course of irradiation, an increase in the fluorescence intensity was observed for BAD6 (Figure 4). This indicates first that the chromophore entered the cells, rather than simply associating with the external cell membrane; and secondly, that the fluorescence increased in a similar way to that observed for BAD2 in homogeneous solution. However, this behavior was not replicated in the case of BAD5, which showed no observable fluorescence on this time scale, even when irradiated with higher light doses. Lower fluorogenicity of BAD5 is in accord with the behavior of parent BAD1, which was shown to react with 1O2 considerably slower than BAD2.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Confocal microscopy images of cells incubated with 1 μM of BAD6 after the irradiation with broad-band visible light (400–700 nm, 23.8 mW cm–2) for (a) 2.5 min and (b) 5 min.

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At higher concentrations of BADs, evidence of morphological changes to the cells upon irradiation, most noticeably “blebbing” of the cell membrane, was observed (Figure S12), indicating apoptotic behavior. Cell viabilities after incubation with a range of concentrations (1–50 μM) of BADs 5 and 6, followed by light treatment (23.8 mW cm–2), were assayed by MTT protocol. The results obtained indicate that both water-soluble BADs induce a significant cytotoxic effect on the cells, whereas negligible cytotoxic effects were observed in the control group under otherwise identical conditions, but without irradiation (Figure S13). Median lethal doses (LD50) of BADs were found to be 4 μM, thus the lower dose of 1 μM was selected for imaging experiments.

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that heavy atom-free donor–acceptor dyads can be used as 1O2 sensitizers, whereby the triplet excited states form by way of photoinduced electron transfer. Moreover, the described dyads are capable of forming strongly fluorescent species with self-sensitized 1O2 in biological media. The fluorescent response allows visualization of 1O2 formation within the cells and, consequently, fine-tuning of the photon doses required to cause oxidative stress. These sensitizers may give rise to a promising new class of materials for photonic applications that depend on triplet excited states generation. Studies to extend the scope such systems are underway.

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The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b00551.

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  • Corresponding Authors
    • Mikhail A. Filatov - School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-1640-841X;  Email: [email protected]
    • Ross W. Boyle - Department of Chemistry, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Kingston-upon-Hull HU6 7RX, United Kingdom;  Email: [email protected]
    • Mathias O. Senge - School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-7467-1654;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Safakath Karuthedath - King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), Material Science and Engineering Program (MSE), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
    • Pavel M. Polestshuk - Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory, 1/3 Moscow 119991, Russia
    • Huguette Savoie - Department of Chemistry, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Kingston-upon-Hull HU6 7RX, United Kingdom
    • Keith J. Flanagan - School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland
    • Cindy Sy - School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland
    • Elisabeth Sitte - School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland
    • Maxime Telitchko - School of Chemistry, SFI Tetrapyrrole Laboratory, Trinity Biomedical Science Institute, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, 152-160 Pearse Street, Dublin 2, Ireland
    • Frédéric Laquai - King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), KAUST Solar Center (KSC), Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), Material Science and Engineering Program (MSE), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-5887-6158
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgment

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This work was supported by grants from the European Commission (M.A.F., CONSORT, Grant No. 655142), Science Foundation Ireland (M.O.S. SFI IvP 13/IA/1894), and by funding from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST). We thank Prof. Sergei Vinogradov for helpful discussions.

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    Boron dipyrromethene (Bodipy) is one of the most extensively investigated org. chromophores. Most of the investigations are focused on the singlet excited state of Bodipy, such as fluorescence. In stark contrast, the study of the triplet excited state of Bodipy is limited, but it is an emerging area, since the triplet state of Bodipy is tremendously important for several areas, such as the fundamental photochem. study, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photocatalysis and triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA) upconversion. The recent developments in the study of the prodn., modulation and application of the triplet excited state of Bodipy are discussed in this review article. The formation of the triplet state of Bodipy upon photoexcitation, via the well known approach such as the heavy atom effect (including I, Br, Ru, Ir, etc.), and the new methods, such as using a spin converter (e.g. C60), charge recombination, exciton coupling and the doubly substituted excited state, are summarized. All the Bodipy-based triplet photosensitizers show strong absorption of visible or near IR light and the long-lived triplet excited state, which are important for the application of the triplet excited state in PDT or photocatalysis. Moreover, the methods for switching (or modulation) of the triplet excited state of Bodipy were discussed, such as those based on the photo-induced electron transfer (PET), by controlling the competing Forster-resonance-energy-transfer (FRET), or the intermol. charge transfer (ICT). Controlling the triplet excited state will give functional mols. such as activatable PDT reagents or mol. devices. It is worth noting that switching of the singlet excited state and the triplet state of Bodipy may follow different principles. Application of the triplet excited state of Bodipy in PDT, hydrogen (H2) prodn., photoredox catalytic org. reactions and TTA upconversion were discussed. The challenges and the opportunities in these areas were briefly discussed.
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    9,10-diarylanthracenes as molecular switches: syntheses, properties, isomerizations and their reactions with singlet oxygen
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    Steric and Electronic Substituent Effects Influencing Regioselectivity of Tetracene Endoperoxidation
    Baral, Rom Nath; Thomas, Samuel W., III
    Journal of Organic Chemistry (2015), 80 (21), 11086-11091CODEN: JOCEAH; ISSN:0022-3263. (American Chemical Society)
    This paper describes the influence of steric and electronic factors in the regioselectivity of endoperoxide formation of tetracene derivs. using 1O2. A combination of kinetics expts. and product distributions resulting from these photosensitized oxidns. demonstrates that, while the steric effect of o-alkyl groups on aryl substituents is highly localized to the substituted ring, the resistance to oxidn. based on phenylethynyl substituents is more evenly distributed between the two reactive rings. These results are important for the rational design of highly persistent acenes.
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  39. Yu Dong, Andrey A. Sukhanov, Jianzhang Zhao, Ayhan Elmali, Xiaolian Li, Bernhard Dick, Ahmet Karatay, Violeta K. Voronkova. Spin–Orbit Charge-Transfer Intersystem Crossing (SOCT-ISC) in Bodipy-Phenoxazine Dyads: Effect of Chromophore Orientation and Conformation Restriction on the Photophysical Properties. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2019, 123 (37) , 22793-22811. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b06170
  40. Yingjie Zhao, Andrey A. Sukhanov, Ruomeng Duan, Ayhan Elmali, Yuqi Hou, Jianzhang Zhao, Gagik G. Gurzadyan, Ahmet Karatay, Violeta K. Voronkova, Chen Li. Study of the Spin–Orbit Charge Transfer Intersystem Crossing of Perylenemonoimide–Phenothiazine Compact Electron Donor/Acceptor Dyads with Steady-State and Time-Resolved Optical and Magnetic Spectroscopies. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2019, 123 (30) , 18270-18282. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b04896
  41. Yuri E. Kandrashkin, Zhijia Wang, Andrei A. Sukhanov, Yuqi Hou, Xue Zhang, Ya Liu, Violeta K. Voronkova, Jianzhang Zhao. Balance between Triplet States in Photoexcited Orthogonal BODIPY Dimers. The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2019, 10 (15) , 4157-4163. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b01741
  42. Abbey M. Philip, Mahesh Gudem, Ebin Sebastian, Mahesh Hariharan. Decoding the Curious Tale of Atypical Intersystem Crossing Dynamics in Regioisomeric Acetylanthracenes. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A 2019, 123 (29) , 6105-6112. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpca.9b00766
  43. Wenbin Hu, Mingyu Liu, Xian-Fu Zhang, Yaling Wang, Yun Wang, Haikuo Lan, Huaqing Zhao. Can BODIPY-Electron Acceptor Conjugates Act As Heavy Atom-Free Excited Triplet State and Singlet Oxygen Photosensitizers via Photoinduced Charge Separation-Charge Recombination Mechanism?. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2019, 123 (26) , 15944-15955. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b02961
  44. Jun Wang, Yongxin Li, Qingbao Gong, Hua Wang, Erhong Hao, Pui-Chi Lo, Lijuan Jiao. β-AlkenylBODIPY Dyes: Regioselective Synthesis via Oxidative C–H Olefination, Photophysical Properties, and Bioimaging Studies. The Journal of Organic Chemistry 2019, 84 (9) , 5078-5090. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.joc.9b00020
  45. Kepeng Chen, Jianzhang Zhao, Xiaoxin Li, Gagik G. Gurzadyan. Anthracene–Naphthalenediimide Compact Electron Donor/Acceptor Dyads: Electronic Coupling, Electron Transfer, and Intersystem Crossing. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A 2019, 123 (13) , 2503-2516. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpca.8b11828
  46. Muhammad Imran, Andrey A. Sukhanov, Zhijia Wang, Ahmet Karatay, Jianzhang Zhao, Zafar Mahmood, Ayhan Elmali, Violeta K. Voronkova, Mustafa Hayvali, Yong Heng Xing, Stefan Weber. Electronic Coupling and Spin–Orbit Charge-Transfer Intersystem Crossing in Phenothiazine–Perylene Compact Electron Donor/Acceptor Dyads. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2019, 123 (12) , 7010-7024. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b12040
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  83. Benjamin F. Hohlfeld, Dorika Steen, Gerhard D. Wieland, Katharina Achazi, Nora Kulak, Rainer Haag, Arno Wiehe. Bromo- and glycosyl-substituted BODIPYs for application in photodynamic therapy and imaging. Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry 2023, 21 (15) , 3105-3120. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2OB02174A
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    Scheme 1

    Scheme 1. Photoinduced Transformations of BADs
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    Figure 1

    Figure 1. (a) ps–ns Transient absorption spectra of BAD1 in dimethylformamide upon excitation at 355 nm with 35 fs pulses at delay times of 600 fs (black line), 1 ps (red line), 100 ps (green line), and 5 ns (blue line). The inset shows the blue shift of the TA spectra to 570 nm. (b) Kinetics monitored at 380 nm (black line), 400 nm (red line), 425 nm (green line), 505 nm (violet line), 570 nm (cyan line), and 680 nm (magenta line) as indicated by vertical colored bars. (c) ns−μs Transient absorption spectra of degassed BAD1 solutions following excitation at 355 nm by 700 ps laser pulses. The spectra were integrated from 3 to 5 ns (black line), 10–100 ns (red line), 0.1–1 μs (green line), 1–5 μs (blue line), and 10–100 μs (cyan line). (d) Kinetics observed for the bands at 570 and 680 nm, assigned to the BODIPY triplet state and anthracene radical-cation, respectively, in the absence and presence of oxygen (solid and dotted lines, respectively).

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    Figure 2

    Figure 2. (a) Frontier molecular orbitals and their energies (in a.u.) for BADs 1 and 2. (b) Diagram demonstrating transitions between excited states in BAD1.

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    Figure 3

    Figure 3. (a) Absorption and emission spectra of BAD1. (b) Changes of the emission intensity upon irradiation of BADs and reference compound solutions in CH2Cl2 (5 × 10–5 M) with broad-band visible light. (c) Change of BAD2 emission upon irradiation with 532 nm laser (10 mW cm–2). (d) Photo of BAD2 solution before and after 5 min of irradiation, taken under excitation with 365 nm light.

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    Scheme 2

    Scheme 2. Tentative Mechanism of the Formation of Fluorescent Products
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    Scheme 3

    Scheme 3. Synthesis of Water-Soluble BADs Derivatives
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    Figure 4

    Figure 4. Confocal microscopy images of cells incubated with 1 μM of BAD6 after the irradiation with broad-band visible light (400–700 nm, 23.8 mW cm–2) for (a) 2.5 min and (b) 5 min.

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  • References

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    This article references 16 other publications.

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