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Mass Loading and Removal of Select Illicit Drugs in Two Wastewater Treatment Plants in New York State and Estimation of Illicit Drug Usage in Communities through Wastewater Analysis

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† Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany, Empire State Plaza, P.O. Box 509, Albany New York 12201-0509, United States
‡ Experimental Biochemistry Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80216, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
*Tel.: 1-518-474-0015. Fax: 1-518-473-2895. E-mail: [email protected]
Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 12, 6661–6670
Publication Date (Web):May 27, 2014
https://doi.org/10.1021/es501709a
Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society
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Abstract

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Sewage epidemiology is a rapidly expanding field that can provide information on illicit drug usage in communities, based on the measured concentrations in samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, select illicit drugs (six drugs and eight metabolites) were determined on a daily basis for a week in wastewater, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sludge from two WWTPs in the Albany area in New York State. The WWTP that served a larger population (∼100 000, with a flow rate of 83 300 m3/d) showed 3.2 (methadone) to 51 (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine; MDA) times higher mass flows of illicit drugs than did the WWTP that served a smaller population (∼15 000, with a flow rate of 6850 m3/d). The consumption rate of target illicit drugs in the communities served by the two WWTPs was estimated to range from 1.67 to 3510 mg/d/1000 people. Between the dissolved and particulate phases, the fraction of methadone, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), amphetamine, and MDA sorbed to SPM ranged from 34.3% to 41.1% of the total mass in the waste stream. The removal efficiencies of illicit drugs from the two WWTPs ranged from 4% (norcocaine) to 99% (cocaine); however, methamphetamine, methadone, and EDDP showed a negative removal in WWTPs. The environmental emission of illicit drugs from WWTP discharges was calculated to range from 0.38 (MDEA) to 67.5 (EDDP) mg/d/1000 people. Other markers such as caffeine, paraxanthine, nicotine, and cotinine were found to predict the concentrations of select illicit drugs in raw wastewater (r2 = 0.20–0.79; p ≤ 0.029).

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Additional information on physiochemical properties of illicit drugs, characteristics of WWTPs studied, HPLC mobile phase compositions for the analysis of illicit drugs and human excretion markers, ESI-MS/MS parameters for analytes and internal standards, spike recoveries and relative standard deviations (n = 3) of illicit drugs through MCX and HLB cartridges, frequency and doses of use of illicit drug metabolites, metabolization of select illicit drugs in humans, and daily trends of illicit drugs and excretion markers in WWTPA and WWTPB. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

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