Sequestering Soil Organic Carbon: A Nitrogen Dilemma
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Sequestering Soil Organic Carbon: A Nitrogen Dilemma
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† Department of Soil Quality, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
‡ Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
§ Center for Ecosystem Science and Society (Ecoss), Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, United States
∥ Wageningen Environmental Research, Wageningen University and Research Centre, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
⊥ Department of Sustainable Agricultural Sciences, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, U.K.
# Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4 RJ, U.K.
*E-mail: [email protected]
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Environmental Science & Technology

Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 9, 4738–4739
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https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b01427
Published April 20, 2017

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To slow down rising levels of atmospheric CO2, the “4 per 1000” (4p1000) initiative was launched at the COP21 conference in Paris (http://4p1000.org). This initiative aims at a yearly 4‰ (0.4%) increase in global agricultural soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. If applied to all (also nonagricultural) soils, such a C sequestration rate could in theory fully compensate increases in atmospheric CO2–C levels of 4300 Tg yr–1. We question the feasibility of the 4p1000 goal, using basic stoichiometric arguments. Soil organic matter (SOM) contains nitrogen (N) as well as C, and it is unclear what will be the origin of this N.

Implementing the 4p1000 initiative on all agricultural soils would require a SOC sequestration rate of 1200 Tg C yr–1 (http://4p1000.org). Assuming an average C-to-N ratio of 12 in SOM, (1) this would require 100 Tg N yr–1. This equals an increase of ∼75% of current global N-fertilizer production, or extra symbiotic N2 fixation rates equaling twice the current amount in all agricultural systems. (2) In theory, the current N surplus in global agroecosystems would be sufficient to provide the required 100 Tg N yr –1. (3) Moreover, such a “mopping up” of this surplus N by using it to sequester C in the soil would be environmentally beneficial as it would reduce N-related pollution impacts. However, these surpluses are not evenly distributed but highly concentrated in specific regions, notably China. (3) There are also substantial differences between land uses: surpluses are large in soils under intensive agricultural and horticultural management but small in low intensity grazed rangelands and small-holder arable cropping (for instance, in Africa). Even if the N surpluses were more evenly distributed, they would first have to be accumulated by crops in order to supply organic C to the soil. The rate of N accumulated in global cropland residue is estimated to be ∼30 Tg N yr–1, (4) far less than the 100 Tg N yr –1 required. Furthermore, as a consequence of environmental regulations, intensive efforts to decrease N surpluses are anticipated over the coming decades. (3) Thus, the increase in plant N uptake that is needed to meet the 4p1000 goals is unrealistic.

As plant material has higher C-to-N ratios than SOM, a steady increase in the C-to-N ratio of SOM could facilitate soil C sequestration without extra N. However, it is difficult to see how the required increase in the C-to-N ratio of SOM (0.05 per year) could be achieved and sustained; with the exception of peat, soils globally tend to move toward a C-to-N ratio of 12 (1) and we do not know of a mechanism to increase this without also reducing the capacity of soil to supply N.

As increasing soil C content is almost always desirable for improving soil quality and functioning, the 4p1000 initiative is laudable. Since the 4p1000 initiative was introduced, several studies assessed approaches to meet its goals (e.g., ref 5). However, these assessments overlooked limitations imposed by nutrient availability. We conclude that the stated 4p1000 goal of sequestering 1200 Tg C yr–1 in agricultural soils is unlikely to be met, due to stoichiometric constraints.

We argue for a more spatially diversified strategy for climate change mitigation from agricultural soils. In agricultural soils with low C sequestration potential, mitigation efforts should focus on reducing non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions and on improving N retention. Efforts to sequester C in agricultural lands should concentrate on soils currently having a low C stock and where nutrients are available. These are likely to be soils that have become degraded due to long periods of intensive arable cropping or overgrazed grasslands in cool, temperate or Mediterranean climatic regions especially in Asia, Europe, and North America. We appeal to the environmental science community to redefine the 4p1000 goals within a spatially explicit action plan that takes into account the role of nutrients in sequestering soil C.

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  • Corresponding Author
    • Jan Willem van Groenigen - Department of Soil Quality, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Chris van Kessel - Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
    • Bruce A. Hungate - Center for Ecosystem Science and Society (Ecoss), Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011, United States
    • Oene Oenema - Department of Soil Quality, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands;  Wageningen Environmental Research, Wageningen University and Research Centre, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands
    • David S. Powlson - Department of Sustainable Agricultural Sciences, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, U.K.
    • Kees Jan van Groenigen - Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States;  Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4 RJ, U.K.;  Orcidhttp://orcid.org/0000-0002-9165-3925
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 9, 4738–4739
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      The soil is important in sequestering atm. CO2 and in emitting trace gases (e.g. CO2, CH4 and N2O) that are radiatively active and enhance the 'greenhouse' effect. Land use changes and predicted global warming, through their effects on net primary productivity, the plant community and soil conditions, may have important effects on the size of the org. matter pool in the soil and directly affect the atm. concn. of these trace gases. A discrepancy of approx. 350 × 1015 g (or Pg) of C in two recent ests. of soil carbon reserves worldwide is evaluated using the geo-referenced database developed for the World Inventory of Soil Emission Potentials (WISE) project. This database holds 4353 soil profiles distributed globally which are considered to represent the soil units shown on a 1/2° latitude by 1/2° longitude version of the cor. and digitized 1 : 5 M FAO-UNESCO Soil Map of the World. Total soil carbon pools for the entire land area of the world, excluding carbon held in the litter layer and charcoal, amts. to 2157-2293 Pg of C in the upper 100 cm. Soil org. carbon is estd. to be 684-724 Pg of C in the upper 30 cm, 1462-1548 Pg of C in the upper 100 cm, and 2376-2456 Pg of C in the upper 200 cm. Although deforestation, changes in land use and predicted climate change can alter the amt. of org. carbon held in the superficial soil layers rapidly, this is less so for the soil carbonate carbon. An estd. 695-748 Pg of carbonate-C is held in the upper 100 cm of the world's soils. Mean C : N ratios of soil org. matter range from 9.9 for arid Yermosols to 25.8 for Histosols. Global amts. of soil nitrogen are estd. to be 133-140 Pg of N for the upper 100 cm. Possible changes in soil org. carbon and nitrogen dynamics caused by increased concns. of atm. CO2 and the predicted assocd. rise in temp. are discussed.
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      A review is given on the transformation of the global nitrogen cycle, which reflects an increased combustion of fossil fuels, growing demand for nitrogen in agriculture and industry, and pervasive inefficiencies in its use. Much anthropogenic nitrogen is lost to air, water, and land to cause a cascade of environmental and human health problems. Simultaneously, food prodn. in some parts of the world is nitrogen-deficient, highlighting inequities in the distribution of nitrogen-contg. fertilizers. Optimizing the need for a key human resource while minimizing its neg. consequences requires an integrated interdisciplinary approach and the development of strategies to decrease nitrogen-contg. waste.
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      Nature (London, United Kingdom) (2015), 528 (7580), 51-59CODEN: NATUAS; ISSN:0028-0836. (Nature Publishing Group)
      Improvements in nitrogen use efficiency in crop prodn. are crit. for addressing the triple challenges of food security, environmental degrdn. and climate change. Such improvements are conditional not only on technol. innovation, but also on socio-economic factors that are at present poorly understood. Here we examine historical patterns of agricultural nitrogen-use efficiency and find a broad range of national approaches to agricultural development and related pollution. We analyze examples of nitrogen use and propose targets, by geog. region and crop type, to meet the 2050 global food demand projected by the Food and Agriculture Organization while also meeting the Sustainable Development Goals pertaining to agriculture recently adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. Furthermore, we discuss socio-economic policies and technol. innovations that may help achieve them.
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      Liu, J.; You, L.; Amini, M.; Obersteiner, M.; Herrero, M.; Zehnder, A. J.; Yang, H. A high-resolution assessment on global nitrogen flows in cropland Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2010, 107, 8035– 8040 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0913658107
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      A high-resolution assessment on global nitrogen flows in cropland
      Liu, Junguo; You, Liangzhi; Amini, Manouchehr; Obersteiner, Michael; Herrero, Mario; Zehnder, Alexander J. B.; Yang, Hong
      Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (2010), 107 (17), 8035-8040, S8035/1-S8035/19CODEN: PNASA6; ISSN:0027-8424. (National Academy of Sciences)
      Crop prodn. is the single largest cause of human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle. We present a comprehensive assessment of global nitrogen flows in cropland for the year 2000 with a spatial resoln. of 5 arc-minutes. We calcd. a total nitrogen input (IN) of 136.60 trillion grams (Tg) of N per yr, of which almost half is contributed by mineral nitrogen fertilizers, and a total nitrogen output (OUT) of 148.14Tg of N peryear, of which 55% is uptake by harvested crops and crop residues. We present high-resoln. maps quantifying the spatial distribution of nitrogen IN and OUT flows, soil nitrogen balance, and surface nitrogen balance. The high-resoln. data are aggregated at the national level on a per capita basis to assess nitrogen stress levels. The results show that almost 80% of African countries are confronted with nitrogen scarcity or nitrogen stress problems, which, along with poverty, cause food insecurity and malnutrition. The assessment also shows a global av. nitrogen recovery rate of 59%, indicating that nearly two-fifths of nitrogen inputs are lost in ecosystems. More effective management of nitrogen is essential to reduce the deleterious environmental consequences.
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