Mortality Attributable to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure in a Changing Canadian Population, 2001 to 2021Click to copy article linkArticle link copied!
- Elysia G. Fuller-ThomsonElysia G. Fuller-ThomsonWater and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Products Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, CanadaMore by Elysia G. Fuller-Thomson
- Amanda J. Pappin*Amanda J. Pappin*[email protected]Water and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Products Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, CanadaMore by Amanda J. Pappin
- Mathieu RouleauMathieu RouleauWater and Air Quality Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Products Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, CanadaMore by Mathieu Rouleau
- Guoliang XiGuoliang XiEnvironmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Products Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, CanadaMore by Guoliang Xi
- Aaron van DonkelaarAaron van DonkelaarMcKelvey School of Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899, United StatesMore by Aaron van Donkelaar
- Randall V. MartinRandall V. MartinMcKelvey School of Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899, United StatesMore by Randall V. Martin
- Richard T. BurnettRichard T. BurnettEnvironmental Health Science and Research Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Products Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K9, CanadaMore by Richard T. Burnett
Abstract
We aim to understand how changes in ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) over the last two decades have influenced PM2.5-attributable mortality in a Canadian population experiencing both growth and changing baseline health status. We conducted a health impact analysis using dynamic estimates of population, baseline mortality rates, and satellite-based PM2.5 concentrations to estimate mortality attributable to long-term PM2.5 exposure every five years between 2001 and 2021, applying risk estimates from the 2006 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort (CanCHEC) to the population aged 25 and older. We conducted a decomposition analysis to examine the influences of population exposure, size, and health status on trends in PM2.5-attributable mortality. Between 2001 and 2021, population-weighted exposure to PM2.5 declined by 18% in Canada, with improvements occurring in most urban areas. In recent years, these changes have led to 4,400 (95% CI: 3,700–5,000) to 4,700 (95% CI: 4,100–5,400) fewer PM2.5-attributable deaths annually based on log–linear and log–log shapes of concentration–response. However, a growing population alongside higher baseline mortality risks in several regions, likely due to aging, has led to a small net increase in total PM2.5-attributable deaths between 2001 and 2021. These findings suggest that the Canadian population has benefitted broadly from air quality management strategies implemented in North America over recent decades.
This publication is licensed under
License Summary*
You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:
Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license.
Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator.
*Disclaimer
This summary highlights only some of the key features and terms of the actual license. It is not a license and has no legal value. Carefully review the actual license before using these materials.
License Summary*
You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:
Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license.
Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator.
*Disclaimer
This summary highlights only some of the key features and terms of the actual license. It is not a license and has no legal value. Carefully review the actual license before using these materials.
License Summary*
You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:
Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license.
Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator.
*Disclaimer
This summary highlights only some of the key features and terms of the actual license. It is not a license and has no legal value. Carefully review the actual license before using these materials.
Synopsis
Limited research exists on the health benefits of air quality improvements achieved in recent years in Canada. This study finds that improvements in fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposure have led to thousands of fewer PM2.5-attributable deaths annually in recent years.
1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Ambient PM2.5 Concentrations
2.1.1. Population Exposure to PM2.5
2.2. Health Impact Analysis
2.3. Population and Baseline Mortality Rates
2.4. Concentration–Response Functions
2.5. Isolating Health Impacts Solely Due to Changing PM2.5
2.6. Decomposition Analysis of Individual Factors Influencing PM2.5 Mortality Burden
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. PM2.5 Concentrations Across Canada
Three-year average PM2.5concentration(μg/m3)a | Populationb | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Min | 25% | Mean | 75% | Max | All ages | Ages ≥65 years | Baseline mortality rate for ages 25+(per million)b,c |
2001 | 0.4 | 6.8 | 8.3 | 10.0 | 15.8 | 31,010,000 | 3,903,000 | 9,600 |
2006 | 0.8 | 6.6 | 8.3 | 10.4 | 14.8 | 32,566,000 | 4,299,000 | 9,300 |
2011 | 0.7 | 5.7 | 7.0 | 7.9 | 11.1 | 34,343,000 | 4,950,000 | 9,300 |
2016 | 0.6 | 5.6 | 6.6 | 7.6 | 20.6 | 36,229,000 | 5,975,000 | 9,600 |
2021 | 0.8 | 5.9 | 6.8 | 7.7 | 19.8 | 37,999,000d | 7,097,000d | 10,000e |
Statistics based on population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations.
Estimates have been rounded only for reporting purposes.
Baseline mortality rates refer to nonaccidental mortality rates.
The baseline mortality rates used for health impact estimation in AQBAT were projected from 2018.
The 2021 population data was projected based on the 2016 census.
3.2. Regional Variations in PM2.5 Concentrations
3.3. PM2.5 Mortality Burden
Concentration–Response Function | Year | Population Attributable Fraction (PAF)a(%) | PM2.5-Attributable Deaths(yr–1)a | Reductions in PM2.5-Attributable Deaths Due Solely to Changing Concentrations Since2001a |
---|---|---|---|---|
Log–log | 2001 | 9.0 (95% CI: 7.9–10.1) | 18,200 (95% CI: 16,000–20,400) | - |
2006 | 8.9 (95% CI: 7.8–9.9) | 18,600 (95% CI: 16,300–20,800) | 290 (95% CI: 250–330) | |
2011 | 7.6 (95% CI: 6.6–8.5) | 17,000 (95% CI: 14,900–19,000) | 3,500 (95% CI: 3,000–4,000) | |
2016 | 7.2 (95% CI: 6.3–8.1) | 17,900 (95% CI: 15,600–20,100) | 5,000 (95% CI: 4,300–5,600) | |
2021 | 7.4 (95% CI: 6.5–8.3) | 20,300 (95% CI: 17,800–22,800) | 4,700 (95% CI: 4,100–5,400) | |
Log–linear | 2001 | 5.9 (95% CI: 5.0–6.8) | 11,900 (95% CI: 10,100–13,700) | - |
2006 | 5.8 (95% CI: 4.9–6.7) | 12,200 (95% CI: 10,300–13,900) | 190 (95% CI: 160–220) | |
2011 | 4.5 (95% CI: 3.8–5.2) | 10,100 (95% CI: 8,600–11,600) | 3,300 (95% CI: 2,800–3,800) | |
2016 | 4.2 (95% CI: 3.5–4.8) | 10,400 (95% CI: 8,800–11,900) | 4,600 (95% CI: 3,900–5,300) | |
2021 | 4.4 (95% CI: 3.7–5) | 12,000 (95% CI: 10,200–13,800) | 4,400 (95% CI: 3,700–5,000) |
Estimates have been rounded only for reporting purposes.
3.3.1. Selection of the Concentration–Response Function
3.3.2. Regional Variation in the Population Attributable Fraction
3.3.3. Decomposition Analysis
3.4. Strengths and Limitations
Data Availability
The data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsestair.4c00130.
Additional information on exposure estimates, other model input data, and health impact results, including: descriptive statistics of satellite-based ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Canada, temporal data inputs to the health impact analysis, PM2.5-attributable mortality in Canada from 2001 to 2021 using a counterfactual of zero, log–linear and log–log CRFs from a Canadian cohort for long-term PM2.5 exposure and nonaccidental mortality, log–linear CRF analysis equivalents to Figures 4 and 5, regional city-specific estimates for PM2.5 health impacts, as well as regional baseline mortality and population changes in Canada (PDF)
Terms & Conditions
Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Health Canada and did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. We wish to thank Dave Stieb for his insight and guidance. We obtained ambient PM2.5 concentrations from Washington University under Health Canada’s contract no. 4500432243.
References
This article references 58 other publications.
- 1WHO. Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure and Burden of Disease; World Health Organization, 2016. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241511353 (accessed 2023–10–04).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 2GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global Burden of 87 Risk Factors in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990–2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 2020, 396 (10258), 1223– 1249, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 3EPA. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Particulate Matter (Final Report, Dec 2019); US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2019. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/isa/recordisplay.cfm?deid=347534 (accessed 2024–02–13).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 4Health Canada. Canadian Health Science Assessment for Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5); Air Quality Assessment Section, Safe Environments Directorate: Ottawa, ON, 2022. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2022/sc-hc/H144-100-2022-eng.pdf (accessed 2024–02–13).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 5Brauer, M.; Brook, J. R.; Christidis, T.; Chu, Y.; Crouse, D.; Erickson, A.; Hystad, P.; Li, C.; Martin, R. V.; Meng, J.; Pappin, A.; Pinault, L.; Tjepkema, M.; von Donkelaar, A.; Weagle, C. L.; Weichenthal, S.; Burnett, R. T. Mortality–Air Pollution Associations in Low-Exposure Environments (MAPLE): Phase 2; 212; Health Effects Institute: Boston, MA, 2022. https://www.healtheffects.org/publication/mortality-air-pollution-associations-low-exposure-environments-maple-phase-2 (accessed 2023–10–04).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 6Cohen, A. J.; Brauer, M.; Burnett, R.; Anderson, H. R.; Frostad, J.; Estep, K.; Balakrishnan, K.; Brunekreef, B.; Dandona, L.; Dandona, R.; Feigin, V.; Freedman, G.; Hubbell, B.; Jobling, A.; Kan, H.; Knibbs, L.; Liu, Y.; Martin, R.; Morawska, L.; Pope, C. A.; Shin, H.; Straif, K.; Shaddick, G.; Thomas, M.; van Dingenen, R.; van Donkelaar, A.; Vos, T.; Murray, C. J. L.; Forouzanfar, M. H. Estimates and 25-Year Trends of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Air Pollution: An Analysis of Data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet 2017, 389 (10082), 1907– 1918, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 7Chen, H.; Quick, M.; Kaufman, J. S.; Chen, C.; Kwong, J. C.; van Donkelaar, A.; Meng, J.; Martin, R. V.; Kim, J.; Lavigne, E.; Bai, L.; Li, Y.; Tjepkema, M.; Benmarhnia, T.; Burnett, R. T. Impact of Lowering Fine Particulate Matter from Major Emission Sources on Mortality in Canada: A Nationwide Causal Analysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2022, 119 (49), e2209490119, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2209490119Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 8Health Canada. Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Canada in 2018:2024 Report; Ottawa, ON, 2024. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/documents/services/publications/healthy-living/health-impacts-air-pollution-2018/health-impacts-air-pollution-2018.pdf (accessed 2024–03–19).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 9IJC. Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Canada on Air Quality ; International Joint Commission, 1991. https://ijc.org/en/mission/air-quality-agreement (accessed 2022–01–25).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 10Gov. of Canada and Gov. of USA. Amending the “Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Air Quality ; Government of Canada and Government of the United States of America, 2000. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/air-pollution/publications/canada-united-states-quality-agreement-ozone-annex.html (accessed 2022–02–07).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 11Government of Canada. Canadian Environmental Protection Act ; 2023. https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-15.31/ (accessed 2024–02–06).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 12Fann, N.; Kim, S.-Y.; Olives, C.; Sheppard, L. Estimated Changes in Life Expectancy and Adult Mortality Resulting from Declining PM2.5 Exposures in the Contiguous United States: 1980–2010. Environ. Health Perspect. 2017, 125 (9), 097003, DOI: 10.1289/EHP507Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 13Stieb, D. M.; Judek, S.; van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Brand, K.; Shin, H. H.; Burnett, R. T.; Smith-Doiron, M. H. Estimated Public Health Impacts of Changes in Concentrations of Fine Particle Air Pollution in Canada, 2000 to 2011. Can. J. Public Health 2015, 106 (6), e362– e368, DOI: 10.17269/CJPH.106.4983Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 14Wang, H.; Zhang, L.; Yao, X.; Cheng, I.; Dabek-Zlotorzynska, E. Identification of Decadal Trends and Associated Causes for Organic and Elemental Carbon in PM2.5 at Canadian Urban Sites. Environ. Int. 2022, 159, 107031, DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.107031Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 15Fann, N.; Risley, D. The Public Health Context for PM2.5 and Ozone Air Quality Trends. Air Qual Atmos Health 2013, 6, 1– 11, DOI: 10.1007/s11869-010-0125-0Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 16Zhang, Y.; West, J. J.; Mathur, R.; Xing, J.; Hogrefe, C.; Roselle, S. J.; Bash, J. O.; Pleim, J. E.; Gan, C.-M.; Wong, D. C. Long-Term Trends in the Ambient PM2.5- and O3-Related Mortality Burdens in the United States under Emission Reductions from 1990 to 2010. Atmos Chem. Phys. 2018, 18 (20), 15003– 15016, DOI: 10.5194/acp-18-15003-2018Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 17Yue, H.; He, C.; Huang, Q.; Yin, D.; Bryan, B. A. Stronger Policy Required to Substantially Reduce Deaths from PM2.5 Pollution in China. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11 (1462), 1– 10, DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15319-4Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 18Du, J.; Yang, J.; Wang, L.; Wu, X.; Cao, W.; Sun, S. A Comparative Study of the Disease Burden Attributable to PM2.5 in China, Japan and South Korea from 1990 to 2017. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2021, 209, 111856, DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111856Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 19Juginović, A.; Vuković, M.; Aranza, I.; Biloš, V. Health Impacts of Air Pollution Exposure from 1990 to 2019 in 43 European Countries. Sci. Rep 2021, 11 (22516), 1– 15, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01802-5Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 20Conti, S.; Fornari, C.; Ferrara, P.; Antonazzo, I. C.; Madotto, F.; Traini, E.; Levi, M.; Cernigliaro, A.; Armocida, B.; Bragazzi, N. L.; Cadum, E.; Carugno, M.; Crotti, G.; Deandrea, S.; Cortesi, P. A.; Guido, D.; Iavicoli, I.; Iavicoli, S.; La Vecchia, C.; Lauriola, P.; Michelozzi, P.; Scondotto, S.; Stafoggia, M.; Violante, F. S.; Abbafati, C.; Albano, L.; Barone-Adesi, F.; Biondi, A.; Bosetti, C.; Buonsenso, D.; Carreras, G.; Castelpietra, G.; Catapano, A.; Cattaruzza, M. S.; Corso, B.; Damiani, G.; Esposito, F.; Gallus, S.; Golinelli, D.; Hay, S. I.; Isola, G.; Ledda, C.; Mondello, S.; Pedersini, P.; Pensato, U.; Perico, N.; Remuzzi, G.; Sanmarchi, F.; Santoro, R.; Simonetti, B.; Unim, B.; Vacante, M.; Veroux, M.; Villafañe, J. H.; Monasta, L.; Mantovani, L. G. Time-Trends in Air Pollution Impact on Health in Italy 1990–2019: An Analysis From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Int. J. Public Health 2023, 68, 1605959, DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2023.1605959Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 21Li, Y.; Li, B.; Liao, H.; Zhou, B.-B.; Wei, J.; Wang, Y.; Zang, Y.; Yang, Y.; Liu, R.; Wang, X. Changes in PM2.5-Related Health Burden in China’s Poverty and Non-Poverty Areas during 2000–2020: A Health Inequality Perspective. Science of The Total Environment 2023, 861, 160517, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160517Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 22Li, C.; van Donkelaar, A.; Hammer, M. S.; McDuffie, E. E.; Burnett, R. T.; Spadaro, J. V.; Chatterjee, D.; Cohen, A. J.; Apte, J. S.; Southerland, V. A.; Anenberg, S. C.; Brauer, M.; Martin, R. V. Reversal of Trends in Global Fine Particulate Matter Air Pollution. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14 (5349), 1– 12, DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41086-zGoogle ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 23Cheng, X.; Yang, Y.; Schwebel, D. C.; Liu, Z.; Li, L.; Cheng, P.; Ning, P.; Hu, G. Population Ageing and Mortality during 1990–2017: A Global Decomposition Analysis. PLOS Medicine 2020, 17 (6), e1003138, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003138Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 24Ho, J. Y.; Hendi, A. S. Recent Trends in Life Expectancy across High Income Countries: Retrospective Observational Study. BMJ. 2018, 362, k2562, DOI: 10.1136/bmj.k2562Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 25Statistics Canada. Table 13–10–0800–01 Deaths and mortality rate (age standardization using 2011 population), by selected grouped causes. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1310080001 (accessed 2024–02–29).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 26van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Spurr, R. J. D.; Burnett, R. T. High-Resolution Satellite-Derived PM2.5 from Optimal Estimation and Geographically Weighted Regression over North America. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (17), 10482– 10491, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b02076Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 27van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Li, C.; Burnett, R. T. Regional Estimates of Chemical Composition of Fine Particulate Matter Using a Combined Geoscience-Statistical Method with Information from Satellites, Models, and Monitors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (5), 2595– 2611, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06392Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28van Donkelaar, A.; Hammer, M. S.; Bindle, L.; Brauer, M.; Brook, J. R.; Garay, M. J.; Hsu, N. C.; Kalashnikova, O. V.; Kahn, R. A.; Lee, C.; Levy, R. C.; Lyapustin, A.; Sayer, A. M.; Martin, R. V. Monthly Global Estimates of Fine Particulate Matter and Their Uncertainty. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (22), 15287– 15300, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05309Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 29V5.NA.04.02 Hybrid PM2.5 North America Data. Washington University at St Louis. https://wustl.app.box.com/s/7hgsuy1tsnv1j63qwtady84i9cltww3h (accessed 2024–03–25).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 30Bindle, L.; Martin, R. V.; Cooper, M. J.; Lundgren, E. W.; Eastham, S. D.; Auer, B. M.; Clune, T. L.; Weng, H.; Lin, J.; Murray, L. T.; Meng, J.; Keller, C. A.; Putman, W. M.; Pawson, S.; Jacob, D. J. Grid-Stretching Capability for the GEOS-Chem 13.0.0 Atmospheric Chemistry Model. Geoscientific Model Development 2021, 14 (10), 5977– 5997, DOI: 10.5194/gmd-14-5977-2021Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 31Eastham, S. D.; Long, M. S.; Keller, C. A.; Lundgren, E.; Yantosca, R. M.; Zhuang, J.; Li, C.; Lee, C. J.; Yannetti, M.; Auer, B. M.; Clune, T. L.; Kouatchou, J.; Putman, W. M.; Thompson, M. A.; Trayanov, A. L.; Molod, A. M.; Martin, R. V.; Jacob, D. J. GEOS-Chem High Performance (GCHP V11–02c): A next-Generation Implementation of the GEOS-Chem Chemical Transport Model for Massively Parallel Applications. Geoscientific Model Development 2018, 11 (7), 2941– 2953, DOI: 10.5194/gmd-11-2941-2018Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 32Statistics Canada. Dictionary, Census of Population, 2021 ; 2023. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/ref/dict/98-301-x2021001-eng.pdf (accessed 2024–01–23).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 33Pinault, L. L.; Weichenthal, S.; Crouse, D. L.; Brauer, M.; Erickson, A.; van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Hystad, P.; Chen, H.; Finès, P.; Brook, J. R.; Tjepkema, M.; Burnett, R. T. Associations between Fine Particulate Matter and Mortality in the 2001 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. Environmental Research 2017, 159, 406– 415, DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.037Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 34Pappin, A. J.; Christidis, T.; Pinault, L. L.; Crouse, D. L.; Brook, J. R.; Erickson, A.; Hystad, P.; Li, C.; Martin, R. V.; Meng, J.; Weichenthal, S.; van Donkelaar, A.; Tjepkema, M.; Brauer, M.; Burnett, R. T. Examining the Shape of the Association between Low Levels of Fine Particulate Matter and Mortality across Three Cycles of the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. Environ. Health Perspect. 2019, 127 (10), 107008, DOI: 10.1289/EHP5204Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 35Judek, S.; Stieb, D.; Jovic, B.; Edwards, B. Air Quality Benefits Assessment Tool (AQBAT) – User Guide – Version 3; Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada: Ottawa, ON, 2019.Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 36Fann, N.; Coffman, E.; Timin, B.; Kelly, J. T. The Estimated Change in the Level and Distribution of PM2.5-Attributable Health Impacts in the United States: 2005–2014. Environmental Research 2018, 167, 506– 514, DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.08.018Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 37Chan, E. A. W.; Fann, N.; Kelly, J. T. PM2.5-Attributable Mortality Burden Variability in the Continental U.S. Atmos. Environ. 2023, 315, 120131, DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.120131Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 38Burnett, R.; Chen, H.; Szyszkowicz, M.; Fann, N.; Hubbell, B.; Pope, C. A.; Apte, J. S.; Brauer, M.; Cohen, A.; Weichenthal, S.; Coggins, J.; Di, Q.; Brunekreef, B.; Frostad, J.; Lim, S. S.; Kan, H.; Walker, K. D.; Thurston, G. D.; Hayes, R. B.; Lim, C. C.; Turner, M. C.; Jerrett, M.; Krewski, D.; Gapstur, S. M.; Diver, W. R.; Ostro, B.; Goldberg, D.; Crouse, D. L.; Martin, R. V.; Peters, P.; Pinault, L.; Tjepkema, M.; van Donkelaar, A.; Villeneuve, P. J.; Miller, A. B.; Yin, P.; Zhou, M.; Wang, L.; Janssen, N. A. H.; Marra, M.; Atkinson, R. W.; Tsang, H.; Quoc Thach, T.; Cannon, J. B.; Allen, R. T.; Hart, J. E.; Laden, F.; Cesaroni, G.; Forastiere, F.; Weinmayr, G.; Jaensch, A.; Nagel, G.; Concin, H.; Spadaro, J. V. Global Estimates of Mortality Associated with Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Fine Particulate Matter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2018, 115 (38), 9592– 9597, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1803222115Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 39Weichenthal, S.; Pinault, L.; Christidis, T.; Burnett, R. T.; Brook, J. R.; Chu, Y.; Crouse, D. L.; Erickson, A. C.; Hystad, P.; Li, C.; Martin, R. V.; Meng, J.; Pappin, A. J.; Tjepkema, M.; van Donkelaar, A.; Weagle, C. L.; Brauer, M. How Low Can You Go? Air Pollution Affects Mortality at Very Low Levels. Science Advances 2022, 8 (39), eabo3381, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo3381Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 40CCME. Guidance Document on Air Zone Management; Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2019. https://ccme.ca/en/res/guidancedocumentonairzonemanagement_secured.pdf (accessed 2024–03–25).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 41Statistics Canada. Population Projections for Canada (2018 to 2068), Provinces and Territories (2018 to 2043) ; 2020. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/91-520-x/91-520-x2019001-eng.htm (accessed 2024–01–22).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 42Burnett, R. T.; Pope, C. A.; Ezzati, M.; Olives, C.; Lim, S. S.; Mehta, S.; Shin, H. H.; Singh, G.; Hubbell, B.; Brauer, M.; Anderson, H. R.; Smith, K. R.; Balmes, J. R.; Bruce, N. G.; Kan, H.; Laden, F.; Prüss-Ustün, A.; Turner, M. C.; Gapstur, S. M.; Diver, W. R.; Cohen, A. An Integrated Risk Function for Estimating the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 2014, 122 (4), 397– 403, DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1307049Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 43GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators Global, Regional, and National Comparative Risk Assessment of 79 Behavioural, Environmental and Occupational, and Metabolic Risks or Clusters of Risks, 1990–2015: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 2016, 388 (10053), 1659– 1724, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31679-8Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 44ECCC. Air Quality Canadian Environmental Sustainability Indicators; Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2023. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/air-quality.html (accessed 2023–10–04).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 45Burke, M.; Childs, M. L.; de la Cuesta, B.; Qiu, M.; Li, J.; Gould, C. F.; Heft-Neal, S.; Wara, M. The Contribution of Wildfire to PM2.5 Trends in the USA. Nature 2023, 622, 761– 766, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06522-6Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46McClure, C. D.; Jaffe, D. A. US Particulate Matter Air Quality Improves except in Wildfire-Prone Areas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2018, 115 (31), 7901– 7906, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1804353115Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 47Meng, J.; Martin, R. V.; Li, C.; van Donkelaar, A.; Tzompa-Sosa, Z. A.; Yue, X.; Xu, J.-W.; Weagle, C. L.; Burnett, R. T. Source Contributions to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter for Canada. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (17), 10269– 10278, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02461Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 48Health Canada. Health Impacts of Air Pollution from Transportation, Industry and Residential Sources ; 2023. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2023/sc-hc/H144-112-2022-eng.pdf (accessed 2023–10–04).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Pappin, A. J.; Charman, N.; Egyed, M.; Blagden, P.; Duhamel, A.; Miville, J.; Popadic, I.; Manseau, P. M.; Marcotte, G.; Mashayekhi, R.; Racine, J.; Rittmaster, R.; Edwards, B.; Kipusi, W.; Smith-Doiron, M. Attribution of Fine Particulate Matter and Ozone Health Impacts in Canada to Domestic and US Emission Sources. Science of The Total Environment 2024, 909, 168529, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168529Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 50ECCC. Canada’s Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory; Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2023. https://data-donnees.az.ec.gc.ca/data/substances/monitor/canada-s-air-pollutant-emissions-inventory/ (accessed 2024–05–16).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 51EPA. Air Pollutant Emissions Trends Data. United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data (accessed 2024–03–04).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 52Matz, C. J.; Egyed, M.; Xi, G.; Racine, J.; Pavlovic, R.; Rittmaster, R.; Henderson, S. B.; Stieb, D. M. Health Impact Analysis of PM2.5 from Wildfire Smoke in Canada (2013–2015, 2017–2018). Science of The Total Environment 2020, 10 (725), 138506, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138506Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 53Coops, N. C.; Hermosilla, T.; Wulder, M. A.; White, J. C.; Bolton, D. K. A Thirty Year, Fine-Scale, Characterization of Area Burned in Canadian Forests Shows Evidence of Regionally Increasing Trends in the Last Decade. PLoS One 2018, 13 (5), e0197218, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197218Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 54Hanes, C. C.; Wang, X.; Jain, P.; Parisien, M.-A.; Little, J. M.; Flannigan, M. D. Fire-Regime Changes in Canada over the Last Half Century. Can. J. For. Res. 2019, 49 (3), 256– 269, DOI: 10.1139/cjfr-2018-0293Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 55Burnett, R.; Cork, M.; Fann, N.; Chen, H.; Weichenthal, S. Adapting Non-Parametric Spline Representations of Outdoor Air Pollution Health Effects Associations for Use in Public Health Benefits Assessment. Air Qual Atmos Health 2024, 17, 1295– 1305, DOI: 10.1007/s11869-024-01507-4Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 56Health Canada. Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Canada: Estimates of Morbidity and Premature Mortality Outcomes – 2021 Report ; 200423; 2021. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/health-impacts-air-pollution-2021.html (accessed 2023–10–04).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 57Statistics Canada. Table 13–10–0710–01 Mortality rates, by age group. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1310071001 (accessed 2024–02–23).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 58Statistics Canada. Table 17–10–0005–01: Population estimates on July 1, by age and gender. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000501 (accessed 2024–02–23).Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
Cited By
This article has not yet been cited by other publications.
Article Views
Altmetric
Citations
Article Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.
Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.
The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated.
Recommended Articles
References
This article references 58 other publications.
- 1WHO. Ambient Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure and Burden of Disease; World Health Organization, 2016. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241511353 (accessed 2023–10–04).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 2GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators. Global Burden of 87 Risk Factors in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990–2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 2020, 396 (10258), 1223– 1249, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 3EPA. Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) for Particulate Matter (Final Report, Dec 2019); US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, 2019. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/isa/recordisplay.cfm?deid=347534 (accessed 2024–02–13).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 4Health Canada. Canadian Health Science Assessment for Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5); Air Quality Assessment Section, Safe Environments Directorate: Ottawa, ON, 2022. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2022/sc-hc/H144-100-2022-eng.pdf (accessed 2024–02–13).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 5Brauer, M.; Brook, J. R.; Christidis, T.; Chu, Y.; Crouse, D.; Erickson, A.; Hystad, P.; Li, C.; Martin, R. V.; Meng, J.; Pappin, A.; Pinault, L.; Tjepkema, M.; von Donkelaar, A.; Weagle, C. L.; Weichenthal, S.; Burnett, R. T. Mortality–Air Pollution Associations in Low-Exposure Environments (MAPLE): Phase 2; 212; Health Effects Institute: Boston, MA, 2022. https://www.healtheffects.org/publication/mortality-air-pollution-associations-low-exposure-environments-maple-phase-2 (accessed 2023–10–04).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 6Cohen, A. J.; Brauer, M.; Burnett, R.; Anderson, H. R.; Frostad, J.; Estep, K.; Balakrishnan, K.; Brunekreef, B.; Dandona, L.; Dandona, R.; Feigin, V.; Freedman, G.; Hubbell, B.; Jobling, A.; Kan, H.; Knibbs, L.; Liu, Y.; Martin, R.; Morawska, L.; Pope, C. A.; Shin, H.; Straif, K.; Shaddick, G.; Thomas, M.; van Dingenen, R.; van Donkelaar, A.; Vos, T.; Murray, C. J. L.; Forouzanfar, M. H. Estimates and 25-Year Trends of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Air Pollution: An Analysis of Data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. Lancet 2017, 389 (10082), 1907– 1918, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30505-6There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 7Chen, H.; Quick, M.; Kaufman, J. S.; Chen, C.; Kwong, J. C.; van Donkelaar, A.; Meng, J.; Martin, R. V.; Kim, J.; Lavigne, E.; Bai, L.; Li, Y.; Tjepkema, M.; Benmarhnia, T.; Burnett, R. T. Impact of Lowering Fine Particulate Matter from Major Emission Sources on Mortality in Canada: A Nationwide Causal Analysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2022, 119 (49), e2209490119, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2209490119There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 8Health Canada. Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Canada in 2018:2024 Report; Ottawa, ON, 2024. https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/documents/services/publications/healthy-living/health-impacts-air-pollution-2018/health-impacts-air-pollution-2018.pdf (accessed 2024–03–19).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 9IJC. Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Canada on Air Quality ; International Joint Commission, 1991. https://ijc.org/en/mission/air-quality-agreement (accessed 2022–01–25).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 10Gov. of Canada and Gov. of USA. Amending the “Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Air Quality ; Government of Canada and Government of the United States of America, 2000. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/air-pollution/publications/canada-united-states-quality-agreement-ozone-annex.html (accessed 2022–02–07).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 11Government of Canada. Canadian Environmental Protection Act ; 2023. https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/C-15.31/ (accessed 2024–02–06).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 12Fann, N.; Kim, S.-Y.; Olives, C.; Sheppard, L. Estimated Changes in Life Expectancy and Adult Mortality Resulting from Declining PM2.5 Exposures in the Contiguous United States: 1980–2010. Environ. Health Perspect. 2017, 125 (9), 097003, DOI: 10.1289/EHP507There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 13Stieb, D. M.; Judek, S.; van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Brand, K.; Shin, H. H.; Burnett, R. T.; Smith-Doiron, M. H. Estimated Public Health Impacts of Changes in Concentrations of Fine Particle Air Pollution in Canada, 2000 to 2011. Can. J. Public Health 2015, 106 (6), e362– e368, DOI: 10.17269/CJPH.106.4983There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 14Wang, H.; Zhang, L.; Yao, X.; Cheng, I.; Dabek-Zlotorzynska, E. Identification of Decadal Trends and Associated Causes for Organic and Elemental Carbon in PM2.5 at Canadian Urban Sites. Environ. Int. 2022, 159, 107031, DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.107031There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 15Fann, N.; Risley, D. The Public Health Context for PM2.5 and Ozone Air Quality Trends. Air Qual Atmos Health 2013, 6, 1– 11, DOI: 10.1007/s11869-010-0125-0There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 16Zhang, Y.; West, J. J.; Mathur, R.; Xing, J.; Hogrefe, C.; Roselle, S. J.; Bash, J. O.; Pleim, J. E.; Gan, C.-M.; Wong, D. C. Long-Term Trends in the Ambient PM2.5- and O3-Related Mortality Burdens in the United States under Emission Reductions from 1990 to 2010. Atmos Chem. Phys. 2018, 18 (20), 15003– 15016, DOI: 10.5194/acp-18-15003-2018There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 17Yue, H.; He, C.; Huang, Q.; Yin, D.; Bryan, B. A. Stronger Policy Required to Substantially Reduce Deaths from PM2.5 Pollution in China. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11 (1462), 1– 10, DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15319-4There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 18Du, J.; Yang, J.; Wang, L.; Wu, X.; Cao, W.; Sun, S. A Comparative Study of the Disease Burden Attributable to PM2.5 in China, Japan and South Korea from 1990 to 2017. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 2021, 209, 111856, DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111856There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 19Juginović, A.; Vuković, M.; Aranza, I.; Biloš, V. Health Impacts of Air Pollution Exposure from 1990 to 2019 in 43 European Countries. Sci. Rep 2021, 11 (22516), 1– 15, DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-01802-5There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 20Conti, S.; Fornari, C.; Ferrara, P.; Antonazzo, I. C.; Madotto, F.; Traini, E.; Levi, M.; Cernigliaro, A.; Armocida, B.; Bragazzi, N. L.; Cadum, E.; Carugno, M.; Crotti, G.; Deandrea, S.; Cortesi, P. A.; Guido, D.; Iavicoli, I.; Iavicoli, S.; La Vecchia, C.; Lauriola, P.; Michelozzi, P.; Scondotto, S.; Stafoggia, M.; Violante, F. S.; Abbafati, C.; Albano, L.; Barone-Adesi, F.; Biondi, A.; Bosetti, C.; Buonsenso, D.; Carreras, G.; Castelpietra, G.; Catapano, A.; Cattaruzza, M. S.; Corso, B.; Damiani, G.; Esposito, F.; Gallus, S.; Golinelli, D.; Hay, S. I.; Isola, G.; Ledda, C.; Mondello, S.; Pedersini, P.; Pensato, U.; Perico, N.; Remuzzi, G.; Sanmarchi, F.; Santoro, R.; Simonetti, B.; Unim, B.; Vacante, M.; Veroux, M.; Villafañe, J. H.; Monasta, L.; Mantovani, L. G. Time-Trends in Air Pollution Impact on Health in Italy 1990–2019: An Analysis From the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Int. J. Public Health 2023, 68, 1605959, DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2023.1605959There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 21Li, Y.; Li, B.; Liao, H.; Zhou, B.-B.; Wei, J.; Wang, Y.; Zang, Y.; Yang, Y.; Liu, R.; Wang, X. Changes in PM2.5-Related Health Burden in China’s Poverty and Non-Poverty Areas during 2000–2020: A Health Inequality Perspective. Science of The Total Environment 2023, 861, 160517, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160517There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 22Li, C.; van Donkelaar, A.; Hammer, M. S.; McDuffie, E. E.; Burnett, R. T.; Spadaro, J. V.; Chatterjee, D.; Cohen, A. J.; Apte, J. S.; Southerland, V. A.; Anenberg, S. C.; Brauer, M.; Martin, R. V. Reversal of Trends in Global Fine Particulate Matter Air Pollution. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14 (5349), 1– 12, DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41086-zThere is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 23Cheng, X.; Yang, Y.; Schwebel, D. C.; Liu, Z.; Li, L.; Cheng, P.; Ning, P.; Hu, G. Population Ageing and Mortality during 1990–2017: A Global Decomposition Analysis. PLOS Medicine 2020, 17 (6), e1003138, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1003138There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 24Ho, J. Y.; Hendi, A. S. Recent Trends in Life Expectancy across High Income Countries: Retrospective Observational Study. BMJ. 2018, 362, k2562, DOI: 10.1136/bmj.k2562There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 25Statistics Canada. Table 13–10–0800–01 Deaths and mortality rate (age standardization using 2011 population), by selected grouped causes. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1310080001 (accessed 2024–02–29).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 26van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Spurr, R. J. D.; Burnett, R. T. High-Resolution Satellite-Derived PM2.5 from Optimal Estimation and Geographically Weighted Regression over North America. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49 (17), 10482– 10491, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b02076There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 27van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Li, C.; Burnett, R. T. Regional Estimates of Chemical Composition of Fine Particulate Matter Using a Combined Geoscience-Statistical Method with Information from Satellites, Models, and Monitors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (5), 2595– 2611, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06392There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 28van Donkelaar, A.; Hammer, M. S.; Bindle, L.; Brauer, M.; Brook, J. R.; Garay, M. J.; Hsu, N. C.; Kalashnikova, O. V.; Kahn, R. A.; Lee, C.; Levy, R. C.; Lyapustin, A.; Sayer, A. M.; Martin, R. V. Monthly Global Estimates of Fine Particulate Matter and Their Uncertainty. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55 (22), 15287– 15300, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c05309There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 29V5.NA.04.02 Hybrid PM2.5 North America Data. Washington University at St Louis. https://wustl.app.box.com/s/7hgsuy1tsnv1j63qwtady84i9cltww3h (accessed 2024–03–25).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 30Bindle, L.; Martin, R. V.; Cooper, M. J.; Lundgren, E. W.; Eastham, S. D.; Auer, B. M.; Clune, T. L.; Weng, H.; Lin, J.; Murray, L. T.; Meng, J.; Keller, C. A.; Putman, W. M.; Pawson, S.; Jacob, D. J. Grid-Stretching Capability for the GEOS-Chem 13.0.0 Atmospheric Chemistry Model. Geoscientific Model Development 2021, 14 (10), 5977– 5997, DOI: 10.5194/gmd-14-5977-2021There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 31Eastham, S. D.; Long, M. S.; Keller, C. A.; Lundgren, E.; Yantosca, R. M.; Zhuang, J.; Li, C.; Lee, C. J.; Yannetti, M.; Auer, B. M.; Clune, T. L.; Kouatchou, J.; Putman, W. M.; Thompson, M. A.; Trayanov, A. L.; Molod, A. M.; Martin, R. V.; Jacob, D. J. GEOS-Chem High Performance (GCHP V11–02c): A next-Generation Implementation of the GEOS-Chem Chemical Transport Model for Massively Parallel Applications. Geoscientific Model Development 2018, 11 (7), 2941– 2953, DOI: 10.5194/gmd-11-2941-2018There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 32Statistics Canada. Dictionary, Census of Population, 2021 ; 2023. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/ref/dict/98-301-x2021001-eng.pdf (accessed 2024–01–23).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 33Pinault, L. L.; Weichenthal, S.; Crouse, D. L.; Brauer, M.; Erickson, A.; van Donkelaar, A.; Martin, R. V.; Hystad, P.; Chen, H.; Finès, P.; Brook, J. R.; Tjepkema, M.; Burnett, R. T. Associations between Fine Particulate Matter and Mortality in the 2001 Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. Environmental Research 2017, 159, 406– 415, DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.037There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 34Pappin, A. J.; Christidis, T.; Pinault, L. L.; Crouse, D. L.; Brook, J. R.; Erickson, A.; Hystad, P.; Li, C.; Martin, R. V.; Meng, J.; Weichenthal, S.; van Donkelaar, A.; Tjepkema, M.; Brauer, M.; Burnett, R. T. Examining the Shape of the Association between Low Levels of Fine Particulate Matter and Mortality across Three Cycles of the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort. Environ. Health Perspect. 2019, 127 (10), 107008, DOI: 10.1289/EHP5204There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 35Judek, S.; Stieb, D.; Jovic, B.; Edwards, B. Air Quality Benefits Assessment Tool (AQBAT) – User Guide – Version 3; Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada: Ottawa, ON, 2019.There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 36Fann, N.; Coffman, E.; Timin, B.; Kelly, J. T. The Estimated Change in the Level and Distribution of PM2.5-Attributable Health Impacts in the United States: 2005–2014. Environmental Research 2018, 167, 506– 514, DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.08.018There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 37Chan, E. A. W.; Fann, N.; Kelly, J. T. PM2.5-Attributable Mortality Burden Variability in the Continental U.S. Atmos. Environ. 2023, 315, 120131, DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.120131There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 38Burnett, R.; Chen, H.; Szyszkowicz, M.; Fann, N.; Hubbell, B.; Pope, C. A.; Apte, J. S.; Brauer, M.; Cohen, A.; Weichenthal, S.; Coggins, J.; Di, Q.; Brunekreef, B.; Frostad, J.; Lim, S. S.; Kan, H.; Walker, K. D.; Thurston, G. D.; Hayes, R. B.; Lim, C. C.; Turner, M. C.; Jerrett, M.; Krewski, D.; Gapstur, S. M.; Diver, W. R.; Ostro, B.; Goldberg, D.; Crouse, D. L.; Martin, R. V.; Peters, P.; Pinault, L.; Tjepkema, M.; van Donkelaar, A.; Villeneuve, P. J.; Miller, A. B.; Yin, P.; Zhou, M.; Wang, L.; Janssen, N. A. H.; Marra, M.; Atkinson, R. W.; Tsang, H.; Quoc Thach, T.; Cannon, J. B.; Allen, R. T.; Hart, J. E.; Laden, F.; Cesaroni, G.; Forastiere, F.; Weinmayr, G.; Jaensch, A.; Nagel, G.; Concin, H.; Spadaro, J. V. Global Estimates of Mortality Associated with Long-Term Exposure to Outdoor Fine Particulate Matter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2018, 115 (38), 9592– 9597, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1803222115There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 39Weichenthal, S.; Pinault, L.; Christidis, T.; Burnett, R. T.; Brook, J. R.; Chu, Y.; Crouse, D. L.; Erickson, A. C.; Hystad, P.; Li, C.; Martin, R. V.; Meng, J.; Pappin, A. J.; Tjepkema, M.; van Donkelaar, A.; Weagle, C. L.; Brauer, M. How Low Can You Go? Air Pollution Affects Mortality at Very Low Levels. Science Advances 2022, 8 (39), eabo3381, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo3381There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 40CCME. Guidance Document on Air Zone Management; Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, 2019. https://ccme.ca/en/res/guidancedocumentonairzonemanagement_secured.pdf (accessed 2024–03–25).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 41Statistics Canada. Population Projections for Canada (2018 to 2068), Provinces and Territories (2018 to 2043) ; 2020. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/91-520-x/91-520-x2019001-eng.htm (accessed 2024–01–22).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 42Burnett, R. T.; Pope, C. A.; Ezzati, M.; Olives, C.; Lim, S. S.; Mehta, S.; Shin, H. H.; Singh, G.; Hubbell, B.; Brauer, M.; Anderson, H. R.; Smith, K. R.; Balmes, J. R.; Bruce, N. G.; Kan, H.; Laden, F.; Prüss-Ustün, A.; Turner, M. C.; Gapstur, S. M.; Diver, W. R.; Cohen, A. An Integrated Risk Function for Estimating the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter Exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 2014, 122 (4), 397– 403, DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1307049There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 43GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators Global, Regional, and National Comparative Risk Assessment of 79 Behavioural, Environmental and Occupational, and Metabolic Risks or Clusters of Risks, 1990–2015: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet 2016, 388 (10053), 1659– 1724, DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31679-8There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 44ECCC. Air Quality Canadian Environmental Sustainability Indicators; Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2023. https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/air-quality.html (accessed 2023–10–04).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 45Burke, M.; Childs, M. L.; de la Cuesta, B.; Qiu, M.; Li, J.; Gould, C. F.; Heft-Neal, S.; Wara, M. The Contribution of Wildfire to PM2.5 Trends in the USA. Nature 2023, 622, 761– 766, DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06522-6There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 46McClure, C. D.; Jaffe, D. A. US Particulate Matter Air Quality Improves except in Wildfire-Prone Areas. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2018, 115 (31), 7901– 7906, DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1804353115There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 47Meng, J.; Martin, R. V.; Li, C.; van Donkelaar, A.; Tzompa-Sosa, Z. A.; Yue, X.; Xu, J.-W.; Weagle, C. L.; Burnett, R. T. Source Contributions to Ambient Fine Particulate Matter for Canada. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (17), 10269– 10278, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02461There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 48Health Canada. Health Impacts of Air Pollution from Transportation, Industry and Residential Sources ; 2023. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2023/sc-hc/H144-112-2022-eng.pdf (accessed 2023–10–04).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 49Pappin, A. J.; Charman, N.; Egyed, M.; Blagden, P.; Duhamel, A.; Miville, J.; Popadic, I.; Manseau, P. M.; Marcotte, G.; Mashayekhi, R.; Racine, J.; Rittmaster, R.; Edwards, B.; Kipusi, W.; Smith-Doiron, M. Attribution of Fine Particulate Matter and Ozone Health Impacts in Canada to Domestic and US Emission Sources. Science of The Total Environment 2024, 909, 168529, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168529There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 50ECCC. Canada’s Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory; Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2023. https://data-donnees.az.ec.gc.ca/data/substances/monitor/canada-s-air-pollutant-emissions-inventory/ (accessed 2024–05–16).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 51EPA. Air Pollutant Emissions Trends Data. United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/air-pollutant-emissions-trends-data (accessed 2024–03–04).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 52Matz, C. J.; Egyed, M.; Xi, G.; Racine, J.; Pavlovic, R.; Rittmaster, R.; Henderson, S. B.; Stieb, D. M. Health Impact Analysis of PM2.5 from Wildfire Smoke in Canada (2013–2015, 2017–2018). Science of The Total Environment 2020, 10 (725), 138506, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138506There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 53Coops, N. C.; Hermosilla, T.; Wulder, M. A.; White, J. C.; Bolton, D. K. A Thirty Year, Fine-Scale, Characterization of Area Burned in Canadian Forests Shows Evidence of Regionally Increasing Trends in the Last Decade. PLoS One 2018, 13 (5), e0197218, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197218There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 54Hanes, C. C.; Wang, X.; Jain, P.; Parisien, M.-A.; Little, J. M.; Flannigan, M. D. Fire-Regime Changes in Canada over the Last Half Century. Can. J. For. Res. 2019, 49 (3), 256– 269, DOI: 10.1139/cjfr-2018-0293There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 55Burnett, R.; Cork, M.; Fann, N.; Chen, H.; Weichenthal, S. Adapting Non-Parametric Spline Representations of Outdoor Air Pollution Health Effects Associations for Use in Public Health Benefits Assessment. Air Qual Atmos Health 2024, 17, 1295– 1305, DOI: 10.1007/s11869-024-01507-4There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 56Health Canada. Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Canada: Estimates of Morbidity and Premature Mortality Outcomes – 2021 Report ; 200423; 2021. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/health-impacts-air-pollution-2021.html (accessed 2023–10–04).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 57Statistics Canada. Table 13–10–0710–01 Mortality rates, by age group. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1310071001 (accessed 2024–02–23).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
- 58Statistics Canada. Table 17–10–0005–01: Population estimates on July 1, by age and gender. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000501 (accessed 2024–02–23).There is no corresponding record for this reference.
Supporting Information
Supporting Information
The Supporting Information is available free of charge at https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsestair.4c00130.
Additional information on exposure estimates, other model input data, and health impact results, including: descriptive statistics of satellite-based ambient PM2.5 concentrations in Canada, temporal data inputs to the health impact analysis, PM2.5-attributable mortality in Canada from 2001 to 2021 using a counterfactual of zero, log–linear and log–log CRFs from a Canadian cohort for long-term PM2.5 exposure and nonaccidental mortality, log–linear CRF analysis equivalents to Figures 4 and 5, regional city-specific estimates for PM2.5 health impacts, as well as regional baseline mortality and population changes in Canada (PDF)
Terms & Conditions
Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.