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Flame Retardant Applications in Camping Tents and Potential Exposure

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† Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
‡ Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
*E-mail: [email protected]. Phone: (919) 613-8717. Fax: (919) 684-8741.
Cite this: Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2014, 1, 2, 152–155
Publication Date (Web):January 7, 2014
https://doi.org/10.1021/ez400185y
Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society
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Abstract

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Concern has mounted over health effects caused by exposure to flame retardant additives used in consumer products. Significant research efforts have focused particularly on exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) used in furniture and electronic applications. However, little attention has focused on applications in textiles, particularly textiles meeting a flammability standard known as CPAI-84. In this study, we investigated flame retardant applications in camping tents that met CPAI-84 standards by analyzing 11 samples of tent fabrics for chemical flame retardant additives. Furthermore, we investigated potential exposure by collecting paired samples of tent wipes and hand wipes from 27 individuals after tent setup. Of the 11 fabric samples analyzed, 10 contained flame retardant additives, which included tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP), decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209), triphenyl phosphate, and tetrabromobisphenol-A. Flame retardant concentrations were discovered to be as high as 37.5 mg/g (3.8% by weight) in the tent fabric samples, and TDCPP and BDE-209 were the most frequently detected in these samples. We also observed a significant association between TDCPP levels in tent wipes and those in paired hand wipes, suggesting that human contact with the tent fabric material leads to the transfer of the flame retardant to the skin surface and human exposure. These results suggest that direct contact with flame retardant-treated textiles may be a source of exposure. Future studies will be needed to better characterize exposure, including via inhalation and dermal sorption from air.

Introduction

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Flame retardants (FRs) are often added to textiles and polymers to reduce their flammability. They are most often applied to products that are susceptible to fire and required to meet strict fire safety regulations, such as construction materials, furniture, mattresses, baby products, and electronic items. (1-4) The major classes of commonly used flame retardants include inorganic, halogenated organic, organophosphorus, and nitrogen-based compounds. (4) However, much scientific attention over the past few years has focused on halogenated flame retardants (e.g., brominated and chlorinated).
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were the most common flame retardants applied to polyurethane-containing furniture and baby products in the United States before 2005. (1, 2) At the end of 2004, U.S. manufacturers agreed to begin to voluntarily phase out PentaBDE and OctaBDE, two common mixtures of PBDEs, because of concerns over their persistence, bioaccumulation, and potential toxicity in both animals and humans. (5-7) Despite this phase out, PentaBDE congeners are still detected with high frequency in human serum in the United States, particularly in children. (8, 9) DecaBDE is a third commercial PBDE flame retardant mixture that is commonly applied to electronics (e.g., high-impact polystyrene), with minor applications in textiles, and is also scheduled to be phased out by the end of 2013. (10)
While the home and work environments have attracted a majority of the scientific interest with regard to identifying flame retardant-treated products (1, 2) and measuring human exposure, (9, 11-13) recreational activities and associated equipment have received little attention. (14) Tents and other camping equipment meet a voluntary U.S. industrial flammability standard known as CPAI-84, which was established by the trade group Canvas Products Association International in response to fire incidents involving tents. The standard requires that tent fabrics pass a vertical flame test with a 12 s ignition time. (15) However, to the best of our knowledge, no information about what types, if any, of flame retardant applications or chemicals are being used to meet CPAI-84 is currently publicly available.
The goals of this study were twofold: (1) to identify and determine if additive flame retardant compounds might currently be applied to camping tents and (2) if flame retardant chemicals are found in tents, to determine whether these chemicals are likely to be transferred to the hands of individuals using the equipment, indicating exposure. The former question was examined through the analysis of actual fabric samples from tents; the latter was addressed by analyzing samples of paired tent wipes and hand wipes collected from individuals after they set up their tents. Our group has previously demonstrated that PBDE levels measured in hand wipes are significantly associated with PBDE body burdens, suggesting that hand wipes may be useful predictors of exposure. (9, 12) Using these approaches, we hoped to gain more information about flame retardant applications in tents and assess the potential for FR exposure from the handling of treated products.

Materials and Methods

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Collection of Tent Fabrics for Testing

Eleven different tents were tested for flame retardant applications by cutting out a small piece (approximately 9 cm2) for analysis. Samples were collected from colleagues and peers of the authors at Duke University. Small pieces were cut either from the tent wall (if the owner no longer used the tent) or from pockets or ties made of the same material as the tent’s main surfaces. For logistical reasons, the tent fabrics destructively tested were not the same tents sampled as part of the tent wipe and hand wipe sampling effort.

Participants and Field Sampling

All aspects of this study were authorized by Duke University’s Institutional Review Board, and all participants provided informed consent prior to sample collection. Participants setting up tents at a camping site in North Carolina were approached and asked to participate in this study. All sampling occurred over a period of 1 month. Twenty-seven individuals agreed to participate in this study and provide a tent wipe and hand wipe for analysis. Because some of the tents were large, we collected one tent wipe and several hand wipes from all individuals helping to set up the tent. Therefore, for each one tent wipe collected, we collected one to four paired hand wipe samples.
For each participant, we collected a tent wipe, identifying a surface area of 1 ft2 (929 cm2) with a cardboard template on the outer surface of the tent. Tent and hand wipes were collected using a previously established method. (16) For each sample, a sterile gauze pad (7.6 cm × 7.6 cm) was briefly immersed in 3.0 mL of isopropyl alcohol in a clean aluminum weigh boat and immediately used to wipe the area of the exterior fabric surface of the tent, not including the tent fly. The tent wipe was quickly wrapped in clean aluminum foil, placed in a small Ziploc bag, and stored at −20 °C until the wipe could be analyzed.
We collected 27 hand wipe samples from participants associated with 11 different tents immediately after they constructed them. Sample collections occurred during intermittent rainfall; consequently, several individuals who consented to participate and provided a tent wipe left the area immediately after tent setup and were unavailable for hand wipe collection. Therefore, 20 tent wipe samples were collected, but only 11 of these samples had paired hand wipe samples. Hand wipes were collected by wiping the surface area of the hands from wrist to fingertips, including the backside of the hands, the palms, the fingers, and the area between the fingers. We used one hand wipe for both hands. Each hand wipe was wrapped in clean aluminum foil and placed in a small Ziploc bag and stored at −20 °C until it was analyzed. Participants were also asked to complete a short questionnaire about their tents.

Sample Extractions and Analysis

Tent fabric samples were extracted using previously published methods developed for polyurethane foam. (2) Tent wipes and hand wipes were extracted using previously published methods with minor modifications. (9, 17) More details about the extraction methods, quantification of analytes, and QA/QC are provided in the Supporting Information.

Statistical Analysis

As the levels of flame retardants measured for tents and hand wipes were not normally distributed, we report medians and ranges. Associations between tent wipes and matched hand wipes were examined using nonparametric statistics: Spearman’s rank order correlation and Kendall’s τ (which performs better with tied data). Statistical significance was set at α = 0.05. Statistical analysis was conducted using R.

Results and Discussion

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Eleven textile samples were collected from 10 tents and one camping alcove and analyzed for additive flame retardant chemicals. A summary of our findings is presented in Table S1 of the Supporting Information. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) was the most common flame retardant, detected in four tent fabric samples at concentrations ranging from 3.92 to 17.8 mg/g. Tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP) was the second most commonly detected flame retardant, positively identified in three of the tents at concentrations of approximately 10 mg/g, or 1% of the fabric mass. Triphenyl phosphate (TPP) was identified in one tent and one alcove at concentrations of 34.6 and 37.5 mg/g, respectively. Tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA) was identified in one tent sample at a concentration of 25.7 mg/g. One tent did not contain any of the flame retardant compounds being tested. These data clearly indicate that additive flame retardants are being applied to tent fabrics to meet the CPAI-84 flammability standard. Labels indicating that the tent met CPAI-84 requirements were found in six of the 11 tents sampled. No reference to CPAI-84 was found on the remaining tents; however, it is unknown whether such a label might previously have existed on the packaging and/or if the label had been removed. Because of the small sample size, we did not conduct any statistical analyses with year of purchase, country of manufacture, or tent capacity.
As a second line of investigation, we collected samples of tent wipes and hand wipes from adults camping in North Carolina as described above. During analysis of the tent wipe samples, multiple flame retardant chemicals were often detected; however, in all cases, one flame retardant chemical had much higher levels than the other flame retardant(s), suggesting that one flame retardant was intentionally added to the material, while other flame retardants were from background, ubiquitous exposures (e.g., small amounts of PentaBDE congeners). TDCPP was the most common flame retardant detected in the tent wipe samples (Table 1); in 11 of the 20 samples, the mass of TDCPP was more than 1000 ng. BDE-209 was detected in 14 of the tent wipes, from a minimum of 7 ng to a maximum of 7103 ng. TPP was also frequently detected in the tent wipes with a median level of 391 ng. TBBPA was detected in just one tent wipe at a level of 13000 ng. The wide range of flame retardant levels measured among the tent wipe samples and the fact that the same flame retardants were measured at high application rates in tent fabric samples suggest that the tent wipes were detecting flame retardant treatments on the tents.
Table 1. Levels of Flame Retardants Measured in Hand Wipes and Tent Wipesa
 hand wipes (ng) (n = 27)tent wipes (ng) (n = 20)
 % detectedmedianrange% detectedmedianrange
BDE-471004.10.42–40.525NRd<0.11–1.65
BDE-991003.60.33–61.725NRd<0.06–0.25
BDE-100780.6<0.08–8.035NRd<0.02–0.23
BDE-15441NRd<0.14–3.440NRd<0.01
BDE-15348NRd<0.05–4.1435NRd<0.03–3.2
ΣPentaBDEb1008.480.96–117500.39<0.13–3.2
BDE-20993263<4.9–183007025.3<4.88–7103
TDCPP81710<34–8530853960<22–23890
TPP10089.714.6–36290391<25–4120
TBBPANDcNRdN/A5NRd<3–13000
a

Values not normalized to surface area.

b

Represents the sum of BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, and BDE-154.

c

Not detected.

d

Not reported. Medians not calculated when <50% detected.

These same flame retardant chemicals were also frequently detected in participants’ hand wipe samples (Table 1). TDCPP and BDE-209 were the most abundant flame retardants detected in the hand wipes. PBDE congeners associated with the PentaBDE commercial mixture (i.e., BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-100) were also frequently detected, but at levels much lower than that of BDE-209. In contrast, previous studies measured flame retardant levels on hand wipes collected in home and office environments and found higher levels of the PentaBDE congeners. (9, 12) The median TDCPP level was 710 ng in hand wipes, while the median level of BDE-209 was 263 ng, significantly higher than the measured levels of the ubiquitous PentaBDE congeners like BDE-47, which had a median mass of 4.1 ng. To the best of our knowledge, there are no published values for TDCPP or other organophosphate flame retardants in hand wipe samples. Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether these measurements are considerably higher than what would be expected among the general population. However, TDCPP has been ubiquitously detected in house dust, and its metabolite is frequently detected in human urine samples. (13, 18) In house dust, TDCPP levels are typically equivalent to or greater than the PBDE levels.
Using these data, correlation analyses were conducted to determine if tent wipe flame retardant levels were significant predictors of levels in paired hand wipes. As seen in Figure 1, the level of TDCPP in a tent wipe was significantly associated with corresponding hand wipe levels (τ = 0.60; p < 0.001). Associations were not as strong but still significant for TPP (τ = 0.43; p = 0.003) and BDE-209 (τ = 0.37; p = 0.01). (Figures S1 and S2 of the Supporting Information). However, these analyses ignore the clustering of the data, potentially underestimating p values. Applying the Spearman statistic to the average hand wipe level per tent versus tent wipe produced a highly significant result for TDCPP (ρ = 0.85; p < 0.001) but nonsignificant associations for TPP and BDE-209. Hence, we are confident only of the association for TDCPP.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Association of TDCPP in tent wipes and paired hand wipe samples.

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These results suggest that individuals are exposed to flame retardant chemicals following contact with treated textiles. It is not clear whether direct contact with other flame retardant-treated products (e.g., sofas, chairs, TVs, etc.) would also lead to direct partitioning on the skin surface. Dermal absorption of some of these chemicals, particularly BDE-209, may be low. Nevertheless, inadvertent ingestion of these chemicals could occur through hand-to-mouth transfer activities. As noted earlier, previous studies have found significant associations between PBDE levels in hand wipes and PentaBDE levels in serum, suggesting that hand-to-mouth behavior and dermal absorption are significant exposure routes for flame retardants. (9, 12) In a study investigating PBDE exposures in U.S. toddlers, PBDE levels on hand wipes were found to be the strongest predictor of serum PBDE levels, (9) highlighting a need to improve our understanding of exposure from hand-to-mouth contact and/or direct dermal absorption. Furthermore, inhalation could be a route of exposure for individuals sleeping inside tents, particularly for organophosphate flame retardants such as TDCPP. The estimated vapor pressure (EpiWin version 4.1) for TDCPP is 4 orders of magnitude higher than the vapor pressure of TBBPA and BDE-209.
Exposures to flame retardants have been associated with health effects, leading to voluntary phase outs by manufacturers for PBDE commercial mixtures and now TDCPP. (19) PBDEs are known endocrine disrupters and have been found to be significantly associated with deficits in motor function, development, and IQ. (6, 20, 21) TDCPP is considered a probable human carcinogen and is listed on California’s Proposition 65 list of carcinogenic and reproductive chemicals. (22) Besides its disruptive roles in immune response and thyroid hormone signaling, TBBPA has recently been shown to mimic estradiol’s structure and activate its receptor sites, meaning exposure may lead to excessive estrogen buildup that can increase the risk of cancer. (23) Furthermore, chronic TBBPA exposure has now been shown to induce malignant uterine tumor formation in rats and mice. (24)
Strengths of our study include the measurement of organophosphate flame retardants on hand wipes (not previously reported), the use of product wipes, and the paired sampling of hand wipes and tent wipes. Weaknesses include the small sample size and convenience sampling. Unfortunately, we were not able to collect paired tent wipes from the tent fabric samples destructively tested in this study. Additional work is needed to demonstrate that product wipes reflect product content. Hand wipes taken before and after handling products (14) would be more conclusive than correlations of levels in demonstrating that tents are the source of exposure. However, it is difficult to see how other sources of exposure could have confounded the observed relationships.
Given these considerations, future studies are needed to evaluate the potential for exposure to additive chemicals in consumer products through direct contact with chemically treated items, particularly those used frequently by children or pregnant women. For example, many of the toy tents and tunnels designed for children to use indoors also meet the flammability requirements of CPAI-84, yet it is unclear whether these products are treated with the same flame retardants that were identified in this study. Given the recent change in the California flammability standard for polyurethane foam in furniture, evaluation of the effectiveness and potential health risks from flame retardants used to meet CPAI-84 appears to be warranted.

Supporting Information

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Additional information about the methods used, a table of measured values in the tent fabrics, and figures depicting the associations between TPP and BDE-209 in hand wipes and tent wipes. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.

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Most electronic Supporting Information files are available without a subscription to ACS Web Editions. Such files may be downloaded by article for research use (if there is a public use license linked to the relevant article, that license may permit other uses). Permission may be obtained from ACS for other uses through requests via the RightsLink permission system: http://pubs.acs.org/page/copyright/permissions.html.

Author Information

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  • Corresponding Author
    • Heather M. Stapleton - Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States;  Email: [email protected]
  • Authors
    • Alexander S. Keller - Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
    • Nikhilesh P. Raju - Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
    • Thomas F. Webster - Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, United States
  • Notes
    The authors declare no competing financial interest.

Acknowledgment

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We thank all of the participants in this study. This work was supported by a research grant provided by Fred and Alice Stanback. H.M.S. and T.F.W. were partially supported by National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Grants R01ES016099 and R01ES015829, respectively.

References

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This article references 24 other publications.

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    Background: Polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) are persistent, bioaccumulative, and endocrine-disrupting chems. Objectives: We used handwipes to est. exposure to PBDEs in house dust among toddlers and examd. sex, age, breast-feeding, race, and parents' education as predictors of serum PBDEs. Methods: Eighty-three children from 12 to 36 mo of age were enrolled in North Carolina between May 2009 and Nov. 2010. Blood, handwipe, and house dust samples were collected and analyzed for PBDEs. A questionnaire was administered to collect demog. data. Results: PBDEs were detected in all serum samples (geometric mean for ΣpentaBDE in serum was 43.3 ng/g lipid), 98% of the handwipe samples, and 100% of the dust samples. Serum ΣpentaBDEs were significantly correlated with both handwipe and house dust ΣpentaBDE levels, but were more strongly assocd. with handwipe levels (r = 0.57; p < 0.001 vs. r = 0.35; p < 0.01). Multivariate model ests. revealed that handwipe levels, child's sex, child's age, and father's education accounted for 39% of the variation in serum ΣBDE3 levels (sum of BDEs 47, 99, and 100). In contrast, age, handwipe levels, and breast-feeding duration explained 39% of the variation in serum BDE 153. Conclusions: Our study suggests that hand-to-mouth activity may be a significant source of exposure to PBDEs. Furthermore, age, socioeconomic status, and breast-feeding were significant predictors of exposure, but assocns. varied by congener. Specifically, serum ΣBDE3 was inversely assocd. with socioeconomic status, whereas serum BDE-153 was pos. assocd. with duration of breast-feeding and mother's education.
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    Relationships between polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations in house dust and serum
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    Environmental Science & Technology (2010), 44 (14), 5627-5632CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) were measured in the home environment and in humans, but studies linking environmental levels to body burdens are limited. This study examines the relationship between PBDE concns. in house dust and serum from adults residing in these homes. We measured PBDE concns. in house dust from 50 homes and in serum of male-female couples from 12 of the homes. Detection rates, dust-serum, and within-matrix correlations varied by PBDE congener. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.65-0.89, p < 0.05) between dust and serum concns. of several predominant PBDE congeners (BDE 47, 99, and 100). Dust and serum levels of BDE 153 were not correlated (r < 0.01). The correlation of dust and serum levels of BDE 209 could not be evaluated due to low detection rates of BDE 209 in serum. Serum concns. of the sum of BDE 47, 99, and 100 were also strongly correlated within couples (r = 0.85, p = 0.0005). This study provides evidence that house dust is a primary exposure pathway of PBDEs and supports the use of dust PBDE concns. as a marker for exposure to PBDE congeners other than BDE 153.
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    Exposure to PBDEs in the office environment: evaluating the relationships between dust, handwipes, and serum
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    Environmental Health Perspectives (2011), 119 (9), 1247-1252CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
    Background: Polybrominated cliphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been widely used as flame retardants in consumer products and are ubiquitous in residential indoor air and dust. However, little is known about exposure in the office environment. Objectives: We examd. relationships between PBDE concns. in the office environment and internal exposure using concurrent measurements of PBDEs in serum, handwipes, and office dust. Methods: We collected serum, dust, and handwipe samples from 31 participants who spent at least 20 h/wk in an office. We used a questionnaire to collect information about work and personal habits. Results: We found pos. assocns. between PBDEs in room dust, handwipes (a measure of personal exposure), and serum. PBDE office dust concns. were weakly correlated with measurements in handwipes: r = 0.35 (p = 0.06) for pentaBDE (sum of BDE congeners 28/33, 47, 99, 100, and 153) and 0.33 (p = 0.07) for BDE-209. Hand washing also predicted pentaBDE levels in handwipes: low hand-washers had 3.3 times the pentaBDE levels in their handwipes than did high hand-washers (p = 0.02). PentaBDE in handwipes predicted pentaBDE levels in serum (p = 0.03): Serum concns. in the highest handwipe tertile were on av. 3.5 times the lowest handwipe tertile. The geometric mean concn. of pentaBDEs in serum was 27 ng/g lipid. We detected BDE-209 in 20% of serum samples, at levels ranging from < 4.8 to 9.7 ng/g lipid. Conclusion: Our research suggests that exposure to pentaBDE in the office environment contributes to pentaBDE body burden, with exposure likely linked to PBDE residues on hands. In addn., hand washing may decrease exposure to PBDEs.
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    Environmental Science & Technology (2008), 42 (9), 3329-3334CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
    Ests. of exposure to polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDE) flame retardants in dust are very poor due to limited knowledge concerning dust ingestion. This work detd. whether PBDE could be measured on hand wipes, and if so, detd. the distribution of levels present on the skin surface area to provide preliminary exposure ests. for hand-to-mouth contact. Hand wipes were collected from 33 individuals residing in the US using sterile gauze pads soaked in iso-Pr alc. Total PBDE residue collected on wipes was 2.60-1982 ng with a median value of 130 ng, or normalized to hand surface area, a concn. of 135 pg/cm2. The fully brominated congener, BDE 209, was also detected, ranging from less than detection limits to 270 ng with a median value of 26 ng. Congener patterns obsd. on wipes were similar to patterns obsd. in house dust samples, consisting of congeners assocd. with PentaBDE and DecaBDE mixts., suggesting the PBDE source to hands may be dust particles; however, PBDE hand residues may also be due to direct contact with PBDE-laden products, leading to adsorption by skin surface oils. Repeated wipe sampling from 3 individuals suggests .sum.PBDE concns. on the hand may be relatively consistent for some individuals but not for others. ΣPBDE concns. were greater on the bottom of the hands vs. the top of the hands. Using these values, the authors calcd. potential human exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Median exposure ests. for children and adults were 1380 and 154 ng/day, resp.; 95th percentile exposure ests. were 6090 and 677 ng/day, resp. These ests. were greater than dietary intake rates and suggested hand-to-mouth contact may be a key PBDE exposure route.
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    Environmental Health Perspectives (2013), 121 (5), 580-585, 6 pp.CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:1552-9924. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health)
    Background: A redn. in the use of polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) because of human health concerns may result in an increased use of and human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs). Human exposure and health studies of OPFRs are lacking. Objectives: We sought to define the degree of temporal variability in urinary OPFR metabolites in order to inform epidemiol. study design, and to explore a potential primary source of exposure by examg. the relationship between OPFRs in house dust and their metabolites in urine. Methods: Nine repeated urine samples were collected from 7 men over the course of 3 mo and analyzed for bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP) and di-Ph phosphate (DPP), metabolites of the OPFRs tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) and tri-Ph phosphate (TPP), resp. Intraclass correlation coeffs. (ICCs) were calcd. to characterize temporal reliability. Paired house dust and urine samples were collected from 45 men. Results: BDCPP was detected in 91% of urine samples, and DPP in 96%. Urinary BDCPP showed moderate-to-strong temporal reliability (ICC range, 0.55-0.72). ICCs for DPP were lower, but moderately reliable (range, 0.35-0.51). There was a weak [Spearman r (rS) = 0.31] but significant (p = 0.03) correlation between urinary BDCPP and TDCPP concns. in house dust that strengthened when nondetects (rS = 0.47) were excluded. There was no correlation between uncorrected DPP and TPP measured in house dust (rS < 0.1). Conclusions: Household dust may be an important source of exposure to TDCPP but not TPP. Urinary concns. of BDCPP and DPP were moderately to highly reliable within individuals over 3 mo.
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    Background: Polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) are widely used flame retardant compds. that are persistent and bioaccumulative and therefore have become ubiquitous environment contaminants. Animal studies suggest that prenatal PBDE exposure may result in adverse neurodevelopmental effects. Objective: In a longitudinal cohort initiated after 11 Sept. 2001, including 329 mothers who delivered in one of three hospitals in lower Manhattan, New York, we examd. prenatal PBDE exposure and neurodevelopment when their children were 12-48 and 72 mo of age. Methods: We analyzed 210 cord blood specimens for selected PBDE congeners and assessed neurodevelopmental effects in the children at 12-48 and 72 mo of age; 118, 117, 114, 104, and 96 children with available cord PBDE measurements were assessed at 12, 24, 36, 48, and 72 mo, resp. We used multivariate regression analyses to evaluate the assocns. between concns. of individual PBDE congeners and neurodevelopmental indexes. Results: Median cord blood concns. of PBDE congeners 47, 99, and 100 were 11.2, 3.2, and 1.4 ng/g lipid, resp. After adjustment for potential confounders, children with higher concns. of BDEs 47, 99, or 100 scored lower on tests of mental and phys. development at 12-48 and 72 mo. Assocns. were significant for 12-mo Psychomotor Development Index (BDE-47), 24-mo Mental Development Index (MDI) (BDE-47, 99, and 100), 36-mo MDI (BDE-100), 48-mo full-scale and verbal IQ (BDE-47, 99, and 100) and performance IQ (BDE-100), and 72-mo performance IQ (BDE-100). Conclusions: This epidemiol. study demonstrates neurodevelopmental effects in relation to cord blood PBDE concns. Confirmation is needed in other longitudinal studies.
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    Figure 1. Association of TDCPP in tent wipes and paired hand wipe samples.

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    This article references 24 other publications.

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      Stapleton, Heather M.; Klosterhaus, Susan; Keller, Alex; Ferguson, P. Lee; van Bergen, Saskia; Cooper, Ellen; Webster, Thomas F.; Blum, Arlene
      Environmental Science & Technology (2011), 45 (12), 5323-5331CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      With the phase-out of PentaBDE in 2004, alternative flame retardants are being used in polyurethane foam to meet flammability stds.; however, insufficient information is available on the identity of the flame retardants currently in use. Baby products contg. polyurethane foam must meet California state furniture flammability stds., which likely affects the use of flame retardants in baby products throughout the US; however, it is not clear which products contain flame retardants and at what concns. This work surveyed baby products contg. polyurethane foam to assess how often flame retardants were used in these products. Information on when the products were purchased and whether they contained a label indicating the product meets requirements for a California flammability std. were recorded. When possible, the flame retardants being used and their in-foam concns. were identified. Foam samples collected from 101 commonly used baby products were analyzed. In total, 80 samples contained an identifiable flame retardant additive, and all but 1 was chlorinated or brominated. The most common detected flame retardant was tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP; detection frequency 36%), followed by components typically found in the Firemaster550 com. mixt. (detection frequency 17%). Five samples contained PBDE congeners commonly assocd. with PentaBDE, suggesting products with PentaBDE are still in-use. Two chlorinated organophosphate flame retardants (OPFR) not previously documented in the environment were also identified, one of which is com. sold as V6 (detection frequency 15%) and contains tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) as an impurity. As an addn. to this study, a portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyzer estd. the Br and Cl content of foams to assess whether XRF is a useful method to predict the presence of halogenated flame retardant additives in these products. A significant correlation was obsd. for Br; there was no significant relationship obsd. for Cl. To the authors knowledge, this is the first study to report on flame retardants in baby products. Two chlorinated OPFR not previously documented in the environment or in consumer products were identified. Based on exposure ests. conducted by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), it was predicted that infants may receive greater TDCPP exposure from these products vs. the av. child or adult from upholstered furniture, all of which are higher than acceptable daily TDCPP intake levels established by the CPSC. Future studies are warranted to specifically measure infant exposure to these flame retardants from intimate contact with the products and to det. if there are any assocd. health concerns.
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    2. 2
      Stapleton, H. M. Novel and High Volume Use Flame Retardants in US Couches Reflective of the 2005 PentaBDE Phase Out Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (24) 13432– 13439
      [ACS Full Text ACS Full Text], [CAS], Google Scholar
      2
      Novel and High Volume Use Flame Retardants in US Couches Reflective of the 2005 PentaBDE Phase Out
      Stapleton, Heather M.; Sharma, Smriti; Getzinger, Gordon; Ferguson, P. Lee; Gabriel, Michelle; Webster, Thomas F.; Blum, Arlene
      Environmental Science & Technology (2012), 46 (24), 13432-13439CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      The California furniture flammability std., Tech. Bulletin 117 (TB 117), is believed to be a major driver of chem. flame retardant (FR) use in residential furniture in the US. With the phase-out of the polybrominated di-Ph ether (PBDE) FR mixt., PentaBDE, in 2005, alternative FR are increasingly being used to meet TB 117; however, it is unclear which chems. were being used and how frequently. To address this data gap, this work collected and analyzed 102 samples of polyurethane foam from residential couches purchased in the US from 1985 to 2010. Overall, chem. FR were detected in 85% of the couches. In samples purchased prior to 2005 (n = 41), PBDE assocd. with the PentaBDE mixt. (including BDE 47, 99, 100; PentaBDE) were the most common FR detected (39%), followed by tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCPP; 24%), a suspected human carcinogen. In samples purchased in 2005 or later (n = 61)m the most common FR detected were TDCPP (52%) and components assocd. with the Firemaster550 (FM 550) mixt. (18%). Since the 2005 phase-out of PentaBDE, use of TDCPP significantly increased. Also, a mixt. of non-halogenated organophosphate FR, including tri-Ph phosphate (TPP), tris(4-butylphenyl) phosphate (TBPP), and a mix of butylphenyl phosphate isomers, were obsd. in 13% of couch samples purchased in 2005 or later. Overall, the prevalence of FR (and PentaBDE) was higher in couches bought in California vs. elsewhere, although the difference was not quite significant (p = 0.054 for PentaBDE). The difference was greater before 2005 than after, suggesting TB 117 is becoming a de-facto std. across the US. This work detd. the presence of a TB 117 label predicted the presence of a FR; however, lack of a label did not predict the absence of a FR. Following the PentaBDE phase-out, an increased no. of flame retardants was obsd. on the market. With these results and the potential for human exposure to FR, health studies should be conducted on the types of FR identified here.
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    3. 3
      de Wit, C. A. An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment Chemosphere 2002, 46 (5) 583– 624
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      An overview of brominated flame retardants in the environment
      de Wit, Cynthia A.
      Chemosphere (2002), 46 (5), 583-624CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
      A review. The presence of brominated flame retardant (BFR) chems., and particularly polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), has become of increasing concern to scientists over the past decade. Environmental studies conducted primarily in Europe, Japan and North America indicate that these chems. are ubiquitous in sediment and biota. The levels of PBDEs seem to be increasing, and several trends, including in humans, indicate that this increase may be rapid. The occurrence of high concns. of certain PBDE isomers may be sufficient to elicit adverse effects in some wildlife. There is also concern that levels could cause adverse effects in sensitive human populations such as young children, indigenous peoples, and fish consumers. However, our knowledge about these chems., their sources, environmental behavior, and toxicity is limited, making risk assessment difficult. In this paper, the current state of knowledge is reviewed and areas for further research recommended to improve future monitoring and risk assessment efforts.
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    4. 4
      Alaee, M. An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release Environ. Int. 2003, 29 (6) 683– 689
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      An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants, their applications, their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release
      Alaee, Mehran; Arias, Pedro; Sjodin, Andreas; Bergman, Ake
      Environment International (2003), 29 (6), 683-689CODEN: ENVIDV; ISSN:0160-4120. (Elsevier Science Ltd.)
      A review. Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are used in a variety of consumer products and several of those are produced in large quantities. These compds. were detected in environmental samples, which can be attributed to the anthropogenic uses of these compds. Brominated flame retardants are produced via direct bromination of org. mols. or via addn. of bromine to alkenes; hence, an overview of the prodn. and usage of bromine over the past three decades is covered. Prodn., application, and environmental occurrence of high prodn. brominated flame retardants including tetrabromobisphenol A, polybrominated biphenyls, penta-, octa-, deca-brominated di-Ph ether (oxide) formulation, and hexabromocyclododecane are discussed.
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      Tullo, A. Great Lakes to phase out flame retardants Chem. Eng. News 2003, 81 (45) 13
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      Birnbaum, L. S.; Staskal, D. F. Brominated flame retardants: Cause for concern? Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112 (1) 9– 17
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      Hites, R. A. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the environment and in people: A meta-analysis of concentrations Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38 (4) 945– 956
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      Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in the Environment and in People: A Meta-Analysis of Concentrations
      Hites, Ronald A.
      Environmental Science and Technology (2004), 38 (4), 945-956CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      A review concerning polybrominated di-Ph ether (PBDE) concns. in environmental matrixes and human blood, milk, and tissue, analyzing these data in terms of relative concns., concn. trends, and congener profiles, is given. Topics discussed include: review strategy; human samples; air; marine mammals; birds; fish; sediment; other matrixes; principal component anal. of congener distribution; and research recommendations.
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    8. 8
      Sjodin, A. Serum concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in the United States population: 2003–2004 Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (4) 1377– 1384
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    9. 9
      Stapleton, H. M. Serum PBDEs in a North Carolina Toddler Cohort: Associations with Handwipes, House Dust, and Socioeconomic Variables Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120 (7) 1049– 1054
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      9
      Serum PBDEs in a North Carolina toddler cohort: associations with handwipes, house dust, and socioeconomic variables
      Stapleton, Heather M.; Eagle, Sarah; Sjodin, Andreas; Webster, Thomas F.
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2012), 120 (7), 1049-1054CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
      Background: Polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) are persistent, bioaccumulative, and endocrine-disrupting chems. Objectives: We used handwipes to est. exposure to PBDEs in house dust among toddlers and examd. sex, age, breast-feeding, race, and parents' education as predictors of serum PBDEs. Methods: Eighty-three children from 12 to 36 mo of age were enrolled in North Carolina between May 2009 and Nov. 2010. Blood, handwipe, and house dust samples were collected and analyzed for PBDEs. A questionnaire was administered to collect demog. data. Results: PBDEs were detected in all serum samples (geometric mean for ΣpentaBDE in serum was 43.3 ng/g lipid), 98% of the handwipe samples, and 100% of the dust samples. Serum ΣpentaBDEs were significantly correlated with both handwipe and house dust ΣpentaBDE levels, but were more strongly assocd. with handwipe levels (r = 0.57; p < 0.001 vs. r = 0.35; p < 0.01). Multivariate model ests. revealed that handwipe levels, child's sex, child's age, and father's education accounted for 39% of the variation in serum ΣBDE3 levels (sum of BDEs 47, 99, and 100). In contrast, age, handwipe levels, and breast-feeding duration explained 39% of the variation in serum BDE 153. Conclusions: Our study suggests that hand-to-mouth activity may be a significant source of exposure to PBDEs. Furthermore, age, socioeconomic status, and breast-feeding were significant predictors of exposure, but assocns. varied by congener. Specifically, serum ΣBDE3 was inversely assocd. with socioeconomic status, whereas serum BDE-153 was pos. assocd. with duration of breast-feeding and mother's education.
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    10. 10
      Environmental Protection Agency. DecaBDEPhase-out Initiative,2009 (http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/deccadbe.html; accessed September 23, 2013) .
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      Johnson, P. I. Relationships between Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether Concentrations in House Dust and Serum Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44 (14) 5627– 5632
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      11
      Relationships between polybrominated diphenyl ether concentrations in house dust and serum
      Johnson, Paula I.; Stapleton, Heather M.; Sjodin, Andreas; Meeker, John D.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2010), 44 (14), 5627-5632CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) were measured in the home environment and in humans, but studies linking environmental levels to body burdens are limited. This study examines the relationship between PBDE concns. in house dust and serum from adults residing in these homes. We measured PBDE concns. in house dust from 50 homes and in serum of male-female couples from 12 of the homes. Detection rates, dust-serum, and within-matrix correlations varied by PBDE congener. There was a strong correlation (r = 0.65-0.89, p < 0.05) between dust and serum concns. of several predominant PBDE congeners (BDE 47, 99, and 100). Dust and serum levels of BDE 153 were not correlated (r < 0.01). The correlation of dust and serum levels of BDE 209 could not be evaluated due to low detection rates of BDE 209 in serum. Serum concns. of the sum of BDE 47, 99, and 100 were also strongly correlated within couples (r = 0.85, p = 0.0005). This study provides evidence that house dust is a primary exposure pathway of PBDEs and supports the use of dust PBDE concns. as a marker for exposure to PBDE congeners other than BDE 153.
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    12. 12
      Watkins, D. J. Exposure to PBDEs in the Office Environment: Evaluating the Relationships Between Dust, Handwipes, and Serum Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119 (9) 1247– 1252
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      Exposure to PBDEs in the office environment: evaluating the relationships between dust, handwipes, and serum
      Watkins, Deborah J.; McClean, Michael D.; Fraser, Alicia J.; Weinberg, Janice; Stapleton, Heather M.; Sjoedin, Andreas; Webster, Thomas F.
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2011), 119 (9), 1247-1252CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
      Background: Polybrominated cliphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been widely used as flame retardants in consumer products and are ubiquitous in residential indoor air and dust. However, little is known about exposure in the office environment. Objectives: We examd. relationships between PBDE concns. in the office environment and internal exposure using concurrent measurements of PBDEs in serum, handwipes, and office dust. Methods: We collected serum, dust, and handwipe samples from 31 participants who spent at least 20 h/wk in an office. We used a questionnaire to collect information about work and personal habits. Results: We found pos. assocns. between PBDEs in room dust, handwipes (a measure of personal exposure), and serum. PBDE office dust concns. were weakly correlated with measurements in handwipes: r = 0.35 (p = 0.06) for pentaBDE (sum of BDE congeners 28/33, 47, 99, 100, and 153) and 0.33 (p = 0.07) for BDE-209. Hand washing also predicted pentaBDE levels in handwipes: low hand-washers had 3.3 times the pentaBDE levels in their handwipes than did high hand-washers (p = 0.02). PentaBDE in handwipes predicted pentaBDE levels in serum (p = 0.03): Serum concns. in the highest handwipe tertile were on av. 3.5 times the lowest handwipe tertile. The geometric mean concn. of pentaBDEs in serum was 27 ng/g lipid. We detected BDE-209 in 20% of serum samples, at levels ranging from < 4.8 to 9.7 ng/g lipid. Conclusion: Our research suggests that exposure to pentaBDE in the office environment contributes to pentaBDE body burden, with exposure likely linked to PBDE residues on hands. In addn., hand washing may decrease exposure to PBDEs.
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      Carignan, C. C. Predictors of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate metabolite in the urine of office workers Environ. Int. 2013, 55, 56– 61
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      Carignan, C. C. Flame Retardant Exposure Among Collegiate U.S. Gymnasts Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 13848– 13856
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      Leitner, G. J. A New Flame Retardant-Water Repellent Finish for Tenting Fabrics Journal of Coated Fabrics 1976, 6, 3– 12
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      A new flame retardant-water repellent finish for tenting fabrics
      Leitner, George J.
      Journal of Coated Fabrics (1976), 6 (1), 3-12CODEN: JCTFAL; ISSN:0093-4658.
      A tenting finish based on the coreaction of FYROL 76 (oligomeric vinyl phosphonate) with a methylolated melamine, provides durable flame retardancy and water repellency with little addnl. wt. to the fabric. The water repellency is obtained by treating with a combination of fluorochem. and fluorochem. extender. The finished fabric has attractive appearance, good phys. properties, and durability to accelerated weathering conditions.
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      Stapleton, H. M. Measurement of polybrominated diphenyl ethers on hand wipes: Estimating exposure from hand-to-mouth contact Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42 (9) 3329– 3334
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      16
      Measurement of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers on Hand Wipes: Estimating Exposure from Hand-to-Mouth Contact
      Stapleton, Heather M.; Kelly, Shannon M.; Allen, Joseph G.; McClean, Michael D.; Webster, Thomas F.
      Environmental Science & Technology (2008), 42 (9), 3329-3334CODEN: ESTHAG; ISSN:0013-936X. (American Chemical Society)
      Ests. of exposure to polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDE) flame retardants in dust are very poor due to limited knowledge concerning dust ingestion. This work detd. whether PBDE could be measured on hand wipes, and if so, detd. the distribution of levels present on the skin surface area to provide preliminary exposure ests. for hand-to-mouth contact. Hand wipes were collected from 33 individuals residing in the US using sterile gauze pads soaked in iso-Pr alc. Total PBDE residue collected on wipes was 2.60-1982 ng with a median value of 130 ng, or normalized to hand surface area, a concn. of 135 pg/cm2. The fully brominated congener, BDE 209, was also detected, ranging from less than detection limits to 270 ng with a median value of 26 ng. Congener patterns obsd. on wipes were similar to patterns obsd. in house dust samples, consisting of congeners assocd. with PentaBDE and DecaBDE mixts., suggesting the PBDE source to hands may be dust particles; however, PBDE hand residues may also be due to direct contact with PBDE-laden products, leading to adsorption by skin surface oils. Repeated wipe sampling from 3 individuals suggests .sum.PBDE concns. on the hand may be relatively consistent for some individuals but not for others. ΣPBDE concns. were greater on the bottom of the hands vs. the top of the hands. Using these values, the authors calcd. potential human exposure from hand-to-mouth contact. Median exposure ests. for children and adults were 1380 and 154 ng/day, resp.; 95th percentile exposure ests. were 6090 and 677 ng/day, resp. These ests. were greater than dietary intake rates and suggested hand-to-mouth contact may be a key PBDE exposure route.
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    17. 17
      Watkins, D. J.; McClean, M. D.; Fraser, A. J.; Weinberg, J.; Stapleton, H. M.; Webster, T. F. Associations between PBDEs in office air, dust, and surface wipes Environ. Int. 2013, 59, 124– 132
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      Meeker, J. D. Urinary metabolites of organophosphate flame retardants: Temporal variability and correlations with house dust concentrations Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121 (5) 580– 5
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      18
      Urinary metabolites of organophosphate flame retardants: temporal variability and correlations with house dust concentrations
      Meeker, John D.; Cooper, Ellen M.; Stapleton, Heather M.; Hauser, Russ
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2013), 121 (5), 580-585, 6 pp.CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:1552-9924. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health)
      Background: A redn. in the use of polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) because of human health concerns may result in an increased use of and human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs). Human exposure and health studies of OPFRs are lacking. Objectives: We sought to define the degree of temporal variability in urinary OPFR metabolites in order to inform epidemiol. study design, and to explore a potential primary source of exposure by examg. the relationship between OPFRs in house dust and their metabolites in urine. Methods: Nine repeated urine samples were collected from 7 men over the course of 3 mo and analyzed for bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCPP) and di-Ph phosphate (DPP), metabolites of the OPFRs tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCPP) and tri-Ph phosphate (TPP), resp. Intraclass correlation coeffs. (ICCs) were calcd. to characterize temporal reliability. Paired house dust and urine samples were collected from 45 men. Results: BDCPP was detected in 91% of urine samples, and DPP in 96%. Urinary BDCPP showed moderate-to-strong temporal reliability (ICC range, 0.55-0.72). ICCs for DPP were lower, but moderately reliable (range, 0.35-0.51). There was a weak [Spearman r (rS) = 0.31] but significant (p = 0.03) correlation between urinary BDCPP and TDCPP concns. in house dust that strengthened when nondetects (rS = 0.47) were excluded. There was no correlation between uncorrected DPP and TPP measured in house dust (rS < 0.1). Conclusions: Household dust may be an important source of exposure to TDCPP but not TPP. Urinary concns. of BDCPP and DPP were moderately to highly reliable within individuals over 3 mo.
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      ICL Industrial Products to expand polymeric flame retardant production, 2012 (http://www.chemicals-technology.com/news/newsicl-industrial-products-us-polymeric-retardant; accessed September 23, 2013).
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      Herbstman, J. B. Prenatal Exposure to PBDEs and Neurodevelopment Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118 (5) 712– 719
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      20
      Prenatal exposure to PBDEs and neurodevelopment
      Herbstman, Julie B.; Sjodin, Andreas; Kurzon, Matthew; Lederman, Sally A.; Jones, Richard S.; Rauh, Virginia; Needham, Larry L.; Tang, Deliang; Niedzwiecki, Megan; Wang, Richard Y.; Perera, Frederica
      Environmental Health Perspectives (2010), 118 (5), 712-719CODEN: EVHPAZ; ISSN:0091-6765. (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services)
      Background: Polybrominated di-Ph ethers (PBDEs) are widely used flame retardant compds. that are persistent and bioaccumulative and therefore have become ubiquitous environment contaminants. Animal studies suggest that prenatal PBDE exposure may result in adverse neurodevelopmental effects. Objective: In a longitudinal cohort initiated after 11 Sept. 2001, including 329 mothers who delivered in one of three hospitals in lower Manhattan, New York, we examd. prenatal PBDE exposure and neurodevelopment when their children were 12-48 and 72 mo of age. Methods: We analyzed 210 cord blood specimens for selected PBDE congeners and assessed neurodevelopmental effects in the children at 12-48 and 72 mo of age; 118, 117, 114, 104, and 96 children with available cord PBDE measurements were assessed at 12, 24, 36, 48, and 72 mo, resp. We used multivariate regression analyses to evaluate the assocns. between concns. of individual PBDE congeners and neurodevelopmental indexes. Results: Median cord blood concns. of PBDE congeners 47, 99, and 100 were 11.2, 3.2, and 1.4 ng/g lipid, resp. After adjustment for potential confounders, children with higher concns. of BDEs 47, 99, or 100 scored lower on tests of mental and phys. development at 12-48 and 72 mo. Assocns. were significant for 12-mo Psychomotor Development Index (BDE-47), 24-mo Mental Development Index (MDI) (BDE-47, 99, and 100), 36-mo MDI (BDE-100), 48-mo full-scale and verbal IQ (BDE-47, 99, and 100) and performance IQ (BDE-100), and 72-mo performance IQ (BDE-100). Conclusions: This epidemiol. study demonstrates neurodevelopmental effects in relation to cord blood PBDE concns. Confirmation is needed in other longitudinal studies.
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      Eskenazi, B. In Utero and Childhood Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) Exposures and Neurodevelopment in the CHAMACOS Study Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121 (2) 257– 262
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      Gosavi, R. A.; Knudsen, G. A.; Birnbaum, L. S.; Pedersen, L. C. Mimicking of Estradiol Binding by Flame Retardants and Their Metabolites: A Crystallographic Analysis Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121 (10) 1194– 1199
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    Additional information about the methods used, a table of measured values in the tent fabrics, and figures depicting the associations between TPP and BDE-209 in hand wipes and tent wipes. This material is available free of charge via the Internet at http://pubs.acs.org.


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