Foodborne diseases are a serious threat to human health in most countries. The fast recognition and spotting of foodborne pathogens have created dynamic attention from researchers in controlling and avoiding human foodborne contaminations. Conversely, biosensors can sense pathogens faster with high sensitivity and stability proportional to those of traditional approaches. Electrochemical immunosensors (biosensors) are used to determine pathogens in food in addition to conventional traditional methods nowadays. From this point of view, the present review focuses on recent developments in electrochemical immunosensors utilizing nanomaterials, with widespread attention being paid to the fast prediction of different foodborne pathogens. Further, we have discussed the fundamental and principle mechanism of biosensors for sensing foodborne pathogens like E. coli, cholera, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, etc., with specific emphasis on different sensing platforms. We have also provided a critical discussion on current explorations and future challenges in this field of study.

Spectroscopic methods, such as Mid-Infrared (MIR), Near-Infrared (NIR), fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy are rapid, inexpensive and nondestructive. Traditionally, mainly MIR and NIR spectroscopy have been employed to predict the compositional properties of milk. However, measurement of the key functional properties of milk is of high industry relevance. In this review, studies on the use of spectroscopic techniques for predicting milk functional properties are compared and reported models are outlined. The challenges of employing spectroscopy in functionality applications are discussed. For pH and curd yield, some of the MIR models display a robust prediction performance. With further model validation, calibrations for these properties could potentially be added to existing MIR instruments in the industry. Despite fluorescence and NIR spectroscopy being used for many dairy applications, their use for milk functionality is limited currently. As Raman spectroscopy is sensitive to the components of raw milk, it has potential for predicting milk functional properties.

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), also known as porous coordination polymers (PCPs), are advanced materials with tunable porosities, surface areas, and surface chemistries. These properties make MOFs suitable for various applications, including adsorption, sensing, catalysis, packaging, drug delivery, and gas storage. MOFs can be assembled from food-grade components, which makes them suitable for application in foods and food packaging materials. This review article begins by describing the fabrication, structure, and physicochemical characteristics of MOFs. Then, potential applications of MOFs in the food industry are discussed, including as adsorbents, sensors, packaging additives, delivery systems, and gas storage materials. Finally, safety and regulatory considerations related to the application of MOFs in foods are discussed.

The rising demand for sustainable protein alternatives has encouraged processors to increase their exploration of nonconventional protein sources. Environmental concerns, health issues, and projected population growth to 8.5 billion by 2030 also trigger their utilization. Traditional protein sources like meat and dairy face limitations in meeting these challenges. This review extensively explores the various nonconventional protein sources, such as microalgae, insects, plant leaves, microbial proteins, mushrooms, and jellyfish. These nonconventional protein sources have advantages such as low cost, environmentally friendly production methods, and nutritional benefits. The downstream processing methods, like ultrasound-assisted extraction and high-pressure techniques, help improve protein recovery and alter their functional properties. Furthermore, integrating nonconventional proteins into food systems offers an opportunity to tackle sustainability challenges linked to traditional animal farming. This enables the food industry to decrease environmental impact and bolster global food security.

A facile tannic acid (TA) based multimodal sensor was developed to detect calcium based artificial ripening agent calcium carbide (CaC₂) through colorimetric and fluorescence methods. The interaction of TA with CaC₂ is proposed to be through the −OH groups of TA which can be confirmed by various spectrochemical analysis. Carbon dots (TA-CDs) with a quantum yield of 34% were synthesized from TA by hydrothermal method and evaluated for their efficiency as a fluorescent “turn-off” sensor for the detection of CaC₂. The properties and the interaction of the TA-CDs with CaC₂ were analyzed by various spectroscopic methods such as UV–visible, FT-IR, Raman, and photoluminescence spectroscopy. The change in the morphology and the stability of the TA-CDs were studied by using HR-TEM, zeta potential analysis, and various other parameters. The LOD and LOQ of sensing were found to be 147 and 447 ppm, respectively. Further, TA based paper strips were developed which showed promising results enabling point-of-care detection of CaC₂.

Hop oils form microscopic emulsions in aqueous beer, but little is known about which molecules in beer stabilize these emulsions. Here we use a microfluidic platform as a tool to enable the creation of assays to explore the role of proteins in the stabilization of hop oil emulsions in beer. The terpenes linalool and α-pinene were used to form emulsions with a Kölsch-style ale on a microfluidic device (oil-in-beer emulsions). Gluten was added to these emulsions on-chip to investigate how this protein, which is present in beer, affects the stability of the emulsions. Then Brewers Clarex, an enzyme commonly used in brewing to degrade proteins, was added to digest the oil-in-beer emulsions. Our data suggest that the type and amount of proteins present in beer may affect the stability of the hop oil emulsions, which could have an impact on the shelf life and sensory quality of the beer.

This study investigated the variation in health- and sensory-related phytochemicals and agronomic characteristics of 26 head cabbage cultivars grown in randomized block field trials under commercial cultivation conditions in three different harvest seasons. The main goal was to provide increased knowledge on the nutritional quality of current and potential new cabbage cultivars to allow for a substantiated choice of cultivars for growers, industry, and consumers. Providing a wide diversity, all cultivars performed well with regard to agronomic characteristics that determine market quality and revenue. Sugar content, an important parameter for consumer acceptance, was surprisingly similar in all cultivars, although higher and more variable in the winter cultivars. Red cabbages were among the highest in vitamin C, total phenolics, and glucosinolate content, especially in the coveted glucoraphanin, the precursor to sulforaphane. Savoy cabbage was highest in glucosinolate content and high in vitamin C but more like white cabbages in all other phytochemical parameters. Among the 20 white cultivars across all three seasons, there were small but significant differences in phytochemical content. Thus, the potential for product differentiation among this selection of cabbages was high.

Kurarinone, the major lavandulyl flavanone identified in the roots of Sophora flavescens, has been reported to have different channel and transporter activity modulation capacities; nevertheless, its ability to block T-type channels and inflammatory pain activity have not been fully investigated. In this work, we used the whole-cell patch clamp technique to examine the ability of kurarinone to block T-type calcium channels. Kurarinone acted as a nonselective T-type channel antagonist that inhibited Cav3.2 channels expressed in tsA-201 cells with an IC₅₀ of 1.1 ± 0.3 μM and blocked native T-type channels in mouse dorsal root ganglion neurons. Transiently expressed Cav2.2 channels were also blocked. Molecular docking analysis predicted that the phenyl ring, lavandulyl, and hydroxyl groups of kurarinone interact directly with the pore domains of all three T-type calcium channels via hydrogen and hydrophobic interactions. Kurarinone administered intraperitoneally (10 mg/kg/i.p.) significantly inhibited phase II of formalin-induced nocifensive responses in mice. Furthermore, kurarinone reduced thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical hypersensitivity in mice injected with Complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) into the hind paw in an inflammatory pain mouse model. Taken together, our findings indicate that kurarinone has analgesic activity through blocking calcium channels.

Lipid oxidation of fresh walnut kernels (FW) is a major concern. In this study, fresh walnut kernels were coated with nano Pickering emulsion-based coatings enriched with peppermint essential oil (PMEO) and green tea extract (GTE) to enhance their shelf life. Coated and uncoated kernels were evaluated for their moisture, texture, oxidation, fatty acid profile, color, and enzymatic activity. The results found that the coating solute ions significantly reduced moisture content (12.22 to 4.28%), peroxide value (0.1 to 0.6 mequiv O₂/kg oil), and firmness during storage while maintaining the antioxidant activity. The polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) activity showed an inconsistent increase with storage. The coating solutions retained the pellicle color and exhibited a higher overall acceptance than the control. From GC-MS results, it was found that besides fatty acids, esters were also present in coated kernels. Among coating solutions, PM-coated fresh walnut kernels show better results than GTE. This study revealed that nano Pickering emulsion coatings enriched with natural antioxidants, such as peppermint essential oil, could be used as a coating material for enhancing the shelf life of fresh walnut kernels.

This study aimed to coat a snack bar with an edible film made from pomegranate peel and lentil protein. The bars with edible film coating were stored at 25 °C and 35% relative humidity (normal conditions) and at 35 °C and 70% relative humidity (climate conditions). Snack bars containing dried figs and strawberries were coated using the dipping method. The physicochemical profile, microbial safety, and sensory properties of the bars were examined. The film thickness was 0.06 mm, the degree of swelling was 4.53%, and the tensile strength was 7.60 MPa. The combination of the pomegranate peel and lentil protein formed a continuous film network. The coating resulted in an increase in the phenolic and protein contents of the bars and also lowered their water activity. However, color differences were observed in the bars under the climate conditions. The edible film coating maintained the nutritional value and quality of the snack bars throughout storage.

This study aimed to fill the knowledge gap about the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in tomatoes, classifying them based on their defense mechanisms by cluster analysis (CA) and assessing their susceptibility to toxigenic effects of Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus ochraceus. Samples of Khaki, Cherry, Italian, and Long-Life tomatoes were collected and had their phenolic acid and amino acid profiles determined by HPLC-PDA and HPLC-FL, respectively. Enzymatic activities of peroxidase (PO), polyphenoloxidase (PPO), catalase (CAT), and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) were also determined. OTA levels were below the quantification limit (2.2 ng g^–1) in every sample. Their dissimilarity was determined by the CA of the defense mechanism components. The tomato varieties were classified into three subgroups: Italian, Khaki, and Long-Life and Cherry. They had similar soluble phenolic contents whose extracts were inhibited at around 50% growth of P. verrucosum and A. ochraceus. Although they did not have any fungistatic effect, the minimal inhibitory concentration was low (0.2 ng mL^–1). Absence of OTA in samples and antifungal activity of phenolic extracts suggested that these tomato varieties had efficient strategies against damage caused by these toxigenic fungal species.

Plant-based foods have become increasingly popular among consumers because of their health benefits and their sustainable nature. Powdered foods are a convenient option that are easy to store and transport. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a powdered plant-based beverage using a combination of chickpeas, quinoa, sweet potato, brown rice, and cocoa and evaluate the effect of different carrier agents (10% maltodextrin or 10% pea protein isolate) and dilution percentages (0, 30, 50, 70, and 90%) on the powder yield. The powered plant beverage was obtained by spray drying. M4 (maltodextrin4), with a 60% dilution and 10% maltodextrin, was selected for physicochemical characterization. X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that the resulting powdered beverage had an amorphous structure. The M4 sample exhibits a pH of 5.38 ± 0.09, titratable acidity of 0.78 ± 0.04, moisture content of 2.61 ± 0.22%, water activity of 0.23 ± 0.02, solubility of 52.29 ± 2.94, hygroscopicity of 5.00 ± 0.86, bulk density of 0.40 ± 0.0 g/mL, and rehydration time of 34.57 s. The content of ash was 0.51 ± 0.07%, protein was 3.85 ± 0.14%, lipid was 1.46 ± 0.18%, carbohydrates was 91.37 ± 0.15%, energy value was 119.91 ± 0.14 kcal/100 mL, and insoluble, soluble, and total fibers were 5.51 ± 1.24, 1.51 ± 0.42, and 6.69 ± 1.61%, respectively. The antioxidant activity was 99.36 ± 0.17%. NMR spectroscopy detected sucrose, maltotriose, and threonine as the primary organic compounds. In conclusion, this product shows promising market potential because of its favorable characteristics, such as its amorphous nature, nonhygroscopicity, satisfactory rehydration time, and antioxidant activity.

In the cocoa industry, cocoa sweating from bean fermentation is a significant waste byproduct with few reported alternative uses. In this work, five-day fermentation cocoa sweating (FS) was collected, freeze-dried, and incorporated into wheat bread production. The organic acids and sugars found in FS were citric acid (13 g/kg), acetic acid (10.2 g/kg), lactic acid (0.06 g/kg), and sucrose (4.7 g/kg), glucose (5.9 g/kg), and fructose (4.5 g/kg), respectively. Microbiologically, FS contained lactic acid bacteria (LAB; 5.1 log CFU/g), yeast (2.4 log CFU/g), and no coliforms detected. The bread produced with FS (BFS) had water absorption (64.75%), mixing time (3 min), and breadmaking features comparable to those of the control wheat bread (BWF). However, BFS had significantly lower bread volumes. The organic acids found in BFS (citric acid, 200 mg/kg; acetic acid, 670 mg/kg; lactic acid, 3460 mg/kg) were comparable to those in BWF. Despite its browner crumb color, BFS demonstrated superior flavor, aroma, and overall sensory acceptability. Therefore, the FS is a potential ingredient in breadmaking.

This study assessed the antioxidant properties of peptide mixtures extracted from salmon bones using a basic saline solution extraction process, either with ammonium hydrogen carbonate or a combination of ammonium hydrogen carbonate and ammonium hydrogen phosphate. The extracts were rich in collagen and derived peptides. After fractionating based on molecular weight, the antioxidant activity of each fraction was evaluated. ABTS (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) assays revealed that the extracts obtained with ammonium hydrogen carbonate solution and containing peptides below 10 kDa exhibited the highest antioxidant activity. In vitro tests confirmed that these extracts protected cells from oxidation induced by hydrogen peroxide. High resolution respirometry, a method rarely reported in other studies, demonstrated the extracts’ protective effects at the mitochondrial level. Furthermore, a preservative effect on the formation of new reactive oxygen species resulting from induced oxidative stress was observed. Mass spectrometry revealed peptides with known and predicted antioxidant motifs. This study highlights the potential of fish bones, a major byproduct of the food industry, as a valuable source of antioxidant compounds with applications in cosmetics and biomedicine, beyond their traditional use for calcium phosphate extraction.

Consumers are at risk of exposure to carcinogenic and toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) through dairy consumption. This study analyzed 39 yogurt samples for PAH24 using GC–QqQ-MS following quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe pretreatment. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) levels, cumulative PAH concentrations, and toxic equivalents (TEQs) ranged from not quantified to 1.30, 12.30 to 216.75, and 0.02 to 8.50 μg/kg, respectively. Among three types of yogurts, baked yogurt showed the highest concentration and TEQ due to the Maillard reaction. The mean PAH concentration and TEQ were 109% and 395% higher in full-fat yogurt compared with low-fat yogurt, respectively. According to the maximum daily intake derived from the incremental lifetime cancer risk model, further reduction of PAH levels in yogurt is essential for enhanced safety. This study recommends improving the Maillard processing to control PAH levels and establishing regulations for PAHs in yogurt based on TEQ levels.

Tucuma is a native Amazon palm strategic to the local economy due to its pulp and kernel oil utilization and its possibility to be used in the recovery of degraded areas. The oil extraction generates a postpressing cake with potential industrial utilization. The utilization of this residue to generate new products is an opportunity to expand the market of the fruit, aiming at an almost zero waste industrial plant; moreover, it also helps to boost the local bioeconomy. The present work aims to evaluate the hydroethanolic extraction of phenolic compounds, with and without surfactant addition, from the tucuma pulp postpressing cake. For this, the hydroethanolic extraction was carried out at 62 °C, a solid:liquid ratio of 1:13, and an ethanol concentration equal to 54%; at this condition two rhamnolipid (RML) type surfactants, one with a majority of mono-RML and the other with a majority of di-RML, was added. The hydroethanolic extraction without RML presented catechin, epicatechin, and epigallocatechin. The addition of the RMLs in the extraction media modulates the phenolic compounds extracted and their quantities due to the relationship between the polarity of the phenolic compound (Log P) and the hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) of RMLs. The addition of mono-RML (HLB = 7.0) shifts the polarity of the system and enables the extraction of more hydrophobic compounds (epigallocatechin gallate, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid) and catechin. The di-RML hydroethanolic extract (HLB = 9.0) was the one with the highest number of compounds (catechin, epigallocatechin gallate, epicatechin, epigallocatechin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid). This is probably due to the higher surfactant HLB and the proportion of mono/di-RML. The antifungal capacity of the extracts against fungi that cause postharvest rot in oranges and strawberries was also evaluated. Both mono-RML and di-RML hydroethanolic extracts presented higher inhibitory activity than the sole hydroethanolic extract or the sole RML, when evaluated against rot fungi. The RML extracts antifungal activity is probably due to the synergism between the phenolic compounds and RML. This is the first time that different RML congeners have been evaluated to extract different categories of phenolic compounds with different fungicidal actions.

The “Belgian White” style beer is generally brewed with hops, coriander seeds and orange peels as flavoring raw ingredients. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) seeds contain several terpenoids, including linalool and geraniol. Coriander seed-derived geraniol can be converted to β-citronellol during fermentation, which can form the citrus aroma found in coriander beers by sensory synergy among linalool, geraniol, and β-citronellol. However, coriander beers also have other characteristic aromas which have not yet been fully investigated. Coriander seeds harvested from different countries, including Bulgaria, Canada, Morocco, and India, imparted different flavors to the finished beer. Here, we analyzed the flavor compounds in different coriander seeds using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, and found that camphor, carvone, and (E)-anethole were unique to coriander seeds grown in Bulgaria. These compounds were also detected in beers brewed with Bulgarian coriander seeds. In addition, these compounds were revealed to enhance the flowery characteristics of beer by synergizing with excess linalool.

Starch noodles, suitable for celiac patients due to their gluten-free nature, often face challenges such as poor structural stability, low cooking resistance, and easy breakage. Alum (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O) is applied to improve the textural and cooking characteristics, and Al³⁺ can accumulate in the body after long-term intake of alum, posing a serious threat to human health. Therefore, developing new methods to improve the quality of alum-free starch noodles is essential. Binder paste preparation is a crucial initial step in starch noodle processing, which can influence the quality of starch noodles by affecting the structure and rheological properties of the starch dough. In this study, the granular characteristics of different types of starches (potato starch, pea starch, and sweet potato starch), the rheological properties of their binder paste and starch dough, and the texture and microstructure of corresponding wet starch noodles were investigated. The results indicated that the rheological properties and the stability of starch dough during the dropping process largely depended on the viscosity, consistency, uniformity, and shear resistance of the binder paste, ultimately affecting the tensile and shear properties of the wet starch noodles. Correlation analysis showed that binder paste prepared by potato starch with larger particle size and pea starch displayed higher stability than that of other three starches; their starch dough also exhibited better consistency and dropping performance, which contributed to the excellent continuity and tensile strength of wet starch noodles. These findings could provide a theoretical basis for producing alum-free wet starch noodles by changing the type of starch used in binder paste preparation from the point of view of food quality enhancement, economy, and human health protection.

Green solvents, like natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDES) derived from biobased molecules, are gaining prominence over conventional solvents due to their eco-friendly, less toxic, biodegradable, and cost-effective attributes. This study focuses on NaDES derived from food-grade compounds for extracting phenolic compounds and anthocyanins from different rice bran types, comparing them with ethanol and 10% acidic water. NaDES formulations displayed superior extraction efficiency for both phenolic compounds and anthocyanins in bound and free forms. Notably, the betaine/sucrose/water NaDES extracted the highest antioxidant compounds from the Niaw Dum Mor variety, showing 7 times higher antioxidant activity than ethanol in (2,2)-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assays and 2.5 times higher in oil-in-water emulsion systems. This study highlights the effectiveness of betaine-based NaDES with sucrose in extracting phenolic compounds, offering a sustainable approach for future antioxidant extract formulations.

Emulsifiers play key roles in a number of industries including those concerned with the production of food, medicines and cosmetics. In the present study, the surface effects, interfacial properties and emulsification characteristics of nine types of commonly deployed O/W emulsifiers, namely soy lecithin (SL), sodium stearyl lactate (SSL), sodium lauryl sulfonate (SLS), sucrose esters L1695, P1670 and S1670, Tween 80, polyglyceryl-10 laurate (PL) as well as sodium caseinate (SC), have been evaluated in a comprehensive and systematic manner. S1670, P1670, and L1695 exhibited the lowest critical micelle concentration (CMC) values among the eight emulsifiers tested (SLS could not be evaluated because of solubility issues) while L1695, Tween 80, and P1670 were found to significantly modify the wettability of a glass substrate. In terms of foaming performance, L1695 and SLS were best. O/W emulsions stabilized by these nine emulsifiers could all be stored for at least 15 days over the temperature range 2 to 8 °C in neutral and alkaline environments but, with the exception of those derived from Tween 80, not below pH 7. Emulsions stabilized by S1670, P1670, and L1695 were found to be sensitive to higher salt concentrations. In their evaluation under simulated digestion conditions, the emulsions remained intact under the oral and stomach phases but collapsed in the corresponding small intestine stage. This resulted in free fatty acid (FFA) release of between 70 and 80% (the equivalent release arising from emulsions prepared using L1695 and PL was below 40%). Such profiles should be capable of exploitation in the development of encapsulated (controlled release) delivery systems that protect delicate active components.

We hypothesized that the first fermentation of bread dough at −1 °C, a temperature within the superchilling zone but that does not produce ice crystals, would alter metabolite composition compared to conventional methods, thereby improving palatability. This study investigated the impact of −1 °C first fermentation (−1 °C_FF) on the metabolite profiles and palatability in bread production. Bread subjected to −1 °C_FF for 72 h exhibited significantly higher glucose and fructose contents compared to bread produced using a normal first fermentation (NFF, 28 °C for 1 h) or a 4 °C first fermentation (4 °C_FF) for 72 h. This increase in sugar content may be attributed to the inhibition of yeast sugar uptake or alcoholic fermentation at −1 °C. Sensory analysis revealed that the −1 °C_FF bread was perceived as sweeter than the NFF and 4 °C_FF breads. These results suggest that −1 °C_FF represents a novel fermentation method capable of enhancing the sweetness of bread.

This work investigated the single-droplet drying kinetics of sugar cane syrups obtained from a noncentrifugal sugar cane (jaggery) process. Initially, equilibrium moisture content of syrup solids was measured, and it ranged from 1.7 to 15.6% wt. in-between 333 to 423 K. Data were correlated with an exponential Separation Processes Service (SPS) model suitable to compute limiting drying conditions during spray drying modeling. Then, drying kinetics were experimentally studied by mean of intrusive levitation experiments conducted at different temperatures (333–413 K), air velocities (0.5–1.5 m/s), solids content in syrups (38–66°Brix), and initial droplet volumes (1–10 μL), and assessing their effect on droplet mass (m_d), diameter, and temperature over time (t). Kinetic profiles allowed for the identification of the drying mechanisms at play: evaporation occurs below 365 K, vaporization occurs above 365 K, and a combination of evaporation and vaporization occurs above the glass transition temperature of the solids. In the last case, a plastic-like shell formed around the droplets, leading to cyclic inflation and collapse during drying. The obtained data were correlated with a four-parameter exponential model (m_d = aExp^–bt + cExp^–dt) suitable for further spray drying modeling and design.

Millet analogue rice was made from pearl millet, sorghum, and parboiled rice by using extrusion technology. The impact of extrusion process conditions in terms of screw speed (9–15 rpm), feeder speed (7–11 rpm), die temperature (80–100 ^◦C), and materials moisture content (28–32%wb) on cooking characteristics, viz., cooking losses (CL), cooking time (CT), and water absorption ratio (WAR), and physiochemical properties, viz., water absorption index (WAI) and water solubility index (WSI) were assessed to obtain a quality millet analogue rice using a central composite design of the RSM model. The model showed that die temperature and materials moisture content exhibited the most significant effects on the dependent parameters. The optimized process condition of 28%wb moisture content, 12 rpm screw speed, 7 rpm feeder speed, and 80 ^◦C die temperature showed 5.67% CL, 942.82 s CT, 2.155% WSI, 7.093 g/g WAI, and 6.815 WAR with the desirability value of 0.858. Millet analogue rice exhibited a significant difference (p < 0.05) on the textural properties, proximate analysis, and physical characteristics when related to the raw rice. The crystallinity index of millet analogue rice was lower than that of raw rice with similar FTIR spectral patterns and showed surface cracks and internal voids during SEM analysis. Practical applications: The global prevalence of diabetes is increasing rapidly as a consequence of consumption of foods with high glycemic index (GI), which raises the blood glucose level. Rice flour-based products and white rice are not a good choice of food for people with diabetes due to their high GI value. Therefore, millet analogue rice was developed from pearl millet, sorghum, and parboiled rice as a substitute for rice using the hot extrusion method. This produced millet analogue rice can be an alternative food for raw rice and has a scope for commercialization in the market.

The development of food-grade hydrogels is an important topic for the encapsulation of bioactive substances. Herein, a dual gelation method of cold-setting with ion-alginate (ALG) cross-linking was developed to fabricate fish oil-loaded fish gelatin (FG)/ion-ALG dual hydrogels with five types of ions (H⁺, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, Fe²⁺, and Fe³⁺). The fish oil-loaded fish gelatin/ion-ALG mono hydrogels were also developed with Na⁺ and Mg²⁺. Four dual hydrogels had quicker diffusion and ion-cross-linking (H⁺, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Fe²⁺) than the FG/Fe³⁺-ALG dual hydrogel. All of the hydrogels showed similar water activity (0.94). The dual hydrogels had lower water contents than the mono hydrogels. Fe³⁺ induced the highest hydrogel hardness (28.6 ± 0.4 N) and Ba²⁺ induced the highest chewiness (6.3 ± 0.3 N) and gumminess (6.9 ± 0.3 N). The dual hydrogels showed lower peroxide values than the mono hydrogels. Compared with Na⁺, all other ions induced higher free fatty acid release percentages in the small intestinal phase. All results suggested that the cold-setting gelation and ion-ALG gelation method could be combined to prepare nutrient-loaded hydrogels. The obtained hydrogels could be applied to prepare hydrogel foods with good encapsulation of lipophilic nutrients.